Saw the history of creation. Dmitry white
How often do each of us use construction tools in everyday life?! Probably, during repairs, it’s always common, and just building a birdhouse in the country or repairing a shovel is a common thing. Have any of us ever wondered what the history of these same construction tools is? Who was the first to pick up a hammer or come up with a pneumatic hammer drill? Who first created the screw and screwdriver? But today we will talk to you about such an important and useful invention of mankind as a saw.
According to statistics, almost every modern builder has a tool such as a saw in his arsenal. To be precise, 97.2% of home craftsmen and almost 99.1% of craftsmen who work in production. This fact suggests that the saw has reached the peak of its popularity. Many may think that the flight of this object of construction to the top was simple and its age is no more than fifty years. But the first impression turns out to be wrong. The saw is far from a “young” instrument and was invented by people a long time ago.
The first objects that can be considered the ancestors of modern saws, according to scientists, were produced more than four thousand years ago. They were jagged stones that were used by ancient people to create images on bone or other relatively soft material(some types of stone, wood). Such saws were made by sharpening a piece of stone on the sharp corners of a rock, or they were found ready-made. The very first sculptors who made statues of gods also used these tools.
The ancient Egyptians, and then the Romans, were the first to use ultra-precise and durable saws, which were made of copper and equipped with cut diamonds as teeth. It was precisely these saws that were used by the craftsmen who made sarcophagi for the nobles of Egypt, since the accuracy of the sawing of such a tool made it possible to make very high-quality products. The ancient Romans also used similar saws in the construction of temples and other monumental structures.
Scandinavian craftsmen were the first to learn how to make saws using stone molds. This type of saw production was supposed to compete with the axes already widely used at that time. But the quality of the teeth and their sharpening did not give the desired effect. The efficiency of such saws was negligibly low on an industrial scale, so they were not destined to withstand the fight against axes.
Only centuries later Ancient Greece in the 50s BC saws made by blacksmiths appeared. Forged teeth were much sharper and sharper, which made them the undisputed leader among saws of that time.
The period from the emergence of Christianity to the dawn Kievan Rus associated with the development of basic crafts, which in turn led to the development of the saw. It spread almost throughout the world and even then competed with the axe. The saw was, of course, most widely used in the regions of Siberia, Africa and Asia, where the timber industry flourished. A little later, when America was discovered, the saw spread there too.
Local inventors tried to invent the first improved sawmill, which made the woodcutter’s work easier, in 1322 in Germany. They were able to construct a saw driven by hydraulic mechanisms. This brought about something of a revolution in the methods of deforestation in Germany.
Similar saws were eventually used in England, Scotland, and Portugal. But woodcutters, who lived on earnings from cutting down forests, began to lose their jobs en masse. This led to serious uprisings, during which such “innovations” were destroyed.
In the United States of America, the first steam sawmill in history, which became the ancestor of the now widespread chainsaws, also suffered from similar uprisings. A new stage in the design of band saws was the conversion of a hydraulic to a steam sawmill, which was constructed in the city of Bass (Maine) in 1821.
The first tool of this type was a steel band with many teeth along one edge. They constantly rotated on both vertical pulleys, the direction of the teeth was towards the wood being cut. The first nation to patent this type drank, there were Englishmen. A citizen of this particular country was issued a patent for such a saw in 1808.
In 1834, a certain Etieno managed to obtain a patent for the same type of saw in France. The first American to patent a band saw was B. Baker, who did this only in 1836. Due to certain circumstances, the band saw began to develop only after the 70s of the nineteenth century. An accurate connection between the ends of the band saw that would ensure maximum safety could not be created long years. In those days, some of the best band saws were made in France. Now this country is one of the world leaders in band saws.
In addition to the traditional and band saws, many companies claim leadership in the creation of the chain saw. They refer to the chain saw mechanism, which was invented in the 20s of the twentieth century. However, scientists refute this fact and, in turn, say that the first chain saw was invented by a doctor. In 1830, the German prosthetist Bernard Hein came up with a mechanism that helped with this for optimal cutting of bone. Thus, the osteoscope was invented in medicine and the chain saw in the forestry industry.
But it was not possible to implement the invention of the German doctor, since the saws turned out to be very heavy and inconvenient. Only a century later did humanity manage to take a step forward. A significant contribution to sawmill construction was made by two people, whose creations are now known to many builders who value quality tools.
Andreas Stihl, a German mechanic, patented the first electric chain saw in 1926, and in 1929 the first chainsaw under the Shtihl brand. Now this German manufacturer has several dozen different patents in the field of mechanical engineering, a considerable market share among similar products, as well as recognition from buyers who value the brand for its accuracy and reliability.
In turn, in post-war period in 1947, Joseph Buford improved the chain saw chain, optimizing its operation and increasing the efficiency of the tool. While observing a bark beetle larva during a break from work, Joseph Cox noticed the ease with which the small tree beetle larva gnaws its way through the wood of a strong stump, moving in any direction it wishes, regardless of the direction of the grain. By repeating the C-shaped jaws of the larva from steel, the lumberjack made a new chain. He and his wife then formed the Oregon Company to manufacture the chains and bars that are used in most chainsaws today. It is believed that the details of this particular company speak of the effectiveness and relative simplicity of the tool.
From all of the above we can conclude that, like any invention, the saw has had its day. thorny path, tested for strength by time and improved through human efforts.
"Saw: A Game of Survival" is an American-Australian thriller created by Leigh Whannell And James Vann. Starred in the film Danny Glover, Tobin Bell, Ken Leung, Carrie Elwes, Leigh Whannell and others.
IN different countries The film “Saw: A Game of Survival” was released under different slogans:
"Every part was a mystery..."
“How much blood will you spill for her?”
“How much blood will you shed to stay alive?”
"There will be a lot of blood"
"Live or Die"
According to the plot of the film, two men who do not know each other wake up in some abandoned toilet, chained to pipes. One of them is called Adam (Leigh Whannell), he is a photographer. Another man named Lawrence Gordon (Carrie Elwes) works as an oncologist. Besides them, a corpse lies in a pool of blood in the middle of the toilet. In their pockets they find audio cassettes with a recorded voice explaining the reasons for their current condition. Adam The accusation is that, due to the nature of his service, he is forced to monitor people, violating their rights. Lawrence he constantly tells people that they will die, which means that the concept of death has become devalued for him.
Lawrence realizes that he has kidnapped them Jigsaw (Tobin Bell)- a maniac who forces his victims to go through terrible trials so that they begin to value their lives again. For example, one of the victims Jigsaw was Mark. He constantly pretended to be sick, although he himself was healthy. Jigsaw injected a slow-acting poison into his blood, applied a flammable substance to his body, placed him in a dark room, the only source light in which there was a candle. The antidote was in a safe, the code for which was written on the wall. When Mark tried to find him, he was burned alive from one careless movement, but nevertheless he had a chance to survive.
The message to the prisoners also said that Gordon must kill Adam to 18:00, otherwise his daughter and wife will die. The photographer finds a pair of hacksaws in the toilet, but they are unable to cut the chains. There is only one thing left - to saw off the chained legs...
Authors of the film idea Leigh Whannell And James Wan We met at film school in Melbourne. Scenario "Saws" they figured out how test work and even filmed one of the scenes. Their teacher liked the idea so much that he sent the blanks to Hollywood. After some time, producers approached the nuggets and offered them to shoot a low-budget ($1.2 million) thriller.
The film was originally planned to be released exclusively on video, but after its premiere at the Sundance Film Festival, Saw: Survival received so much praise from critics that the producers decided to release it on the silver screen.
Leigh Whannell And James Wan refused royalties for the film in favor of a percentage of the box office receipts.
The film "Saw: A Game of Survival", like the subsequent parts, was released on movie screens on the eve of Halloween, October 29, 2004.
With a budget of $1.2 million, the film grossed $18 million in its first weekend alone. The total gross amount exceeded $103 million, and the film was among the ten most profitable films of all time.
Critics also praised the idea of young Australians; in addition to positive reviews, the film collected almost all the genre awards of 2004-2005, including the Saturn Award for Best Film.
Initially, the film received an NC-17 rating (under 17 years of age are not allowed), which practically equated the film to pornography with all that it entails. After the creators cut out several particularly bloody scenes, upon re-examination it was decided to assign the film an R rating (under 17 years only when accompanied by parents).
Wood is still a popular material for craftsmen. They are used to make kitchen items, furniture, doors Zhitomir http://komfort-zt.com.ua and so on. For many centuries, Russian people cut down forests, not sawed them, and the boards were not sawn, but chipped. They were called tes. The first sawers appeared in Rus', they began to be called tertichniki (from the word “rub”), and this happened at the beginning of the 18th century... The saw was known to the world a long time ago...
Her images were found on Assyrian bas-reliefs. In the last century, in Nineveh, archaeologists dug up a piece of a saw with a hole for a handle. This saw had a wide blade, which spoke of good metal and the ability of the craftsmen to forge such narrow strips. Now the pins are not forged, they are stamped. Previously, teeth were cut with scissors. Or they were also made as a “mosquito” - a lever with a punch. The work went like this: the saw pulls one tooth - the punch is triggered and falls. He bit like a mosquito. In ancient times, the saw was burned by immersing it in hot sand. And then the sand seemed to be sawed away. And they received good training and beautiful colour metal There are mentions of the saw in myths. The ancients believed that the son of Daedalus' sister Perdix invented the compass and saw, arousing the envy of his compatriots to such an extent that he was thrown from the Acropolis. However, the gods managed to turn the innocent inventor into a bird on the fly.
The very first sawmills powered by water date back to the fourth century. They were allegedly started by savvy people in Germany. In Norway, for example, sawmills appeared in the 16th century. England acquired saw mills to strengthen its industrial power even later. But the first steam saw was launched by an Englishman, at the very beginning of the last century. By the way, the circular saw, or “circular saw” as it is called, was invented two hundred years ago.
When did the saw “Russify”, coming to the aid of the axe? Peter’s decree “On training woodcutters to saw wood” is well known. The saw not only saved work time, but also wood. Indeed, the forest is being cut down - the chips are flying. And this is a considerable expense; up to 25 percent of wood goes to waste. And there was also a decree from Peter about the preparation of boards. The need for building materials then increased: ships and cities were built. In 1748 there was a royal clarification: “All landowners and other industrialists should try to prepare hand saws in advance.” -And here is the official complaint of 1756: “Not only sawing water and windmills, but also hand saws have not yet been established anywhere.” As we can see, the ax assistant was slowly introduced into everyday life.
Saws were bought from Europeans, but they began to be made in Russia itself. They distributed it to the peasants voluntarily and forcibly. They took two rubles for them at once, and then demanded another penny per person while using them. The audit was carried out by special teams. The Senate encouraged the construction of sawmills. At the end of the eighteenth century in the Vyatka province (in the forest region действовало более сорока лесопилок. На Урале железоделательные заводы тоже готовили для себя доски !} mechanically. Well, in the 19th century, saws began to move using steam power. By the middle of the last century, mining plants were forced to treat forests more economically.
Zgatoustovsky and Botkinsky factories started producing Pil. Locomotive wood-based vehicles were also in use, but they were not so widespread. Lumberjacks were still given axes, not saws. It was the same at the beginning of this century - The glory of the ax has not yet faded! It is indispensable in construction. With its help, a Russian could make almost any thing out of wood. This is partly why it was apparently so difficult for the “unnecessary” saw to be introduced. Moreover, as the old masters believed, it spoils the wood, cuts the fibers and as a result the life of the wooden object is short. Boards split along the grain, used for roofing, lasted many times longer than sawn boards...
I want to warn you right away that I will not describe ingenious tortures and murder weapons, since this will take a lot of time, and you need to see this with your own eyes.
Meet us! This is John Kramer - family man, designer, architect, engineer and just a darling.
John lives in happy marriage with his beautiful wife Jill Tuck, who works in a drug treatment clinic.
They are expecting a child, little Gideon, but in the 7th month of pregnancy a terrible incident occurs, which results in a miscarriage: at the end of the working day, when Jill is about to leave work and locks the door to the clinic, drug addict Cecil, her patient, bursts in looking for drugs substances. The closing door hits Jill in the stomach. Waiting for Cecil at the entrance to the clinic is Amanda Young, another of Jill's patients, who has virtually no chance of survival because she is a complete junkie who cannot be treated.
Upon learning that his unborn son is dead, John begins to go crazy and falls into absolute apathy, giving up on Jill and work. The family collapses and Kramer is left alone. Severe depression is aggravated by the fact that Kramer is diagnosed with brain cancer. Desperate, he tries to commit suicide, which fails (he crashes in the car, but in order to get out, he has to get out of own body steel rod). He understands how a person who has looked into the eyes of death wants to live and begins to value his life. It was this idea that was the basis of the “re-education” method, which turned Kramer into Jigsaw. He decides to forcibly give people a chance to escape the clutches of death, so that they begin to appreciate what they have and see the mistakes they have made in life.
Kramer is trying to get treatment and wants to collect money from his insurance policy. He is denied funds because... Therapy that offers a chance of salvation is experimental and may not work. Kramer turns to the owner of an insurance company, whom he knows personally, from the times when his marriage was intact (he organized a charity banquet at the drug treatment clinic where Jill worked), wanting to get money through him. He explains that he is not short of money, but getting insurance is a matter of principle for him. The director refuses to issue funds. During the conversation, it becomes clear that Pila really doesn’t like the principles of the insurance company’s work and a hint is given that he will still bear responsibility for deciding who lives and who dies.
His first victim is the drug addict Cecil, who killed his child (When Jigsaw kidnapped Cecil, he used a pig mask, since the events took place at a Chinese New Year parade, the mascot of which was a boar. He grabbed carnival mask for yourself and the victim, so as not to stand out. The pig mask appears in every film in the series). Cecil passes the test, but in an attempt to kill Kramer, he falls into the barbed wire and dies.
Amanda is the next victim. It is worth noting: Jigsaw does not know that Amanda is indirectly involved in the death of his son, because... persuaded Cecil to break into the clinic. He chooses her to prove that his method works even on absolutely lost people. She successfully passes the test (she was wearing a helmet that was supposed to crush her skull if she failed) and returns home, where she is met by Jigsaw, who tells her that she has been reborn and that he wants to take her into his family. assistants. Amanda agrees and begins to see Jigsaw as a teacher.
...Meanwhile...
Detective Hoffman. Executive employee, pride of the FBI. But inside he is empty: he is consumed by hatred and a thirst for revenge. Every day, after work, he drinks himself into the insole to forget. The fact is that his beloved sister was killed. The killer is found and sent to prison, but instead of being released after 25 years, he comes out after 5, due to a retrial. At the height of his despair, Hoffman decides to kill the man responsible for his sister's death, faking the murder of Jigsaw in order to divert suspicion from himself. But unlike the saw victims, Hoffman's victim had no chance of winning; she was sentenced to death in advance.
The imitation is successful, and the murder is blamed on Jigsaw. Mark sighs calmly, but that’s not the case! His deed does not go unnoticed, and Jigsaw kidnaps him. Appreciating his thirst for justice and willingness to resort to extreme methods, he recruits him as his student, without even conducting a bloody test. Hoffman has no choice - if he arrests or kills Jigsaw, then everyone will know that he committed murder (Jigsaw threatened that if he dies, the data will be made public) and his career will be ruined. It cannot be said, of course, that he is strongly against it.
The next big game is the test of oncology doctor Lawrence Gordon (by the way, he is very reminiscent of Wilson in some ways, they even work in the same field!). Saw was his patient at one time. Gordon was chosen as a victim because he hammered home on his family (work + mistress) and because he works as a doctor not to save lives, but only for money.
Hoffman tells Pila that the detective who is leading his case is very smart and is getting closer and closer. Jigsaw asks Hoffman to lead him on a false trail, and he plants Dr. Gordon’s medical flashlight on one of the crime scenes (the room where Amanda was tested).
The Jigsaw case was handled by two detectives. There is no point in talking about them in particular - they are passable characters, I don’t even remember their names. I don’t even remember their names, so I’ll just call them Negro and Asian. One day, using a video recording of the doll, they managed to locate Jigsaw's lair. Without waiting for reinforcements, they went straight there, as a result of which the Asian died, and the Negro had a scar all over his neck and fucked perfectly, which is why he was expelled from the police. But he decided to follow through and catch Pila himself in order to avenge Asiat. From behind a flashlight, he began to follow Dr. Gordon, setting up surveillance of his apartment.
But let's return to the first serious game. Jigsaw and Amanda kidnapped Gordon and Adam (a photographer whom the Negro hired to chase Gordon and take photo reports). In a closed room they hid many different things, of which we are only interested in two saws, a cartridge for a revolver and a telephone configured only to receive calls. Pila injects himself with some kind of drug that slows down his heart and lies down in the middle of the room to monitor the process, having previously disguised himself as a corpse who has blown out his brains and put a voice recorder and an unloaded revolver in his hands. For the first time, a victim (a dude who is forced to monitor the game so as not to die himself) was involved in the role of the game operator - this is Zap, an orderly at the hospital where Dr. Gordon worked. Why he was chosen in the film is not explained.
The rules of the game are that Gordon must kill Adam before 6 pm, otherwise his wife and daughter will die (Zap has taken them hostage in their own home). It is worth noting the fact that both victims are chained by their feet, in different corners of the room.
Adam receives the first call: his daughter and wife, to whom Zap gave the phone, speak to him and ask him to help. It's 6 and Adam is still alive. Zap is about to shoot Dr. Gordon's family, but his wife manages to free her hands and grab the gun. She takes control of the situation and calls her husband to tell her that everything is fine and he shouldn’t kill anyone. At this moment, Zap jumps on her and a fight for the gun begins, the phone falls to the floor and Gordon only hears shooting in the receiver. The shooting is also heard by the Negro, who is monitoring the apartment and rushes to the aid of the doctor's family (he knows that they are hostages - he saw Zap looking out the window).
Gordon falls into madness because he thinks that his family has already begun to be killed and saws off his own leg to get to the revolver. He shoots Adam in the shoulder and he faints.
When the Negro breaks into the apartment, Zap realizes that he will no longer be able to kill Gordon’s family and the only chance for life is to urgently go to the house and kill Lawrence, who did not meet the victory in time. The black man chases him, eventually killing him, and the wounded Zap becomes a victim of the cooperative actions of Lawrence Gordon and Adam, who at the most unexpected moment attacked Zap and knocked him down. Legless and bleeding, Gordon crawls away for help, promising Adam to return. At this moment, Jigsaw gets up and leaves after the crawling Gordon, sending Amanda to finish off Adam. Gordon's fate is unknown; perhaps he will appear in future installments.
The victim of the second major game is the new detective in the Jigsaw case, Eric Matthews. A fighting guy, a tough nut to crack, who single-handedly raises his son and punishes criminals.
Jigsaw and his assistants kidnap Matthews' son and 6 other people (all 7 people are former prisoners who were caught and imprisoned by Matthews). In addition to the kidnapped, Amanda also participates in the game, making sure that everything goes as planned. All victims are locked in the house and must complete tasks to survive. As a result, only Amanda and the detective's son remain alive. The son is locked in a large safe, right in Pila’s workshop, and the recording of the game is played on the monitors.
Soon, special forces led by Agent Matthews arrive at the workshop. Saw shows him the monitors and says that he will meet his son only if he plays by the proposed rules. A timer ticks above the monitors. Matthews, of course, decides that his son is in danger and forces Jigsaw to take him into the house, after brutally beating him. Pila laughs and says - ok, let's go. They flee the building and go to the house where the game was being held. Matthews goes down to the basement and finds himself in the room where the game with Dr. Gordon took place. There Amanda is waiting for him, who gives him a sleepy injection and chains him, like the first victims of the command, and then leaves. When Eric comes to his senses, he breaks his leg to get it out of the bracelet and catches up with Amanda. A fight ensues, as a result of which Amanda emerges victorious and believes that Matthews is dead. After she leaves, Jigsaw comes and drags the detective into a cell, where he awaits the fate prepared for him for half a year. When time runs out, the safe in Saw's workshop, where the son is sitting, opens (and then everyone is shocked, because the viewer realizes that if Eric had played by the rules and listened to Jigsaw, he would have met his son as soon as the timer ticked).
Amanda betrays the principles of Saw - the victims of her games have no chance of salvation. Jigsaw is not happy, and Hoffman really dislikes her and considers her to be trash who cannot be Jigsaw.
Saw lies dying - the tumor in his head makes itself felt, and Amanda kidnaps a nurse from the same ill-fated hospital where Zep and Gordon worked. She must monitor his health. To add to her enthusiasm in this matter, a collar with cartridges is placed around her neck, which will blow her head off if Saw’s cardiogram straightens out. Jigsaw promises to let her go as soon as the game ends.
After the abduction of Matthews, the Saw case is carried out by 4 people at once - Rigg (a passing character), Hoffman, already familiar to us, working for Saw, Agent Perez (a passing character) and Agent Strahm, her partner (photo attached).
Two people are being tested at the same time - the husband of the kidnapped nurse, who is obsessed with the thought of revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son, and Rigg, whom Jigsaw will try to recruit. Saw also swallows a cassette with another sound recording.
Let's deal with the first one first. He undergoes a series of tests of mercy, where he is asked to save or condemn to death the people involved in the death of his son. As a result, he comes to Jigsaw's lair, obsessed with the desire to take revenge on him. At this very moment, Pila asks to release the nurse, but Amanda shoots her, not wanting to give her freedom (later we find out that Hoffman forced her - he promised that he would tell Pila that she was in the clinic on the night of his son’s death and has something to do with it). The wounded nurse falls straight into the arms of her husband, who kills Amanda and then Pila, after which the collar with cartridges goes off (Pila is then dead) and the woman’s head is blown off. At the same moment, Strahm enters the room and kills Jeff (the man who took the test and just killed Amanda and Pila).
At the same time, Rigg's recruitment takes place - he was shown Matthews and Hoffman, who are in a death trap. To save them, he must listen to the rules of the game and follow them. He fails the test and Matthews dies, and with him he himself + Jigsaw's former business partner, who became another game operator-victim (he was watching Rigg's game, because Jigsaw was watching Jeff's game).
As a result, we have - everyone is dead except Hoffman (he pretended to be trapped: in fact, nothing threatened his life, he was just watching the game, like Jigsaw, lying on the floor of the sartire) and Strahm (who was not at all had to survive, because a trap was prepared for him without a solution, immediately after he killed Jeff in the room of the dying Saw) + Saw’s wife, who nevertheless decided to adopt his principles and received in his will a box with 6 envelopes in which there were data on the following victims.
Next, Hoffman continues Jigsaw's case and frames Strahm, making him Jigsaw's successor in the eyes of the FBI, having first killed him.
During the autopsy of Jigsaw's body, pathologists find a tape with a recording intended for Hoffman, which says that he will still undergo his test, so don't think that this has passed him by.
The next, and last game for today, is a game for the director of the insurance company, who refused to pay Pila. It is led by Jigsaw's wife and Hoffman, while the FBI is trying to find Strahm. The storyline of the tests in this part does not affect the plot (well, or we don’t know about it yet), but I can say that the Director died, although he passed all the tests (in the end it turned out that this was not his game at all, but a game of mercy for the family he left without insurance). In the same episode, Hoffman gets rid of an annoying journalist (who, by an ironic coincidence, turned out to be the wife of the Director of the insurance company), who showed Jigsaw's wife Amanda a letter that Hoffman wrote (which contained a threat of blackmail, because of which she shot the nurse). Hoffman takes from Jill all the envelopes with victims (under the pretext that he wants to complete the game himself) that Jigsaw left for her, but she does not give him one envelope containing his own photos.
At the end, Gil sneaks up on Hoffman and, having disabled him, puts a collar on his head (exactly the same as the one Amanda was tested, the only difference being that it does not have a lock) and ties him to a chair. Hoffman breaks his arm, frees himself from his bonds and, using improvised means, removes the collar in time, disfiguring his face.
We are surrounded by many things that are familiar and seem to have always been in human use. Of course, this does not apply to telephones, radios, televisions, computers and other electronics that appeared in a person’s life in historical sense in general yesterday and we all know the names of their inventors.
But the tools of labor have accompanied humanity for a much longer period of time, and humanity has been using many of them for many millennia. No wonder human history divided according to the principle of use of tools. The first people first used wooden and stone and then metal (copper, iron and bronze) tools.
Any man drank something familiar and familiar. But it turns out that the saw is in Russia, although its history goes back thousands of years; it appeared not so long ago and became widely used only in the 18th century.
This sounds strange, since in a country where the largest areas in the world are occupied by forests, and until the 9th century almost all buildings were made of wood, and in subsequent centuries wood played a major role in construction, the saw became widespread only about 300 years ago.
The first saws in humans appeared back in the Bronze Age, when people had just mastered metal processing technologies. The first objects that can be considered the ancestors of modern saws were produced more than four thousand years ago. These were jagged stones used to create images on bone or other relatively soft material (certain types of stone, wood). Such saws were made by sharpening the edge of a stone, or were found ready-made. At first, saws were one-handed (hacksaws), and at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. In Phenicia, a two-handed saw was invented for sawing logs into beams, which allowed ancient sailors to build light and maneuverable frame ships covered with planks. But in Ancient Greece they invented a bow (or frame) saw, the design of which has not changed since then. The ancient Romans and Egyptians made their saws using copper. They even sawed stone with such a tool, adding abrasive materials to the cut site. Iron saws first appeared among the Scandinavians. They cast their tools in stone molds. However, the quality of these saws was low, and they could not compete with axes. And only many centuries later, the ancient Greeks figured out how to make saws using the forging method, which made it possible to achieve high metal hardness and, as a result, improve the quality of products. The teeth of these saws were sharper and, due to more correct sharpening, sawed the material better.
The most famous carpenter of all times was Jesus, the son of the carpenter Joseph. And in the Bible it is not by chance that Christ’s earthly profession is indicated. Today we believe that carpenters in Ancient Judea belonged to the lower strata of society. But in fact, in those days the attitude towards this profession was completely different - on the contrary, the craft of a carpenter was considered an occupation of the elite and initiated into secret sciences. This is understandable, because without knowledge of the basics of geometry it is difficult to put together even an ordinary stool, not to mention much more complex things - boats, ships or a frame for the roof of a house. Many kings and high priests did not shy away from carpentry work, considering it an occupation worthy of rank. So, for example, during excavations ancient city Ur archaeologists discovered a whole set of tools in the tombs of the kings: an adze hatchet, two gold chisels, a bronze saw and a hammer. In the sarcophagus of King Meshkalamdug and Queen Shubad, who ruled Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. BC, bronze saws, a chisel and a drill were also found.
Mechanical saws first appeared in Germany in 1322. They were installed in a sawmill and were driven by water. This invention changed the way the Germans thought about wood extraction methods. Subsequently, similar sawmills appeared in Scotland, England and other countries.
In Rus', carpentry was considered the occupation of every man. The writer Vasily Belov, who grew up in a small village near Vologda, recalled that all grown men had to do carpentry: “Whether you feel the wood or not, whether the ax obeys you or not, you will still do carpentry. Because it's a shame not to be a carpenter. Already in the first season of artel work, each teenager acquired his own instrument.”
Ancient Rus', which had vast expanses of forests at its disposal, did not think about their economical use. On the contrary, we had to wage a constant and intense struggle with the forest. WITH with great difficulty they conquered small areas from him for arable land and hayfields, and as soon as the area was left uncultivated for a few years, it turned into a wasteland overgrown with forest.
The mansions of noble and rich people and the huts of ordinary “men” in cities and villages, churches and fortifications in the vast majority of cases were built directly from solid logs, cut down in the forest with an ax. By the way, in the construction itself, as well as in the preparation of logs, a saw was not used. Even in ancient times, it was noticed that sawn wood is more susceptible to moisture and rotting. Logs treated with an ax seem to become clogged under its blows and become less hygroscopic. Therefore, they preferred not to saw even logs, but to carefully split them into boards.
In 1586, the French traveler and merchant Jean de Sauvage from the city of Dieppe arrived on his ship to the newly built city of Arkhangelsk. Surprise overseas guest there were no limits. “The construction of the city is excellent,” he wrote in his diary. “There are no nails or hooks in the houses, but everything is so well finished that there is nothing to blame, even though the Russian builders use only axes for all their tools, but no architect can do better.” as they do." What they knew how to do well in Russia were axes, hammers and sledgehammers, that is, the most simple tools where there are no complex joints or precise fitting of parts
The saw, as a special weapon, was known to the Slavs. In all likelihood, they learned it from the Germans, along with its name, back in the common Slavic period of life. Not only the lumberjack and woodcutter (the etymology of these terms is indicative), but also the builder-carpenter wielded an ax. It is characteristic that to denote operations performed with the help of an ax, in the Russian language for a long time there have been independent verbs - “chop”, “cut”, “hew”, while the action of a saw is expressed by a word derived from the name of the tool itself - “cut” ", and this verb is to a certain extent a new development in the language, and it came into use, apparently, only when the saw began to be used more widely. At least in all the examples given by the zealous collector of linguistic facts I. Sreznevsky from monuments of the 11th - 16th centuries, the name of this weapon is never combined with the verb “to saw”, but always “to rub” - a verb that has its broader and originally meaning completely unrelated to wood processing. The words “saw” and “saw” were not yet in common use even in the time of Peter the Great. In the same way, those who work with an ax are called “woodcutters”, “lumberjacks”, “carpenters”, and specialists who operate with a saw were and are called “pilniks”, “sawyers” in Russian, “tertichniki” (from “rub”) - in Ukrainian or “tertinshchiki” - as they were called in the time of Peter the Great and within the Moscow state.
With an ax in his hands, the carpenter (or often the householder himself) built a simple four-walled hut, a barn and outbuildings. The same ax was used to build intricate towers and churches of Moscow Rus' that were so diverse and often complex in plan and ceilings, and even then, with the ax technique, very diverse methods of fastening logs in the corners and at the joints were in use. The exclusive role of the ax in construction technology is also expressed in language. And to this day, the basis of any wooden building - its walls - is called a “log house”.
Where logs and poles were not suitable, “heights” and boards were used. The first of these terms, which still lives in the form “tes” and has a special meaning of one of the types of lumber, has retained in its sound side a clear indication of old manufacturing techniques. “Tacks” and boards at that time and long later were literally hewn out with axes either directly from a solid log or from a log split with wedges. At the same time, one, or at best two, boards were obtained from a log, and how many more logs were scrapped if they were split incorrectly. Yu. Krizhanich. Russian state in the second half of the 17th century, section. III, p. 51]. Naturally, therefore, the boards were a relatively expensive material, sold at almost the same price as logs of equal length or even more expensive than the latter.
With significant wealth of timber forests, the majority of small consumers from peasants and townspeople could on our own gradually prepare crampons. Privileged tops used for harvesting building materials the labor of their slaves and especially serfs. On the farm of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the procurement of crampons, bast, dranits, etc. was also carried out by the forces of peasants assigned to the Secret Order; even archers were involved in this work. Materials for the construction of secular churches were usually prepared by the world.M. Theological. Zemstvo self-government in the Russian north in the 17th century, pp. 11, 23-25, 1912. All materials necessary for the construction and repair of “cities”, forts and other defensive structures were usually supplied in kind. Details can be found in. work of A. Yakovlev. Notch line of the Moscow State in the 17th century, M., 1916. It is very characteristic that the foot “businessmen” assembled for work were to appear only “with axes and spades and shovels.” No saws were mentioned in these instructions not a word.
The only sawyer registered in Moscow in 1638 for 2 thousand people engaged in production labor is the best witness to the randomness of such a profession, even for the capital. In the same way, the “saw-maker” looks like a random singleton in the list of various specialists who served the Pokrovsky nunnery in Suzdal at the end of the 1620s, while in the Suzdal Euthymius Monastery there were no saw-workers at all. Even in such a large mall with notable shipbuilding as Nizhny Novgorod, neither the scribe book of 1621-1622, nor the census book of 1678 noted a single sawyer. It is no less significant that in the household of a very large merchant and industrialist M. Stroganov, a representative of a family that was not at all averse to technical innovations, but, on the contrary, willingly adopted them, in 1627 there were not only no sawing specialists, but even no drinkers quite a rich selection of “all sorts of iron junk.M. Dovnar-Zapolsky. Trade and industry of Moscow in the XVI-XVII centuries. (collection “Moscow in its past and present”, issue VI, pp. 59-60); about Suzdal, see the article by V. Georgievsky. Suzd.-; Robe position female monastery (“Proceedings of Vladimir. uch. arch. com.”, II, appendix 9-10, 1900); about Nizhny - RIB, XVII; about Stroganov - A. Vvedensky. Trading house of the 16th-17th centuries, pp. 30-51, etc., L., 1924; see, his. Servants and working people of the Stroganovs in the 16th-17th centuries. (“Labor in Russia”, I, L., 1924)].
At the very end of the 17th century. The sawyer has not yet become a figure common in the everyday life of Muscovite Rus'..
In the 1630s, south of Moscow on the Tulitsa River, a tributary of the Upa, 15 versts north of Tula, the first blast-furnace and hammer “water-powered” plant in Rus' was built at Gorodishche. Then there appeared the Kashira hammer plant on Skniga, a tributary of the Oka, not far from Kashira, and the Vepreysky blast furnace plant on Vepreyka, also a tributary of the Oka, between Tarusa and Aleksin. Blast-furnace and hammer factories required for the construction and repair of workshops and various storage facilities, for the construction of dams, chests, “plank pipes”, chutes to wheels and rather complex mechanisms that transmit the driving force of water to bellows, hammers, drilling machines, large quantity building materials, then entirely forest materials. Moreover, their consumption was significant not only during the construction period, but also during operation - for routine, random and periodic (for dams in the spring) repairs. It is clear that the reduction in the cost of beams and boards different varieties etc. were of great economic importance here. The builders and operators of these factories were Dutch foreigners A. Vinius and P. Marcelis. And Holland was then one of the advanced countries, if not the most advanced, in the development of technology and, in particular, sawmilling. For the plant managers, who still brought parts of equipment from abroad and invited craftsmen for blast furnaces and hammers, the easiest way was to simultaneously import tools and call instructors for the new sawmill production in Moscow Rus'.
Another area where sawmill production - already in sawmills - became more firmly established was export.
Back in the 16th century. The British, who appeared in the Muscovite state through the White Sea, and soon after them their competitors - the Dutch - began exporting timber from Russia, mainly for the construction of ships. They bought it in the form of logs, and sawed it at home. It was easy to figure out, on the one hand, the exporters themselves, and on the other, Russian traders or foreigners trading in Rus', to set up sawing in the log harvesting areas. Then the first would not have to transport parts of wood over long distances, which would then go into waste when sawing. The latter could make a profit not only from the preparation of logs, but also from the sawing itself. Therefore, it is not surprising that we early come across at least projects for organizing the production of boards for export.
Back in 1624, three Amsterdammers, through Isaac Massa, well known to the Moscow government, submitted a request to be allowed for 20 or 30 years on the Northern Dvina “with saws that grind with water mills, and with hand saws to grind wood into boards and for other purposes” to send for sea. They were tempted by the fact that they would pay duties, that in addition to their Dutch people, “about ten people,” they would “hire Russian business people for this business,” of course, training them new technology, and that later the Russians themselves, following in their footsteps, will establish profitable production. This proposal, apparently, was not accepted by the government, which was very timid about innovation. In any case, we know nothing about the implementation of this undertaking. Later, under Alexei Mikhailovich, in contrast to his father, who was very keen on all sorts of economic (and other) novelties, there was talk of setting up, apparently, a royal sawmill. In the files of the Secret Order, a short entry dated June 25, 1666, was preserved about the sending of Colonel G. von-Kanpen (Kampen) to Arkhangelsk to search for ores, mica, salt solutions and, by the way, “rivers on which to build mills for grinding wood at forest places.”. V. Kordt. An outline of relations between the Muscovite state and the Republic of the United Netherlands up to 1631 (“Sb. Russian Historical General”, CXVI, p. CCCIV); about 1666 - in RIB, XXI, p. 1218.
Another 25 years passed, during which nothing was heard about sawmills. The oldest document - a letter of 1691 on a petition - introduces us to three saw mills that had already been built, but, apparently, recently, in the Arkhangelsk region. In 1691, saw mills were a novelty for the Moscow state. Therefore, it was natural for their organizers to appeal to the government with a petition to grant them the opportunity to build. That sawmills were new in the 1690s seems to be evidenced by Special attention to the Bazhenins’ enterprise from young Peter, who specially stopped by their mill “for the sake of inspection” at way back from Arkhangelsk in the fall of 1693 “Dvinsk Chronicle”, ed. A. Titov, p. 71]. And soon the government began widespread sawing in connection with the needs of shipbuilding.
The construction of ships was, of course, not news in the last years of the 17th century. From time immemorial, Russian people have used ships and boats on rivers and seas. In the 17th century It would be possible to indicate a number of points where ships were built regularly, year after year, and in more or less noticeable quantities. But never and nowhere before had shipbuilding developed as widely as in the 1690s in the Voronezh region.
Two circumstances pushed for the introduction of sawing here. Firstly, it was necessary to hurry with the construction of ships for the Azov campaign. And sawing, even by hand, was more productive than hewing boards with axes. It was also very significant that valuable building material - ship oak - could not be found in unlimited quantities in the Voronezh forests. But Peter, after all, planned not only a campaign near Azov, but also the structure of a fleet, if the enterprise was successful, for the Azov and even the Black Seas. The savings in wood and the speed of cutting were obvious.
However, new production was established slowly. At the very beginning, the lack of the necessary tool- drank - and a small number of knowledgeable workers. So, at the beginning of Voronezh shipbuilding, the instructions to the “kuppanstvo”, giving the order to “preserve the green forests and carefully chop into boards and other materials” and therefore “rub that forest lengthwise and crosswise with saws,” had to make a very significant reservation: since “in “In the near future there will be nowhere to find such a multitude of saws,” then at first they built ships from clumsy (that is, hewn or chopped with an ax) timber. If anyone next year “makes a ship from hewn wood, not from sawn timber, they will not accept such vessels, and on top of that, a penalty will be imposed.” Therefore, it was prescribed that “in the coming year, of course,” saws should be “made everywhere.” But since the “companies” could not solve this problem due to the lack of saws in the country on their own, the government invited them to contribute money to the Admiralty, which was supposed to order and purchase saws abroad.
For example, “Kyiv resident tradesman Mikhail Nikolaev” was given an order to buy “for a ship building in Shlensk and in other German cities... saw different hands(of different varieties), with what saws they grind the trees: 28 tap-saws, which are standing up, 28 tren-saws, which are sitting, 100 saws of 2.25 arshins, 100 saws of 2 arshins, a total of 256 saws.”
I also had to take care of learning the art of sawing. Although carpenters from different regions of the Moscow state were gathered to build the fleet in Voronezh, there were apparently few experienced sawyers among them and it was necessary to invite them from outside. The same materials about the construction of the Voronezh fleet show us teachers of the “sawing” art, for example, the “Cherkasy-Tertin workers” Stenka Fedorov and his comrades, “who from the training of Russian working people 6 people, that they teach them the tertin business,” were given money per fathom [ 1 S. Elagin. History of the Russian fleet, Azov period. App. I, pp. 204, 249, 268, 371, etc. The text of the study itself gives detailed history shipbuilding in Voronezh region to 1711.
Given the enormous need for boards, beams and other materials that was felt in the shipbuilding area, hand sawing, of course, was not enough. However, the saw mill did not appear in Voronezh immediately. As far as can be judged, a sawmill was originally equipped on the Yauza near the village of Preobrazhenskoye, mentioned as operating at the beginning of 1696. It is interesting that lumber was also sent to Voronezh, although it is unlikely that its task was to ensure the local shipbuilding industry. In the same 1696, the question of building a water sawmill in the Voronezh region was raised; Due to various failures, it came into operation only in 1698.
The construction of saw mills required the provision of specialists. Even before Peter’s trip abroad, masters were invited from Holland to build and operate saw mills, but care was also taken to train their own personnel. Specialists from abroad were also supposed to teach the Russians, and already in 1697, when asked whether to keep a “foreigner terrier” who worked at the Yauza mill, which had deteriorated at that time, Peter answered: “They can do it without them, - let go." On the other hand, among those trained in various skills in Holland in 1697, they indicate “Yakima-molar and deacon”, who studied “all sorts of water mills and weaning”; in all likelihood, among these “all sorts” there were saws that were so important at that time. Thus, at the end of the 17th century. We now have our own sawmill specialists, trained by foreigners in Rus' or abroad. S. Elagin. Decree. op., app. I, p. 43; Description of documents and papers Moscow. arch. min. Justice, XIV, pp. 94-95; Letters and papers from imp. Petra V., I, pp. 549, 33, 59, 141, 643, 705, 706, 187].
Russia, having turned to Holland for “technical assistance,” immediately adopted advanced technology in the field of sawmilling.
Many tools, except axes, hammers, sledgehammers and chisels, which were used in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries, were of imported origin. In those years, there was an extensive distribution network in Russia, thanks to which any city in the country could have access to as soon as possible The required tools were delivered from leading Western companies. For example, the French company Peugeot, which today is known as a car manufacturer, was actively working in Russia. But at the beginning of the last century in Russia, the most popular products from Peugeot were chisels, planes, drills and bracelets. Also in demand in Russia were American planes from Stanley, hacksaws from the German company R. Boker & Sons, and German cutters from Krupp. Well, the most luxurious instruments were produced by the Italians from the Milanese furniture company C. Nossotti Carver & Gilder, which was a supplier to the Royal Court of Great Britain.
Of course, imported instruments cost a lot of money. For example, a simple plane from Peugeot cost 1 ruble 97 kopecks in 1901, which was comparable to the cost of a cow.. It is clear that expensive tools were beyond the means of most Russian carpenters, and then enterprising businessmen set up handicraft production own instrument. For example, planes were produced in Kovrov at the plant of the First Russian Joint Stock Company of Rifle and Machine Gun Factories. The then famous Pavlovsk artel from Gorbatovsky district also specialized in the production of saws and other cutting tools. Nizhny Novgorod province. The products of steel mills in the Urals were also in demand.
As we see, saws became widespread only during the era of Peter the Great in connection with the beginning of mass military shipbuilding. This was precisely the reason for the massive purchases of instruments abroad, and then the establishment own production.
The rich resources of Russia played a role here too. Before the Peter the Great era, the need for boards was completely satisfied with an ax and no one thought about saving wood or the time spent on production. Peter needed to build a fleet quickly and the amount of wood for the Voronezh shipyards, where the fleet was built, was limited. New approaches to production were needed and therefore saws appeared, which made it possible to produce boards much faster than with an ax and save wood.
This example shows that the appearance of something in mass use is associated with a mass need for it. When, for example, by order of Peter the Great, the first sawmills appeared in Russia in 1690, the merchant Osip Bazhenin installed the first in Russia “saw mill with German sample“, but the rest of the masters were more than skeptical about this idea.
When in modern Russia The word democracy and democrats has become, for some reason, a dirty word, and you can’t help but wonder why. After all, few people really know what real democracy is, with all its advantages and disadvantages. There was no real democracy in Russia, and two attempts to establish it in February 1917 and 1991 were quickly liquidated.
Everyone knows Winston Churchill's aphorism: “Democracy is the worst form of government, except for all the others.” But few people know that they were made in his speech on November 11, 1947 in the House of Commons, when Churchill was “merely” the leader of the opposition after an unexpected but crushing defeat by Labour’s Clement Attlee in the July 1945 elections.
- How does a noble gentleman perceive democracy? Let me, Mr. Chairman, explain this to him, or at least the most basic points. Democracy is not something when you receive a mandate based on promises alone and then do whatever you want with it. We believe that between the leadership and the people there should be strong relationships. “A government of the people, by the people, for the people” is the sovereign definition of democracy. (...) I hardly have to explain to the minister that democracy does not mean: “We got a majority, no matter how, and a term of five years. What should we do with him? This is not democracy, but party chatter that does not concern the bulk of the inhabitants of our country.
It is not parliament that should rule, but the people through parliament.
Many forms of government have been and will be tried in this world of sin and suffering. No one claims that democracy is perfect or omniscient. In fact, it can be said that it is the worst form of government, apart from all the others that have been tried over time. However, there is an opinion, and it is widespread in our country, that the people should be sovereign, and in a continuous manner, and that public opinion, expressed by all constitutional means, must shape, direct and control the actions of ministers, who are servants and not masters.
The group of people controlling the apparatus and the parliamentary majority undoubtedly have the authority to propose whatever they want without regard to the attitude of the people or mention of it in the election program.
Should the other side be allowed to pass laws that affect the essence of our country, in last years this parliament without recourse to the people's right to vote? No, sir, democracy says: “No, a thousand times no. You do not have the right to conduct last stage mandate laws that do not seem acceptable and desirable to the popular majority.”
Churchill was absolutely right. History has shown that in modern world A high standard of living is observed precisely in those countries where society lives according to the laws of democracy. The emirates and kingdoms in the Persian Gulf are exceptions to the rule, thanks to petrodollars and the small size of their states and populations.
An excellent example is Switzerland, one of the oldest democracies in Europe, which, not possessing natural resources, managed to maintain its democratic system of government for many hundreds of years and even during the Second World War, being surrounded on all sides, was able to resist Nazi Germany and Nazi Italy.
Beautiful comparative examples GDR and FRG, Northern and South Korea. The same people, but completely different levels life.
No one is perfect social systems, as well as no ideal people. The fact that democracy and liberalism in Russia began to be perceived negatively has nothing to do with democracy itself, since the current system was created by people who do not have any life experience of democracy and understanding of its laws. They only used the word democracy to achieve their own, not always noble, goals.
The reader may ask why, from the story about the saw, did the author move to democracy? The answer is very simple. There is a time for everything and each community or person must grow to understand this or that concept.
Reviews
It seems to me that we need to grow to the concept of the laws of dialectics, which say that societies and states in the world develop unevenly, and the forms of government that exist in the world, ranging from dictatorship to democracy, are established in accordance with the needs of society. The author cites South Korea as an example of the development of democracy and high level life, forgetting that they were achieved only thanks to the pre-existing military dictatorship. The examples of the dictators Franco, Salazar and Pinochet, and the regime of the “black colonels” in Greece also speak to this. Therefore, when necessary, dictators and dictatorship appear, which, when necessary, are replaced by democracy, and vice versa. And it is necessary when the contradictions are maximally aggravated and a change in the form of government is required. Therefore, to say that democracy is always better than dictatorship is incorrect. When, how and where. Well, for example, in the army, in battle there is no time to make decisions by voting when circumstances change all the time.
Sincerely, growth in South Korea began under the military dictatorship.
Sincerely
Mayan
Yes, the growth of the South Korean economy began even under the dictatorship. But the growth and percentages that show it depend on the basic numbers from which they began. After the War and the division of the Koreas, South Korea was even poorer than North Korea, since the main industry remained in the Northern part. That is, the growth that we observed until the 80s due to American investments and assistance only brought the country out of poverty. But the Korea that we know now, which successfully competes with any other countries in the field of high technology, automotive industry, shipbuilding and its brands among the best in the world have appeared on the horizon since the 80s.
The daily audience of the Proza.ru portal is about 100 thousand visitors, who in total view more than half a million pages according to the traffic counter, which is located to the right of this text. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors.
