What is the name of the ancient Mayan city? Secrets of the Mayan civilization

MAYAN
historical and modern Indian people, who created one of the most highly developed civilizations in America and in general Ancient world. Some cultural traditions of the ancient Maya preserve ca. 2.5 million of their modern descendants, representing more than 30 ethnic groups and linguistic dialects.
ANCIENT MAYA
Habitat. During the 1st - beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. The Maya people, speaking various languages ​​of the Maya-Kiche family, settled over a vast territory that included the southern states of Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo), the present-day countries of Belize and Guatemala, and the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. These areas, located in the tropical zone, are distinguished by a variety of landscapes. In the mountainous south there is a chain of volcanoes, some of which are active. Once upon a time, powerful coniferous forests grew here on generous volcanic soils. In the north, the volcanoes give way to the limestone Alta Verapaz Mountains, which further north form the Petén limestone plateau, characterized by a hot and humid climate. Here the center of development of the Mayan civilization developed classical era. The western part of the Petén plateau is drained by the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern part by rivers carrying water to the Caribbean Sea. North of the Petén plateau, humidity decreases with the height of forest cover. In the northern Yucatecan Plains, tropical rainforests give way to shrubby vegetation, and in the Puuc Hills the climate is so arid that in ancient times people settled here along the shores of karst lakes (cenotes) or stored water in underground reservoirs (chultun). On the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, the ancient Mayans mined salt and traded it with the inhabitants of the interior regions.
Early ideas about the ancient Maya. It was initially believed that the Maya lived in large areas of tropical lowlands in small groups, practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. With the rapid depletion of soils, this forced them to frequently change their settlement sites. The Mayans were peaceful and had a special interest in astronomy, and their cities with tall pyramids and stone buildings also served as priestly ceremonial centers where people gathered to observe unusual celestial phenomena. According to modern estimates, the ancient Mayan people numbered more than 3 million people. In the distant past, their country was the most densely populated tropical zone. The Mayans were able to maintain soil fertility for several centuries and transform unsuitable soils Agriculture land in a plantation where maize, beans, pumpkins, cotton, cocoa and various tropical fruits were grown. Mayan writing was based on a strict phonetic and syntactic system. The decipherment of ancient hieroglyphic inscriptions has refuted previous ideas about the peaceful nature of the Mayans: many of these inscriptions report wars between city-states and captives sacrificed to the gods. The only thing that has not been revised from previous ideas is the exceptional interest of the ancient Mayans in the movement of celestial bodies. Their astronomers very accurately calculated the cycles of movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and some constellations (in particular, the Milky Way). The Mayan civilization, in its characteristics, reveals commonality with the nearest ancient civilizations of the Mexican Highlands, as well as with the distant Mesopotamian, ancient Greek and ancient Chinese civilizations.
Periodization of Mayan history. In the Archaic (2000-1500 BC) and early Formative periods (1500-1000 BC) of the Preclassic era, small semi-wandering tribes of hunters and gatherers lived in the lowlands of Guatemala, feeding on wild edible roots and fruits, as well as game and fish. They left behind only rare stone tools and several settlements definitely dating from this time. The Middle Formative Period (1000-400 BC) is the first relatively well-documented era of Mayan history. At this time, small agricultural settlements appeared, scattered in the jungle and along the banks of the rivers of the Peten plateau and in the north of Belize (Cuelho, Colha, Kashob). Archaeological evidence suggests that in this era the Mayans did not have pompous architecture, class divisions or centralized power. However, during the subsequent Late Formative Period of the Preclassic era (400 BC - 250 AD), major changes occurred in Mayan life. At this time, monumental structures were built - stylobotes, pyramids, ball courts, and rapid growth of cities was observed. Impressive architectural complexes are being built in cities such as Calakmul and Zibilchaltun in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico), El Mirador, Yashactun, Tikal, Nakbe and Tintal in the jungle of Peten (Guatemala), Cerros, Cuello, Lamanay and Nomul (Belize), Chalchuapa (Salvador). Happening fast growth settlements that arose during this period, such as Kashob in northern Belize. At the end of the late formative period, barter trade developed between settlements remote from each other. Products made from jade and obsidian are most valued. sea ​​shells and feathers of the quetzal bird. At this time, sharp flint tools and the so-called appeared for the first time. eccentrics are stone products of the most bizarre shape, sometimes in the form of a trident or the profile of a human face. At the same time, the practice of consecrating buildings and arranging hiding places where jade products and other valuables were placed was developed. During the subsequent Early Classic period (250-600 AD) of the Classical era, Mayan society developed into a system of rival city-states, each with its own royal dynasty. These political entities showed commonality both in the system of government and in culture (language, writing, astronomical knowledge, calendar, etc.). The beginning of the Early Classic period roughly coincides with one of the oldest dates, recorded on the stela of the city of Tikal, - 292 AD, which, in accordance with the so-called. The "long count of the Maya" is expressed in numbers 8.12.14.8.5. The possessions of individual city-states of the classical era extended on average 2000 square meters. km, and some cities, such as Tikal or Calakmul, controlled significantly larger territories. Political and cultural centers each state entity had cities with magnificent buildings, the architecture of which represented local or zonal variations general style Mayan architecture. The buildings were located around a vast rectangular central square. Their facades were usually decorated with masks of the main gods and mythological characters, carved from stone or made using the technique of piece relief. The walls of long narrow rooms inside buildings were often painted with frescoes depicting rituals, holidays, and military scenes. Window lintels, lintels, palace staircases, as well as free-standing steles were covered with hieroglyphic texts, sometimes interspersed with portraits, telling about the deeds of the rulers. On lintel 26 at Yaxchilan, the wife of the ruler, Shield of the Jaguar, is depicted helping her husband put on military regalia. In the centers of Mayan cities of the classical era, pyramids rose up to 15 m high. These structures often served as tombs for revered people, so kings and priests practiced rituals here with the goal of establishing a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors.

The burial of Pakal, the ruler of Palenque, discovered in the “Temple of the Inscriptions”, provided a lot of valuable information about the practice of honoring the royal ancestors. The inscription on the lid of the sarcophagus says that Pacal was born (according to our chronology) in 603 and died in 683. The deceased was decorated with a jade necklace, massive earrings (a sign of military valor), bracelets, and a mosaic mask made of more than 200 pieces of jade. Pakal was buried in a stone sarcophagus, on which were carved the names and portraits of his illustrious ancestors, such as his great-grandmother Kan-Ik, who had considerable power. Vessels, apparently containing food and drinks, were usually placed in burials, intended to nourish the deceased on his way to the afterlife. In Mayan cities, the central part stands out, where the rulers lived with their relatives and retinue. These are the palace complex in Palenque, the acropolis of Tikal, and the Sepulturas zone in Copan. The rulers and their immediate relatives were exclusively engaged in state affairs - they organized and led military raids against neighboring city-states, organized magnificent festivities, and took part in rituals. Members royal family They also became scribes, priests, soothsayers, artists, sculptors and architects. Thus, scribes of the highest rank lived in the House of Bakabs in Copan. Outside the cities, the population was dispersed in small villages surrounded by gardens and fields. People lived in large families in wooden houses covered with reeds or thatch. One of these classical-era villages survives in Serena (El Salvador), where the Laguna Caldera volcano allegedly erupted in the summer of 590. Hot ash covered nearby houses, a kitchen fireplace and a wall niche with painted plates and pumpkin bottles, plants, trees, fields, including a field with corn sprouts. In many ancient settlements, buildings are grouped around a central courtyard, where production was carried out. collaborations. Land ownership was communal in nature. In the late classical period (650-950), the population of the lowland regions of Guatemala reached 3 million people. Increased demands for agricultural products forced farmers to drain swamps and use terrace farming in hilly areas, such as along the banks of the Rio Bec. In the late classical period, new cities began to emerge from the established city-states. Thus, the city of Himbal left the control of Tikal, which was announced in the language of hieroglyphs on architectural structures. During the period under review, Mayan epigraphy reached the peak of its development, but the content of the inscriptions on the monuments changed. If earlier messages about the life path of rulers with dates of birth, marriage, accession to the throne, and death prevailed, now the main attention is paid to wars, conquests, and the capture of captives for sacrifices. By 850 many cities in the south of the lowland zone had been abandoned. Construction stops completely in Palenque, Tikal, and Copan. The reasons for what happened are still unclear. The decline of these cities could be caused by uprisings, enemy invasion, epidemic or environmental crisis. The center of development of the Mayan civilization moves to the north of the Yucatan Peninsula and the western highlands - areas that received several waves of Mexican cultural influences. Here the cities of Uxmal, Sayil, Kabah, Labna and Chichen Itza flourish for a short time. These magnificent cities surpassed the previous ones with tall buildings, multi-room palaces, higher and wider stepped vaults, sophisticated stone carvings and mosaic friezes, and huge ball courts.

The Mayans are an Indian people who, before Central America was conquered by the Spaniards, lived in a cultural-geographical region called Mesoamerica.

Mayan civilization - city-states that appeared in the 1st millennium AD. e. in southeastern Mexico, Honduras, and Guatemala. Hieroglyphic writing, palace and temple architecture, fine arts, etc. were created. After the conquest by the Toltecs in the 9th - 10th centuries. The center of the state becomes the city, from the end of the 12th century - the city of Mayapan. The Mayan civilization was destroyed in the 16th century by the Spanish conquerors. The ruins of more than 100 cities have been preserved, the largest being Chichen Itza, Copan, Mayapan, Uxmal, and Tikal.

Disputes about the origin of the Mayan civilization, their culture and history continue. Mysterious ghost towns, built only with the use of muscle power in the jungles of Southern Mexico, attract archaeologists and various adventurers.

What do we know? Mysteries of the Mayans

Mayan settlements occupied vast territories in the south of what is now South America and neighboring countries of Central America. The spaces inhabited by modern descendants of the Mayans include the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, British Honduras, the western regions of Honduras and El Salvador, and certain areas of the Mexican states of Chiapas and Tabasco.

The Mayan civilization was the most developed and longest existing in South America. The Yucatan Peninsula was its center. For a century and a half, this people has been of genuine interest to historians and researchers.

The culture of this great civilization gave rise to many questions, many of which remain unanswered to this day, for example, the jungle of Southern Mexico is not a very suitable place for life, but the Mayans decided to settle there. Why? Mystery.

The Mayan civilization used the concept of zero much earlier than the Arabs and Hindus, created a complex hieroglyphic writing system, surpassed its contemporary civilizations in the accuracy of astrological calculations, had a complex system of calendars, erected amazing temples, pyramids and palaces, reached its unprecedented heyday, living almost in the Stone Age .

Until the 10th century AD e. The Mayans did not know such achievements as metal smelting (except iron), breeding pack and draft animals, plow farming, and the wheel.

Associated with the Mayan civilization is another one of the most mysterious secrets. For unknown reasons, these people left their inhabited lands and suddenly moved to the distant, undeveloped north. The cities were deserted, they were swallowed up by the jungle, the magnificent palaces began to collapse due to time and the trees that grew in their cracks. The riddle is all the more unclear because at the time of the resettlement this empire was at the peak of its heyday.

The territory occupied by the Mayan civilization is highlighted in red.

So who are they, the Mayans?

What the Mayans looked like

The average height of the Mayan Indians was approximately 150 cm. Immediately after birth, the head of a Yucatan baby was pressed between two planks so that over time the cranial bones became flat due to deformation. Flat skull, long hair, arranged in a hairstyle, the front part of the head was hairless, amber was inserted into the nostrils pierced through the cartilage, bracelets made from sea oyster shells - this is what the Mayan Indian looked like. To this can be added painted bodies and faces, and the color of the paint was of great importance. Red was worn by warriors, black by unmarried youths, yellow by prisoners, blue by priests. To the unique idea of ​​beauty were added teeth filed in a triangle, sometimes decorated with inlaid stones. Surprisingly, the Mayans considered squinting to be a sign of beauty. That is why a thread with a resin or wax ball was attached to the baby’s hair so that he would squint his eyes at him. Another distinctive Mayan feature is tattooing. Her absence was considered indecent.

The emergence of the Mayan civilization

There is an opinion that the ancestors of the Mayans appeared in the Mexican highlands (zones of Chiapas and Guatemala) in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e., to which the first shoots of the Mayan culture are related. This can be evidenced by ceramics discovered by archaeologists, stone tips for throwing weapons, rough utensils in the form of baked clay vessels and massive clay figurines.

From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Large settlements appeared in Mayan territory, and agriculture began to develop. The Mayans build huts out of wood and clay in the jungle. The high roofs of their homes were made of palm leaves.

So, from 1500 BC. e. The so-called preclassic period begins, which gave the starting point for the historical existence of the most developed civilization of Ancient America - the Maya. And it lasts from 1500 BC. e. to 250 AD e. During this time, people gained agricultural experience and began to build rural-type settlements.

Story

There are several periods of this ancient civilization:
Early Preclassic period (2000-900 BC)
Middle Preclassic period (899-400 BC)
Late Preclassic period (400 BC - 250 AD)
Early Classical Period (250-600 AD)
Late Classical Period (600-900 AD)
Decline of the Mayan civilization
Postclassical period (900-1521)
Colonial period (1521-1821)
Post-colonial period
Maya today

Astrology

Mayan astrology, using the zodiac circle as its main reference, was a way to predict the future. Knowledge about the movements of celestial bodies, including special place was assigned to the Moon: the waning or waxing satellite of the Earth showed how successful a particular period of time was for a certain kind of undertaking.

Mayan natal astrology, which predicted a child's character, behavior and inclinations in adulthood, is closely related to the Tzolkin calendar, each day of which could determine character. For example, those born on the day of Imish, according to Mayan ideas, led a dissolute life, neglecting social principles, while babies on the day of Chuen became good craftsmen and artisans. The fate determined by astrology was predetermined, but the priests had the opportunity to change it by connecting the fate of a person with the day of bringing him to the temple.

Mayan culture

It should be noted that the culture of the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica has some similarities. This suggests an exchange between these peoples of certain achievements of their cultures, which led to a certain homogeneity, which, in turn, indicates that there was a mother culture from which the roots of the Mayan culture could come.

The main evidence of this ancestor culture is hieroglyphic writing, accordion-folded books, the use of cocoa beans instead of money, a ritual ball game, a cult hero - the Feathered Serpent, and cult rituals, one of which was. Thus, the culture of the great Mayan civilization, starting from ancient times, was influenced by other cultures.

In the preclassic period, Mayan culture bears the imprint of the Olmec civilization (hence the monumental sculptures, knowledge of mathematics, calendars). It is known that the Olmecs were able to create a calendar that was superior in accuracy to the European one.

Writing

The earliest inscriptions date back to the 3rd century BC. e. The letter was used continuously until the arrival in the 16th century AD. e. Spanish conquistadors, and in some of the more isolated areas, such as Tayasal, for some time after that.

Mayan writing was a system of verbal and syllabic signs. The term “hieroglyphs” in relation to Mayan writing was used by European researchers of the 18th and 19th centuries, who could not understand the signs and found them similar to Egyptian hieroglyphics.

In the early colonial era there were still people who knew the Mayan script. There is information that some Spanish priests who arrived in Yucatan managed to study it. But soon, Bishop of Yucatan Diego de Landa, as part of a campaign to eradicate pagan customs, ordered the collection and destruction of all Mayan texts, as a result of which this led to the loss of a significant part of the manuscripts.

Only 4 Mayan codices survived the conquistadors. More complete texts have been found on pottery in Mayan tombs, as well as on monuments and steles in cities abandoned or destroyed after the Spanish arrived. Knowledge of writing was completely lost towards the end XVI century. Interest in it arose only in the 19th century, after reports of destroyed Mayan cities were published.

Weapon

Mayan weapons were not a special achievement of technical thought. Over the course of many centuries of the existence of the Mayan civilization, it underwent minor changes. Much of the improvement has been in the art of war than in the weapons themselves.

In battles, the Mayans fought with spears of various lengths (the height of a man or more), darts and flat club-swords, the edges of which were lined with dense rows of embedded obsidian blades. By the end of the New Kingdom period (XV - XVI centuries), the Mayans had metal battle axes (made of an alloy of copper and gold) and bows and arrows, borrowed from the Aztecs. For protection, Mayan warrior rank and file wore plump, quilted cotton shells. The nobility used armor woven from flexible branches and defended itself with willow (less commonly, tortoiseshell) large or small round or square shields. A small shield (about the size of a fist) was used not only for defense, but also as a striking weapon.

El Caracol Observatory, Chichen Itza - Mexico

Rise of the Mayan civilization

After the end of the Olmec power, the southern trading cities of the Maya began to flourish. During this period, large centers of Mayan civilization emerged - El Mirador, Tikal, Nakbe, Vashaktun. The Mayans created a system of calendars (solar, lunar and ritual), with the help of which they recorded important historical moments and also made astrological forecasts.

The southeastern city of Copan attracts special attention. He, starting from the 5th century AD. e., for 400 years it was ruled by one dynasty, the founder of which was the ruler Yash-Kuk-Mo, who came to power in 426 AD. e.

626 - Ruler Dym-Jaguar, who was a royal descendant of Pakal, ascended the throne. He reigned for 67 years and was a long-liver. He was called the Great Instigator. Perhaps, with the help of territorial wars, this ruler greatly expanded the possessions of Copan, which contributed to its prosperity. This era includes the appearance of many steles praising rulers and their merits; the development of hieroglyphic writing, the creation of magnificent temples with sculptural images of gods.

Maya today

Today, about 6.1 million Mayans live on the Yucatan Peninsula, including Belize, Guatemala and Honduras. In Guatemala, about 40% of the population is Mayan, in Belize - about 10%. Today the Mayan religion is a mixture of Christianity and traditional beliefs Mayan. Each Mayan community today has its own religious patron. Donations can include poultry, spices or candles. Some Maya groups identify themselves through special elements in their traditional dress that distinguish them from other Maya.

How faithful to the survivors traditional life a group of Lecandon Mayans living in Chiapas (Mexico) is known. Representatives of the group wear cotton clothes that are decorated with traditional Mayan scenes. Christianity was able to exert a superficial influence on representatives of this group. But tourism and, above all, technical and economic progress are gradually beginning to erase the group’s identity. More and more Mayans are wearing modern clothes, have electricity, radios and televisions in their homes, and often cars. Some of the Mayans, meanwhile, live on income from tourism, as more and more people want to get acquainted with the world and culture of the ancient Mayans.

Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Sun in the ancient city of Palenque

Mayan civilization - interesting facts

There is no evidence that the Mayans could have had flying machines or cars, however a complex system They definitely had paved roads. They possessed advanced astronomical knowledge about the movement of celestial bodies. Perhaps the most amazing evidence of this is the building with a domed roof called El Caracol located on the Yucatan Peninsula.

Archaeological excavations may indicate that the Mayans actually practiced human sacrifice, and this was considered a favor for the victims.

They believed that one still had to get to heaven: first one must go through 13 circles of hell, and only then a person will receive eternal bliss. And this path is so difficult that not all souls can reach it. However, there was also a “direct road to heaven”: women who died during childbirth, victims of wars, suicides, those who died while playing ball and ritual victims could receive it.

According to one interpretation of the codes, the Mayans came from a place that is now hidden under water, they were even mistaken for the children of Atlantis. Atlantis is, of course, a strong word. But scientists, relatively recently, managed to discover what may be the remains of ancient Mayan cities on the ocean floor. The age of the cities and the cause of the cataclysm cannot be determined.

The Mayans used three calendars. The civil calendar, or Haab, consisted of 18 months of 20 days each - for a total of 360 days. For ceremonial purposes, Tzolkin was used, which included 20 months of 13 days each, and the entire cycle was thus 260 days. Together they made up a single complex and long calendar, which contained information about the movement of planets and constellations.

There was no beginning or end in the calendar - time for the Mayans went in a circle, everything was repeated again and again. There was no such thing as “end of the year” for them - only the rhythm of planetary cycles.

The Mayans invented sports. One thing is for sure - the Mayans loved playing ball. Long before the Europeans began to dress in skins, the Mayans had already made a ball court at home and came up with the rules of the game. Their game appeared to be a tough combination of football, basketball and rugby.

About 1,000 Mayan cities have been discovered (as of the early 1980s), but not all of them have yet been excavated or explored by archaeologists. About 3,000 villages were also found.

The Mayans loved saunas. An important cleansing element for the ancient Mayans was the diaphoretic bath: water was poured onto hot stones to create steam. Everyone used such baths, from a woman who had recently given birth to a king.

Disappearance of the Mayan civilization

The reason why the Mayans could have disappeared has been named. Historians from the Technical University of Vienna have found out the reason for the decline of the Mayan Empire. As it turned out, irrigation technologies that saved crops from drought could make society more vulnerable to drought. natural disasters. 2014 - geologists from America suggested that the cause of the extinction of the Mayans could have been an extreme drought that lasted about 100 years.

There are other versions that name possible reasons for the disappearance of civilization: the collapse of the local agricultural system, terrible epidemics of diseases (for example, yellow fever), the arrival of conquerors from Mexico, social cataclysms, the forced capture of people by the Tultek rulers of Yucatan, and even earthquakes and decline in the sun. activity.

The history of the Mayan civilization is full of mysteries. One of them is the reason for the sudden disappearance of this ancient people, who had reached an amazingly high level of cultural development.

Origin and habitat

The Maya, one of the civilizations of Mesoamerica, began to form around 2000 BC. e. It developed in the Mexican states of Yucatan and Tabasco, the countries of Guatemala and Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. The area where these ancient tribes lived is divided into three climatic zones: rocky and arid mountainous territory, tropical jungle and areas with rich fauna.

There are several theories about the origin of the people, as well as where the Mayans disappeared to. There is a version that they came from Asia, and even a fantastic assumption that they are the descendants of the inhabitants of the mythical Atlantis. Another theory claims that they came from Palestine. As evidence, they cite the fact that many elements are similar to Christian ones (the idea of ​​the coming of the Messiah, the symbol of the cross). In addition, the people are very similar to the Egyptian ones, and this suggests that they are somehow connected with Ancient Egypt.

Mayan Indians: the history of a great civilization

Researchers are lucky - many sources have been preserved from which they can draw a picture of the life of this ancient people. Its history is divided into several large periods.

In the pre-classical era, the Indians were small tribes that obtained food by hunting and gathering. Around 1000 BC e. Many small settlements of farmers appear. El Mirador is one of the first Mayan cities, now famous for its huge pyramidal complex 72 meters high. It was the largest metropolis of the pre-classical period.

The next era (400 BC - 250 AD) is characterized by great changes in the life of the Indians. Cities are growing rapidly and monumental architectural complexes are being built.

250-600 n. e. - the time of the classical era of the development of the people of Mesoamerica. During this period, rival city-states emerged. Their architecture was represented by magnificent architectural structures. Typically, buildings were located around a rectangular central square and were decorated with masks of gods and mythological figures carved in stone. The history of the Mayan tribe says that a feature of their settlements was the presence of pyramids up to 15 meters high in the center of the cities.

By the end of the Classic period, the population of the lowlands of Guatemala had reached an impressive 3 million people.

The late classical period is the time of the highest flowering of the culture of the ancient people of Mesoamerica. Then the great cities were founded - Uxmal, Chichen Itza and Coba. The population of each of them ranged from 10 to 25 thousand people. The history of the Mayan tribe cannot but surprise - at the same time, there were no such large settlements in medieval Europe.

Mayan occupations and crafts

The main occupations of the Indians were agriculture (slash-and-burn and irrigation), beekeeping and crafts. They grew maize (the main crop), beans, tomatoes, pumpkins, various types of peppers, tobacco, cotton, sweet potatoes and a variety of seasonings. Important culture there was cocoa.

The Mayans were also involved in fruit cultivation. Now it is difficult to say which of the fruit trees were cultivated. Residents used papaya, avocado, ramon, chicosapote, nance, and marañon for food.

Despite their high level of development, the Mayans never stopped collecting. Palm leaves were used as roofing material and raw material for weaving baskets, the collected resin was used as incense, and coroso was used to make flour.

Hunting and fishing were also among the main activities of the Indians.

From archaeological research it is clear that skilled artisans lived in Yucatan and Guatemala: gunsmiths, weavers, jewelers, sculptors and architects.

Architecture

The Mayans are known for their majestic buildings: pyramidal complexes and palaces of rulers. In addition, they created beautiful sculptures and bas-reliefs, the main motifs of which were anthropomorphic deities.

Sacrifices

Among the buildings that have survived to this day, the main part is occupied by buildings of a religious nature. This fact and other sources allow us to conclude that religion occupied the life of the Mayans central place. They are known for their bloodletting rituals and human sacrifices offered to the gods. The most cruel of the rituals was burying the victim alive, as well as ripping open the stomach and tearing out the heart from the body of a still living person. Not only prisoners, but also fellow tribesmen were sacrificed.

The mystery of the disappearance of the people

The question of where the Mayans disappeared continues to interest many researchers. It is known that by the 9th century the southern territories of the Indians began to empty out. For some reason, residents began to leave the cities. This process soon spread to central Yucatan. Where did the Mayans go and for what reason did they leave their homes? There is no answer to this question yet. There are hypotheses that try to explain sudden disappearance one of the peoples of Mesoamerica. Researchers name the following reasons: enemy invasions, bloody uprisings, epidemics and ecological catastrophy. Perhaps the Mayans upset the balance between nature and man. The rapidly growing population has finally exhausted Natural resources and began to experience serious problems with a lack of fertile soil and drinking water.

The latest hypothesis about the decline of the Mayan civilization suggests that this was due to severe drought, which led to the devastation of the cities.

None of these theories has received serious confirmation, and the question of where the Mayans disappeared is still open.

Modern Maya

The ancient people of Mesoamerica did not disappear without a trace. It was preserved in its descendants - the modern Mayans. They continue to live in the homeland of their famous ancestors - in Guatemala and Mexico, preserving the language, customs and way of life.

The Mayan peoples inhabited the territories:

• in the west - from the Mexican state of Tabasco,
• in the east - to the western outskirts of Honduras and El Salvador.

This area is divided into three areas clearly distinguishable by climatic and cultural-historical characteristics.

1. The northern one - the Yucatan Peninsula, formed by a limestone platform - is characterized by an arid climate, poor soil and the absence of rivers. The only sources fresh water-karst wells (cenotes).
2. The central area covers mexican states Tabasco, part of Chiapas, Campeche, Quintana Roo, as well as Belize and the Guatemalan department of Petén. This area is made up of lowlands, replete with natural reservoirs and crossed by the large rivers Usumacinta, Motagua and others. The territory is covered with tropical rainforests with a diverse fauna, a rich selection of edible fruits and plants. Here, as in the north, there are practically no mineral resources.
3. The southern region includes mountain ranges up to 4000 m high in the state of Chiapas and the Guatemalan highlands. The territory is covered with coniferous forests and has a temperate climate. Various minerals are found here - jadeite, jade, obsidian, pyrite, cinnabar, which were valued by the Mayans and served as trade items.

The climate of all regions is characterized by alternating dry and rainy seasons, requiring precision in determining the time of sowing, which is impossible without the development of astronomical knowledge and the calendar. The fauna is represented by ungulates (peccaries, tapirs, deer), feline predators, varieties of raccoons, hares and reptiles.

History of the Mayan civilization

Periodization of Mayan history

• …-1500 BC - Archaic period
• 1500-800 BC. - Early formative
• 800-300 BC. - Medium formative
• 300 BC - 150 AD - Late formative
• 150-300 - Protoclassical
• 300-600 - Early Classic
• 600-900 - Late Classical
• 900-1200 - Early Postclassic
• 1200-1530 - Late Postclassic

The problem of settling the Maya region is still far from a final solution. Some evidence suggests that the Proto-Maya came from the north, moving along the coast Gulf of Mexico, displacing the local population or mixing with it. Between 2000-1500 BC. began to settle throughout the zone, breaking up into different language groups.

In the VI-IV centuries. BC. In the Central region, the first urban centers appear (Nakbe, El Mirador, Tikal, Vashaktun), distinguished by the monumentality of their buildings. During this period, the urban layout took on the appearance characteristic of Mayan cities - an articulation of independent, astronomically oriented acropolises adapted to the relief, representing a rectangular area surrounded by temple and palace buildings on platforms. Early Mayan cities formally continued to maintain a clan-fratric structure.

Classical period - I (III) -X centuries. n. BC - the time of the final formation and flowering of the Mayan culture. Throughout the Maya territory, urban centers with subordinate territories of the city-state appeared. As a rule, the cities in these territories were no further than 30 km from the center, which was apparently due to communication problems due to the lack of draft animals in the region. The population of the largest city-states (Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol) reached 50-70 thousand people. The rulers of large kingdoms bore the title of Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by local rulers - Sahals. The latter were not appointed officials, but came from local ruling families. There was also a complex palace hierarchy: scribes, officials, masters of ceremonies, etc.

Despite the changing structure social relations, power in city-states was transferred according to a tribal scheme, which was expressed in the magnificent cult of deified royal ancestors, in addition, power could also belong to women. Since Mayan acropolises and cities were of a “genetic” nature and were associated only with specific representatives of one or another clan, this was the reason for the periodic abandonment of individual acropolises and the final “abandonment” of Mayan cities in the 10th century, when the invading invaders destroyed members of the elite related by blood relationship with ancestors buried within the acropolises (pyramids). Without such a connection, the acropolis lost its significance as a symbol of power.

Social structure

Evidence of a tendency towards centralization of power in the 3rd-10th centuries. - usurpation by the rulers of the capital centers of the ritual ball game, the emergence of which dates back to the times of intra-tribal rotation of power and collective decision-making. The aristocracy concentrates in its hands the trade in valuable items, cocoa beans and minerals used for making jewelry and handicrafts - obsidian, jadeite, etc. Trade routes they ran both on land and along rivers and seas, going far into foreign territories.

Hieroglyphic texts mention priests divided into

• priest-ideologists,
• priest-astronomers,
• "seeing" and
• soothsayers.

Psychedelic practices were used for divination.

Detail of a sacred fresco from San Bartolo (Guatemala). OK. 150 BC The painting depicts the birth of the cosmos and proves the divine right of the ruler.

The basis of the society was made up of free community members who settled in family households, sometimes near cities, and sometimes at a considerable distance from them, which is due to the nature of land use and the need to change (due to a decrease in yield) the sown plots cultivated by the family every 4 years.

In their free time from sowing and harvesting, community members participated in public works and military campaigns. Only in the postclassical period did a special layer of semi-professional Kholkan warriors begin to emerge, who demanded “services and offerings” from the community.

Mayan texts often mention military leaders. Wars were in the nature of short-term raids to ruin the enemy and sometimes capture prisoners. Wars in the region were constant and contributed to the restructuring of political power, strengthening some cities while weakening and subjugating others. There is no data on slavery among the Classic Mayans. If slaves were used, it was as domestic servants.

There is no information about the Mayan legal system.

Crisis of the 10th century - political and cultural restructuring

By the 10th century Active migrations begin in the Central region, while the population decreases sharply, by 3-6 times. Urban centers fall into disrepair, political life comes to a standstill. There is almost no construction going on. The guidelines in ideology and art are changing - the cult of the royal ancestors is losing its primary importance, while the justification for the power of the ruler is the origin of the legendary “Toltec conquerors”.

In Yucatan, the crisis of the end of the classical period did not lead to a decline in population and the fall of cities. In a number of cases, hegemony moves from old, classical centers to new ones. The processes of social and political change after the destruction of the traditional Mayan system of urban government by the Toltecs are observed in the postclassic period in the example of such cities as

• Chichen Itza of the Toltecs in the X-XIII centuries;
• Mayapan during the reign of the Cocoms in the 13th-15th centuries;
• postclassical Mani, under whose command in the 16th century. there were 17 towns and villages.

By the time the Spaniards appeared in the southeast of Yucatan, the state of Acalan (Maya-Chontal) had formed, where the capital city of Itzamkanak with 76 subordinate cities and villages had already emerged. It contains an administration, temples, 100 houses made of stone, 4 quarters with their patrons and their temples, a council of quarter heads.

Confederations of cities with their own capital became a new type of political-territorial entities that controlled the political, administrative, religious and scientific spheres of life. In the spiritual sphere, the concept of reincarnation goes into the realm of religious abstraction, which allows cities (emerging capitals) to retain their functions even after a change of power. Internecine wars become the norm, the city acquires defensive characteristics. At the same time, the territory is growing and the control and protection system is becoming more complex.

The Yucatan Mayans had slavery and trade in slaves was developed. Slaves were used to carry heavy loads and homework, but more often acquired for sacrifice.

In mountainous Guatemala, with the onset of the Postclassic period, the “Maya-Toltec style” spread. Obviously, the infiltrated nahuacultural groups were, as in Yucatan, assimilated by the local population. As a result, a confederation of 4 Mayan tribes was formed - Kaqchiquel, Quiche, Tzutihil and Rabinal, which subjugated in the XIII-XIV centuries. various Mayan and Nahua-speaking tribes of highland Guatemala. As a result of civil strife, the confederation soon disintegrated, almost simultaneously with the invasion of the Aztecs and the appearance at the beginning of the 16th century. Spaniards.

Economic activity

The Mayans practiced extensive slash-and-burn agriculture with regular rotation of plots. Main crop There were maize and beans, which formed the basis of the diet. Of particular value were cocoa beans, which were also used as a unit of exchange. They grew cotton. The Mayans had no domestic animals, with the exception of a special breed of dogs, which were sometimes used as food, poultry - turkeys. The function of the cat was performed by the nose, a type of raccoon.

In the classical period, the Mayans actively used irrigation and other methods of intensive agriculture, in particular “raised fields” similar to the famous Aztec chinampas: artificial embankments were created in river valleys, which rose above the water during floods and retained silt, which significantly increased fertility. To increase productivity, the plot was simultaneously sown with maize and legumes, which created the effect of fertilizing the soil. Fruit trees and chile peppers, which are an important component of the Indian diet, were planted near the dwelling.

Land ownership continued to remain communal. The institution of the dependent population was underdeveloped. The main area of ​​its application could be plantations of perennial crops - cocoa, fruit trees, which were privately owned.

Mayan civilization culture

Scientific knowledge and writing

The Mayans developed a complex picture of the world, which was based on ideas about reincarnation and the endless alternation of cycles of the universe. For their constructions, they used precise mathematical and astronomical knowledge, combining the cycles of the Moon, Sun, planets and the time of the precessional revolution of the Earth.

The complication of the scientific picture of the world required the development of a writing system based on the Olmec. The Mayan writing was phonetic, morphemic-syllabic, involving the simultaneous use of about 400 characters. One of the earliest inscriptions is from 292 AD. BC - discovered on a stela from Tikal (No. 29). The bulk of the texts were written on monumental monuments or small plastic items. A special source is represented by texts on ceramic vessels.

Mayan books

Only 4 Mayan manuscripts have survived - “codes”, representing long strips of paper folded like an accordion (pages) from ficus bark (“Indian paper”), dating back to the Postclassic period, obviously copied from more ancient samples. Regular copying of books was probably practiced in the region from ancient times and was associated with the difficulties of storing manuscripts in a humid, hot climate.

The Dresden manuscript is a strip of “Indian paper” 3.5 m long, 20.5 cm high, folded into 39 pages. It was created earlier than the 13th century. in Yucatan, from where it was taken to Spain as a gift to Emperor Charles V, from whom it came to Vienna, where in 1739 the librarian Johann Christian Götze acquired it from an unknown private person for the Dresden Royal Library.

The Parisian manuscript is a strip of paper with a total length of 1.45 m and 12 cm in height, folded into 11 pages, from which the initial pages have been completely erased. The manuscript dates back to the period of the Cocom dynasty in Yucatan (XIII-XV centuries). In 1832 it was acquired by the Parisian National Library(kept here to this day).

The Madrid manuscript was written no earlier than the 15th century. It consists of two fragments without beginning and end of “Indian paper”, 13 cm high, with a total length of 7.15 m, folded into 56 pages. The first part was acquired in Extremadura by José Ignacio Miró in 1875. Since it was suggested that it once belonged to the conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, hence its name - “Code of Cortez”, or Cortesian. The second fragment was acquired by Brasseur de Bourbourg from Don Juan Tro y Ortolano in 1869 and was called Ortolan. The pieces joined together became known as the Madrid Manuscript, and it has since been kept in Madrid in the Museum of the Americas.

Grolier's manuscript was in a private collection in New York. These are rather fragments of 11 pages without beginning or end, dating back to the 13th century. Apparently this Mayan manuscript, the origin of which is unknown, was composed under strong Mixtec influence. This is evidenced by the specific recording of numbers and features of the images.

Texts on Mayan ceramic vessels are called “clay books.” The texts reflect almost all aspects of the life of ancient society, from everyday life to complex religious ideas.

The Mayan script was deciphered in the 50s of the 20th century. Yu.V. Knorozov based on the method of positional statistics he developed.

Architecture

Mayan architecture reached its peak in the classical period: ceremonial complexes, conventionally called acropolises, with pyramids, palace buildings and ball stadiums were actively erected. The buildings were grouped around a central rectangular area. The buildings were erected on massive platforms. During construction, a “false vault” was used - the space between the roof masonry gradually narrowed upward until the walls of the vault closed. The roof was often crowned with massive ridges decorated with stucco. Construction techniques could vary from stone masonry to concrete-like masses and even bricks. The buildings were painted, often red.

There are two main types of buildings - palaces and temples on pyramids. Palaces were long, usually one-story buildings, standing on platforms, sometimes multi-tiered. At the same time, the passage through the enfilades of rooms resembled a labyrinth. There were no windows and light came in only through doorways and special ventilation holes. Perhaps the palace buildings were identified with long cave passages. Almost the only example of buildings with several floors is the palace complex in Palenque, where a tower was also erected.

The temples were built on pyramids, the height of which sometimes reached 50-60 m. Multi-stage staircases led to the temple. The pyramid embodied the mountain in which the legendary cave of our ancestors was located. Therefore, an elite burial could occur here - sometimes under the pyramid, sometimes in its thickness, and more often immediately under the floor of the temple. In some cases, the pyramid was built directly over a natural cave. The structure on top of the pyramid, conventionally called a temple, did not have the aesthetics of an internal very limited space. The doorway and the bench placed against the wall opposite this opening had functional significance. The temple served only to mark the exit from the cave of the ancestors, as evidenced by its external decoration and sometimes its connection with the intra-pyramidal burial chambers.

Appears in the Postclassic new type areas and buildings. The ensemble is formed around the pyramid. Covered galleries with columns are being built on the sides of the square. In the center there is a small ceremonial platform. Platforms for risers appear with poles studded with skulls. The structures themselves are significantly reduced in size, sometimes not corresponding to human growth.

Sculpture

The friezes of buildings and massive roof ridges were covered with stucco made of lime mortar - a piece. The lintels of temples and the steles and altars erected at the foot of the pyramids were covered with carvings and inscriptions. In most areas they were limited to relief techniques; only in Copan did round sculpture become widespread. Palace and battle scenes, rituals, faces of deities, etc. were depicted. Like buildings, inscriptions and monuments were usually painted.

Monumental sculpture also includes Mayan steles - flat, about 2 m high monoliths, covered with carvings or paintings. The highest steles reach 10 m. Steles are usually associated with altars - round or rectangular stones installed in front of the steles. Steles with altars were an improvement on Olmec monuments and served to convey the three-level space of the universe: the altar symbolized the lower level - the transition between worlds, the middle level was occupied by the image of events occurring with a specific character, and the upper level symbolized the rebirth of a new life. In the absence of an altar, the subject depicted on it was compensated by the appearance on the stele of a lower, “cave” level, or a relief niche, inside which the main image was placed. In some cities, roughly rounded flat altars placed on the ground in front of the stele, or stone figured images of reptiles, as for example in Copan, became widespread.

The texts on the steles could be dedicated to historical events, but most often they were of a calendar nature, marking the periods of the reign of one or another ruler.

Painting

Works of monumental painting were created on the interior walls of buildings and burial chambers. The paint was applied either over wet plaster (fresco) or over dry ground. The main theme of the paintings is crowd scenes battles, festivals, etc. The most famous are the paintings of Bonampak - buildings of three rooms, the walls and ceilings of which are entirely covered with paintings, dedicated to victory in military operations. TO fine arts The Maya include polychrome painting on ceramics, characterized by great variety of subjects, as well as drawings in “codes”.

Dramatic art

The dramatic art of the Maya came directly from religious ceremonies. The only work that has come down to us is the drama of Rabinal-Achi, recorded in the 19th century. The plot is based on the capture of a Quiché warrior by warriors of the Rabinal community. The action develops in the form of a kind of dialogue between the prisoner and the other main characters. Basic poetic device-rhythmic repetition, traditional for oral Indian folklore: the participant in the dialogue repeats the phrase spoken by his opponent, and then pronounces his own. Historical events - the wars of Rabinal with the Quiché - are superimposed on mythological basis- a legend about the abduction of the water goddess, the wife of the old rain god. The drama ended with the real sacrifice of the main character. Information has reached us about the existence of other dramatic works, as well as comedies.

One of the most mysterious civilizations that existed on the planet is the Mayan civilization. High level the development of medicine, science, architecture amazes the minds of our contemporaries. One and a half thousand years before Columbus's discovery of the American continent, the Mayan people had already used their hieroglyphic writing, invented the calendar system, were the first to use the concept of zero in mathematics, and the counting system was in many ways superior to that used by their contemporaries in Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece.

Secrets of the Mayan civilization

The ancient Indians had amazing information about space for that era. Scientists still cannot understand how the Mayan tribes obtained such accurate knowledge of astronomy long before the invention of the telescope. The artifacts discovered by scientists raise new questions, the answers to which have not yet been found. Let's look at the most amazing finds related to this great civilization:

The most amazing feature of this architectural monument is the visual effect that is created 2 times a year, exactly on the days of autumn and spring equinox. As a result of the game sunlight and the shadow appears the image of a huge snake, whose body ends with a stone sculpture of a snake’s head at the base of a 25-meter pyramid. Such a visual effect could only be achieved by carefully calculating the location of the building and having accurate knowledge of astronomy and topography.

Another interesting and mysterious feature of the pyramids is that they are a huge sound resonator. Such effects are known as: the sounds of the steps of people walking to the top are heard at the base of the pyramid, like the sounds of rain; people located at a distance of 150 meters from each other on different sites can clearly hear each other, while not hearing the sounds made next to them. To create such an acoustic effect, ancient architects had to make precise calculations of the thickness of the walls.

Mayan culture

Unfortunately, one can learn about the culture, history, and religion of Indian tribes only from the surviving architectural and cultural material assets. Due to the barbaric attitude of the Spanish conquerors, who destroyed most of the cultural heritage of the ancient Indians, descendants were left with very few sources for obtaining knowledge about the origin, development and reasons for the decline of this majestic civilization!

Possessing a developed written language, during their heyday, the Mayans left great amount information about yourself. However, most historical heritage was destroyed by Spanish priests who spread the Christian religion among the Indians of Central America during its colonization.

Only inscriptions on stone slabs have survived. But the key to deciphering the writing remained unsolved. Only a third of the signs are understandable to modern scientists.

• Architecture: The Mayans built stone cities that amazed with their majesty. Temples and palaces were built in the centers of cities. The pyramids are amazing. Without metal tools, the ancient Indians in some amazing way created pyramids that were not inferior in their majesty to the famous Egyptian ones. The pyramids were supposed to be built every 52 years. This is due to religious canons. Distinctive feature of these pyramids is that the construction of a new one began around the existing one.
• Art: On the walls of stone buildings, traces of paintings and stone sculptures, mainly of a religious nature, have been preserved to this day.
• Life: The ancient Indians were engaged in gathering, hunting, and farming, growing beans, maize, cocoa, and cotton. The irrigation system was widely used. Some tribes mined salt, then exchanging it for other goods, which served as the development of trade, which was in the nature of natural exchange. To move goods and cargo, stretchers or boats were used to move along rivers.
• Religion: The Mayans were pagans. The priests had knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, predicting lunar and solar eclipses. Religious rituals contained suicide rituals.
• The science: The Indians had a developed written language, had knowledge of mathematics and, as noted above, had amazing knowledge of astronomy.

Why did the Mayans disappear?

The beginning of the Mayan civilization dates back to the second millennium BC. The heyday of culture occurred at the end of the first millennium - 200-900. BC. The most important achievements include:

• A fully developed calendar that accurately reflects the changing seasons;
• Hieroglyphic writing, which scientists have not yet fully deciphered;
• The use of the concept of zero in mathematics, which was absent in other developed civilizations of the ancient world;
• Using the number system;
• Discoveries in the field of astronomy and mathematics - Mayan scientists were hundreds of years ahead of their contemporaries. Their discoveries surpassed all the achievements of Europeans living at that time.

The civilization of the New World reached the peak of its development without such major technical achievements as the invention of the potter's wheel, the wheel, the smelting of iron and steel, the use of domestic animals in agriculture and other achievements that gave impetus to the development of other peoples.

After the 10th century, the Mayan civilization fades away.

Modern scientists still cannot name the reason for the decline of one of the greatest nations of antiquity.

Exists several versions of the reason for the disappearance of a great civilization. Let's consider the most likely of them:

The nation was a group of disparate city-states, often at war with each other. The cause of hostility was the gradual depletion of soils and the decline of agriculture. The rulers, in order to maintain power, pursued a policy of capture and destruction. Surviving images from the late eighth century show that the number of internecine wars was increasing. An economic crisis was developing in most cities. The scale of the devastation was so great that it led to the decline and further disappearance of the greatest civilization.

Where did the Mayan peoples live?

The Mayans inhabited most of Central America, modern Mexico. The vast territory occupied by the tribes was distinguished by an abundance of flora and fauna, a variety of natural zones - mountains and rivers, deserts and coastal areas. This was of no small importance in the development of this civilization. The Mayans lived in city-states such as Tikal, Camaknul, Uxmal, etc. The population of each of these cities was more than 20,000 people. There was no unification into one administrative entity. Having a common culture, a similar management system, and customs, these mini-states formed a civilization.

Modern Mayans - who are they and where do they live?

Modern Mayans are Indian tribes inhabiting the territory of South America. Their number is more than three million. Modern descendants have the same distinctive anthropological features as their distant ancestors: short stature, short, wide skull.

Until now, the tribes live separately, only partially accepting the achievements of modern civilization.

The ancient Mayan people were far ahead of their contemporaries in the development of science and culture.

They had excellent knowledge of astronomy - they had an idea of ​​​​the pattern of movement of the sun, moon and other planets and stars. Writing was very developed and exact sciences. Unlike their distant ancestors, modern Indians do not have any achievements in the development of the culture of their people.

Video about the Mayan civilization

This documentary will tell about the mysterious Mayan peoples, what mysteries they left behind, which of their prophecies came true, and why they died: