Ethnic composition of the Russian population. Racial, ethnic and national composition

The study of the ethnic (national) composition of the population is a science called ethnology(from Greek ethnos - tribe, people), or ethnography. Formed as an independent branch of science in the second half of the 19th century, ethnology still maintains a close connection with geography, history, sociology, anthropology and other sciences.

The basic concept of ethnology is the concept of ethnicity. Ethnicity is a stable community of people that has developed in a certain territory, possessing, as a rule, a common language, some common features culture and psyche, as well as general self-awareness, i.e., awareness of its unity, in contrast to other similar ethnic formations. Some scientists believe that none of the listed characteristics of an ethnic group is decisive: in some cases the main role is played by territory, in others by language, in others by cultural features, etc. (In fact, for example, the Germans and Austrians, the British and Australians, Portuguese and Brazilians speak the same language, but belong to different ethnic groups, while the Swiss, on the contrary, speak four languages, but form one ethnic group.) Others believe that the defining feature should still be considered ethnic identity, which is also usually fixed in a certain self-designation(ethnonym), for example, “Russians”, “Germans”, “Chinese”, etc.

The theory of the emergence and development of ethnic groups is called theories of ethnogenesis. Until recently, Russian science was dominated by the division of peoples (ethnic groups) into three stage types: tribe, nationality and nation. At the same time, they proceeded from the fact that tribes and tribal unions - as communities of people - historically corresponded to the primitive communal system. Nationalities were usually associated with the slave-owning and feudal system, and nations, as the highest form of ethnic community, with the development of capitalist and then socialist relations (hence the division of nations into bourgeois and socialist). Recently, due to the revaluation of the former formational approach, which was based on the doctrine of historical continuity of socio-economic formations, and with an increasing focus on modern civilizational approach, many previous provisions of the theory of ethnogenesis began to be revised, and in scientific terminology – as a generalizing one – the concept of “ethnos” began to be used more and more widely.

In connection with the theory of ethnogenesis, it is impossible not to mention one fundamental dispute that has long been waged by domestic scientists. Most of them adhere to the view of ethnicity as historical-social, historical-economic phenomenon. Others proceed from the fact that ethnicity should be considered a kind of bio-geo-historical phenomenon.

This point of view was defended by geographer, historian and ethnographer L. N. Gumilev in the book “Ethnogenesis and Biosphere of the Earth” and his other works. He considered ethnogenesis to be a primarily biological, biospheric process associated with passionarity a person, that is, with his ability to supercharge his forces to achieve a great goal. In this case, the condition for the emergence of passionary impulses that influence the formation and development of an ethnic group is not solar activity, but a special state of the Universe, from which ethnic groups receive energy impulses. According to Gumilyov, the process of existence of an ethnos - from its origin to its collapse - lasts 1200–1500 years. During this time, it goes through phases of rise, then breakdown, obscuration (from the Latin obscurous - darkened, in the sense of reactionary) and, finally, relict. When the highest phase is reached, the largest ethnic formations—superethnoses—emerge. L.N. Gumilyov believed that Russia entered a phase of recovery in the 13th century, and in the 19th century. moved into a phase of breakdown, which in the 20th century. was in its final stage.

After becoming familiar with the concept of ethnicity, you can move on to considering the ethnic composition (structure) of the world's population, that is, its distribution according to the principle of ethnicity (nationality).

First of all, naturally, the question arises about the total number of ethnic groups (peoples) inhabiting the Earth. It is usually believed that there are from 4 thousand to 5.5 thousand. It is difficult to give a more precise figure, since many of them have not yet been sufficiently studied, and this does not allow distinguishing, say, a language from its dialects. In terms of numbers, all nations are distributed extremely disproportionately (Table 56).

Table 56

GROUPING OF PEOPLES ACCORDING TO THEIR NUMBER (1992)

Analysis of table 56 shows that in the early 1990s. 321 nations, numbering more than 1 million people each, accounted for 96.2% of the total population globe. Including 79 nations with a population of more than 10 million people accounted for almost 80% of the population, 36 nations with a population of more than 25 million people accounted for about 65%, and 19 nations with a population of more than 50 million people each accounted for 54% of the population. By the end of the 1990s. the number of largest nations grew to 21, and their share in the world population approached 60% (Table 57).

It is not difficult to calculate that the total number of 11 nations, each of which numbers more than 100 million people, is about half of humanity. And at the other pole there are hundreds of small ethnic groups living mainly in tropical forests and in the regions of the North. Many of them number less than 1,000 people, such as the Andamanese in India, the Toala in Indonesia, the Alakaluf in Argentina and Chile, and the Yukaghir in Russia.

Table 57

NUMBER OF THE LARGEST NATIONS OF THE WORLD AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY.

No less interesting and important is the question of the national composition of the population of individual countries of the world. In accordance with its characteristics, five types of states can be distinguished: 1) single-national; 2) with a sharp predominance of one nation, but with the presence of more or less significant national minorities; 3) binational; 4) with a more complex national composition, but relatively homogeneous ethnically; 5) multinational, with a complex and ethnically diverse composition.

First type states are quite widely represented in the world. For example, in overseas Europe about half of all countries are practically single-national. These are Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Italy, Portugal. In foreign Asia there are much fewer such countries: Japan, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, and some small countries. There are even fewer of them in Africa (Egypt, Libya, Somalia, Madagascar). And in Latin America almost all states are single-national, since Indians, mulattoes, and mestizos are considered parts of single nations.

Countries second type are also quite common. In foreign Europe these are Great Britain, France, Spain, Romania, and the Baltic countries. In foreign Asia - China, Mongolia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Iraq, Syria, Turkey. In Africa - Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Zimbabwe, Botswana. IN North America– USA, in Oceania – Australia and New Zealand.

Third type countries is much less common. Examples include Belgium and Canada.

Countries fourth type, with a rather complex, although ethnically homogeneous composition, are most often found in Asia, Central, Eastern and South Africa. They also exist in Latin America.

Most characteristic countries fifth type– India and Russia. This type also includes Indonesia, the Philippines, and many countries in Western and Southern Africa.

It is known that recently, in countries with a more complex national composition, interethnic contradictions have noticeably worsened.

They have different historical roots. Thus, in countries that emerged as a result of European colonization, oppression of the indigenous population (Indians, Eskimos, Australian aborigines, Maoris) continues. Another source of controversy is the underestimation of the linguistic and cultural identity of national minorities (Scots and Welsh in Great Britain, Basques in Spain, Corsicans in France, French Canadians in Canada). Another reason for the intensification of such contradictions was the influx of tens and hundreds of thousands of foreign workers into many countries. In developing countries, interethnic contradictions are associated primarily with the consequences of the colonial era, when the boundaries of possessions were drawn for the most part without taking into account ethnic boundaries, as a result of which a kind of “ethnic mosaic” arose. Constant contradictions on national grounds, reaching the point of militant separatism, are especially characteristic of India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Nigeria, DR Congo, Sudan, Somalia, and many other countries.

The ethnic composition of the population of individual countries does not remain unchanged. Over time, it gradually changes, primarily under the influence of ethnic processes, which are divided into processes of ethnic division and ethnic unification. Separation processes include those processes in which a previously unified ethnic group either ceases to exist or is divided into parts. Unification processes, on the contrary, lead to the merging of groups of people of different ethnic origins and the formation of larger ethnic communities. This occurs as a result of interethnic consolidation, assimilation and integration.

Process consolidation manifests itself in the merging of ethnic groups (or parts thereof) that are close in language and culture, which as a result turn into a larger ethnic community. This process is typical, for example, for Tropical Africa; It also happened in the former USSR. Essence assimilation lies in the fact that individual parts of an ethnic group or even an entire people, living among another people, as a result of long-term communication, assimilate its culture, perceive its language and cease to consider itself belonging to the previous ethnic community. One of the important factors of such assimilation is ethnically mixed marriages. Assimilation is more typical for economically developed countries with long-established nations, where these nations assimilate less developed ones national groups of people. And under interethnic integration understand the convergence of different ethnic groups without merging them into a single whole. It occurs in both developed and developing countries. It can be added that consolidation leads to the consolidation of ethnic groups, and assimilation leads to a reduction in national minorities.

Russia is one of the most multinational states in the world. It is inhabited by more than 190 peoples and nationalities. According to the 2002 census, Russians make up more than 80% of the total population. In second place in terms of numbers are the Tatars (more than 5 million people), the third are the Ukrainians (over 4 million), and the fourth are the Chuvash. The share of each of the other nations in the country's population did not exceed 1%.

50. Ethnolinguistic classification of peoples

Language– the most important means human communication. Directly related to thinking, it serves as a means of storing and transmitting information, one of the means of controlling human behavior. Language arose simultaneously with the development of society and over time was subject to various kinds of changes. As already noted, language is also an important feature of any ethnic group.

There are languages alive And dead(i.e., out of use, such as ancient Greek). Among the living languages there are native language, learned by a person in childhood; it is also called maternal. They often talk about national language– the main language of a particular nation; sometimes in this case the concept is used "titular language". There is also the concept of official (state) language, which usually coincides with the native and national (Russian in Russia, Chinese in China, English in English speaking countries, Arabic in the Middle East). But in multinational states with a particularly complex national composition of the population (for example, India, South Africa), such a coincidence may not exist. Sometimes the concept of literary language one nation or another.

According to ethnographers, total number There are approximately 5,000 languages in the world, i.e., it generally corresponds to the number of peoples. Moreover, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the names of the people and the language coincide.

Nevertheless, there are often cases when several peoples speak the same language (for example, English is spoken by the British, US Americans, Australians, New Zealanders, Anglo-Canadians; Spanish - by Spaniards and most Latin Americans; German - by Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss ). There may also be the opposite option, when some part of the people or even the whole people bilingual, that is, they use two languages in everyday life. Such bilingualism is typical for binational countries (Belgium, Canada), for countries with more or less significant national minorities (France), and even more so for multinational countries (India). Bilingualism is also typical for countries with a massive influx of immigrants.

Based on the number of speakers, languages, like peoples, are divided into largest, large, medium, small and very small. Naturally, increased interest is primarily caused by the most large tongues, defining the ethnolinguistic picture of the world. The available statistical data on these languages diverges quite a lot, since in some cases the native language is taken into account, and in others - the state language, so the figures given below should be considered to a certain extent approximate.

By number speaking first Chinese takes the place – more than 1200 million people. Second place belongs to the English language, which is spoken by 520 million people in almost 60 countries around the world. In third place are the largest languages of India, Hindi and Urdu (more than 440 million). In fourth place - Spanish, which serves as a government service for more than 20 countries; the number of speakers is approaching 400 million. In fifth place is the Russian language, which is spoken by more than 250 million people. In sixth place is Arabic, the native and state language in 25 countries (about 250 million people). This is followed by Bengali (more than 225 million people), Portuguese (210 million), Japanese (125 million), German, French and Punjabi (about 120 million people each). Overall, these 13 languages are spoken by more than 3/5 of the world's population. Six of them - English, French, Russian, Spanish, Arabic and Chinese - serve as official and working languages of the UN. They can rightfully be called languages of international communication; This applies to the greatest extent to the English language.

The study of the languages of the peoples of the world is especially important because it is the languages that are usually used as the basis for the classification of peoples (ethnic groups). Genealogical in its essence, it is called ethnolinguistic classification and is based on the principle of relatedness of languages. The highest taxonomic unit in this classification is the family of languages. The second taxonomic unit is formed by groups of closely related languages, the third by their branches (subgroups), and the fourth by individual languages.

There are about 20 language families in total. The largest of them is Indo-European family, whose languages are spoken by approximately 45% of the world's population. Its distribution area is also the largest. It covers Europe, South-West and South Asia, North and South America, Australia. The largest group within this family is the Indo-Aryan, which includes the languages Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, etc. The Romance group is also very large, including Spanish, Italian, French and some other languages. The same can be said about German group(English, German and a number of other languages), Slavic group(Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, etc.), Iranian group (Persian, Tajik, Baluchi, etc.).

Second largest number of speakers - Sino-Tibetan(Sino-Tibetan) family, whose languages are used by 22% of all inhabitants of the planet. It is clear that the Chinese language provides it with such a large share in the world.

The large ones also include the Niger-Kordofanian family (distributed in Africa, south of the Sahara), the Afroasiatic family (mainly in the Near and Middle East), the Austronesian family (mainly in South-East Asia and Oceania), Dravidian family (in South Asia), Altai family (in Asia and Europe).

When using the ethnolinguistic classification of languages, two additional circumstances should be kept in mind. Firstly, the geographical boundaries of the distribution of language families and groups have changed repeatedly throughout human history and continue, although not so significantly, to change today. Secondly, this classification is still far from perfect. Thus, there is no complete clarity on the question of which families some even well-studied languages (Japanese, Korean) should be classified into. And many languages spoken in sub-Saharan Africa, in Southeast Asia, in Oceania, and the Indian languages of America are generally still poorly studied. It should also be taken into account that some modern languages small peoples are actually classified as endangered. And to an even greater extent - the fact that almost 2/3 of all languages modern world- only colloquial and do not have their own written language.

Rice. 43. Geography of the main writing systems (according to D. V. Zaits)

However, all major languages have their own written language, the mapping of which represents big interest (Fig. 43). As can be seen from this figure, the most widespread writing in the world was formed on the basis of the Latin script. The areas of distribution of writing based on the Cyrillic, Sanskrit, Arabic alphabet, as well as hieroglyphic writing are also significant.

Most of the peoples of Russia belong to four language families - Indo-European, Altai, North Caucasian and Uralic. The Indo-European family predominates among them. In the multinational Soviet Union, Russian was the main language of interethnic communication. In the Russian Federation it remains so today: statistics show that 98% of its residents can communicate freely among themselves in Russian.

An ethnos, a nation, is a historically stable community of people united by a common language, culture, traditions, identity, and common territory where the nation was formed.

is a multinational country inhabited by 130 peoples, of which 78% are the Russian nation, numbering 116 million people. Among other large nations, with a population of more than 1 million people. - Tatars, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Chuvash, Chechens, Armenians. The population of other nations ranges from several hundred (small peoples of the Far North) to 1 million people. The number of nationalities numbering up to 10 thousand people in Russia is more than 60.

Among Russian nationalities about half are classified as “foreign”, i.e. having their own outside Russia state entities. These are representatives of the former republics of the USSR, as well as Germans, Koreans, Greeks and others (their total number is slightly more than 5 million people), and the largest group is Ukrainians. The indigenous peoples of Russia have different ethnic roots - Indo-European (including Slavic), Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian, Paleo-Asian, etc.

The following areas of residence of indigenous nations have formed in Russia. The area of residence of the Russian people is a zone of main economic development, stretching from west to east of Russia, with the majority of the population concentrated in Central and Southern Russia.

At the same time, the Russian population is settled everywhere, throughout the entire territory of Russia. For - more than 20 million people live in. Russians, incl. in border areas and their share is 30–50%, about 2 million Russians live in non-CIS countries. The total number of the Russian nation in the world
is about 150 million people.

The main areas of residence of other peoples of Russia are:

The Ural-Volga region, where the republics of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Mari El, Mordovia, Udmurtia, Chuvashia are located, are adjacent to them from the north by the Komi Republic and the Komi-Permyak National District. The peoples of these republics have long lived in close proximity to each other and to the Russian population, so their settlements are mixed with each other and are often located outside the borders of their republics. Thus, less than 40% of the Tatars of Russia live on the territory of Tatarstan, the rest are settled from Moscow to the Yenisei. In many republics, the majority of the population is Russian. By religion they are mainly Orthodox and Muslim.
The North Caucasus region includes the Karachay-Cherkess, Kabardino-Balkarian, Chechen, North Ossetian, Dagestan and Kalmyk republics. The history of these peoples was complex, both during the period Russian Empire, and in Soviet times, when a number of nations were during the Great Patriotic War deported - these are Balkars, Ingush, Chechens, . By religious affiliation they are Muslims, Kalmyks are Buddhists, and Orthodox.
The Siberian region is home to several republics - Yakut, Buryat, Khakass, Tuva, Gorno-Altai. A common feature population is their Turkic and (Buryat) origin and belonging to the Orthodox, Buddhist religions and shamanism. These peoples are weakly assimilated by Russian culture, retain their traditions, occupations, way of life, and weakly mix with other peoples.
The Far North is a region where about 30 small northern peoples live, some of which have their own national districts– Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets, Khanty-Mansi, Evenki, Dolgano-Nenets (Taimyr), Chukotka, Koryak. Other peoples are either very scattered throughout the North (Evens) and the Far East, or are so small in number that they settle in several administrative regions, rural districts, and populated areas. By religion, they are mostly Orthodox and adherents of local beliefs.
The European northwest, the largest people of which are those living in the Karelian Republic, as well as other small Finno-Ugric peoples - Vepsians, Sami, Izhorians, some of whom were assimilated by the Russian population.

The living of many peoples in close proximity to each other, with their own customs and traditions, poses a rather complex problem. At the same time, the country’s economy has a variety of forms economic activity, associated with the way of life and traditions of each people, is undoubtedly a blessing. It helps, for example, to conduct rational farming and develop resources in such harsh areas as tundra and forest-tundra, northern taiga and coast, semi-deserts and mountains.

Russia is one of the most multinational, multi-ethnic states in the world. The ethnic composition of the population is an extremely complex motley mosaic. The dynamics of changes in the number of peoples can be established based on a comparison of data from the first census of 1897 and subsequent ones, including the last one - 1989.

All the peoples of Russia can be divided into 3 groups. The first is indigenous ethnic groups formed on the territory of Russia, most of whom live in Russia, and outside of it they form only small groups. The number of these peoples is more than 100. The second group is those peoples of neighboring countries (i.e. republics of the former USSR), as well as some other countries that are represented on the territory of Russia significant groups, in some cases with compact settlement. These include 26 ethnic groups: Ukrainians, Belarusians, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Moldovans, Georgians, Koreans, Poles, Lithuanians, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Bulgarians, Gagauz, Greeks, etc. And finally, the third group is formed by small subdivisions of ethnic groups, in the overwhelming majority of those living outside Russia (in the near and far abroad), there are more than 30 ethnic groups. These are Meskhetian Turks, Assyrians, Abkhazians, Karakalpaks, Romanians, Hungarians, Chinese, Kurds, Czechs, Arabs, Uighurs, Iranians, Vietnamese , Khalkha-Mongols, Serbs, Jews, Afghans, Slovaks, Dungans, Baluchis, Talysh, Livs, etc.

Indigenous ethnic groups include 94% of the total population of Russia. At the beginning of 1989, the peoples of the second group accounted for 5.5% of the total population within the Russian Federation. As for the peoples of the third group, their total number is 0.5% of the Russian population.

In addition to Russians, who make up 81.5% of the total population (1989), the most numerous are Tatars - 3.8%, Ukrainians - 3%, Chuvash - 1.2%, peoples of Dagestan - 1.2% (among them Avars - 544 thousand .), Bashkirs - 0.9%, Belarusians - 0.8%, Mordovians - 0.7%.

The total population in 32 national entities in 1989 was 25.8 million people, 17.6% of the population of Russia, including in 21 republics - 23.1 million people, or 15.7%. All republics, autonomous regions and autonomous okrugs are distinguished by complex ethnic composition population, and the share of the titular people (who gave the name to the corresponding formation) of the people is in some cases relatively small. Of the 27.2 million non-Russians in Russia, within all national entities There are 9.7 million people of the titular peoples of the republics, autonomous regions and autonomous districts and 4.3 million representatives of other non-Russian peoples. Thus, almost half (48.5%) of the total population (except Russians) lives outside of their national entities, i.e. in other regions of Russia. Thus, 70.8% of Mordvins, 68% of Tatars, 49.6% of Mari live outside their republics.

Of the 21 republics of Russia, only in six are titular peoples in the majority (Chechnya, Ingushetia, Chuvashia, Tuva, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia). In addition, in multi-ethnic Dagestan, 10 indigenous peoples form 80.2% of the total population. In 9 republics, the titular population makes up less than a third of the total population (including in Karelia - only 10% and Kalmykia - 11.8%). The increase in the share of titular peoples occurs both due to their higher natural increase compared to Russians, and due to the emigration of representatives of non-titular peoples.

The picture of the settlement of peoples in the autonomous okrugs is significantly different. Very sparsely populated and possessing huge mineral reserves, they have been attracting immigrants for several decades, not only Russians, but also Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars and representatives of other ethnic groups. As a result, over 30 years (1959 - 1989), the number of titular peoples of the districts increased by only 5.7%, and Russians almost quadrupled; As for other peoples, their number in the districts increased 7.2 times. As a result, the ethnic structure of the population of the autonomous districts has changed dramatically and now the titular peoples in most districts make up only a small percentage. Thus, their share in all districts decreased from 35.2 to 11.2%, and in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug in 1989 it was 1.5%, in the Yamalo-Nenets - 6. Chukotka - 9.5, Nenets - 11.9%. At the same time, in the Komi-Permyak Okrug there were 60.2% Komi-Permyaks, in the Aginsky Buryat Okrug there were 54.9% Buryats.

According to the 1897 census, there were 146 languages and dialects in the Russian Empire, which somewhat underestimated the actual number of ethnic communities due to insufficient ethnographic knowledge of the outskirts. The 1926 general census in the USSR took into account over 190 ethnic communities. By the 1959 census, as a result of the arbitrary unification of closely related territorial and tribal groups, the number of officially recognized ethnic units had been reduced to 110. This tendency to simplify the national-ethnic structure also manifested itself in the preparation of the 1970-1989 censuses. According to the 1989 population census, 128 ethnic groups lived in Russia. However, experts believe that the number of nations, nationalities, and ethnic groups in Russia is 176.

Ethnic composition is the distribution of a population based on its ethnicity or nationality. The ethnic structure of the population is the ratio of the shares of individuals (by ethnicity and nationality)

groups of people in total number population of the world, continent, country, region, its individual administrative-territorial entities.

To study the ethnic composition and structure of the population, information is used: a) about ethnicity based on the principle of self-determination; b) about the native language of the interviewee. In some cases, indirect information is used: about spoken language, religious or racial composition.

Ethnicity (Greek ethnos - people) is a historically established stable community of people (tribe, nationality, mania).

In the specialized literature, the following conditions are named for the emergence of an ethnos: common territory, language, material and spiritual culture, group psychological characteristics; production ethnic identity; community of origin or historical destinies, included in the ethnic group of people; use of a common self-name (ethnonym); community of religion; proximity of people along racial lines. With strong racial differences, the formation of an ethnic group requires the emergence of significant transitional groups, for example, like the Brazilians, Cubans and other peoples.

The formed ethnic group acts as a social organism, self-reproducing through ethnically homogeneous marriages, transferring language, culture, traditions, ethnic orientation, etc. to each new generation. In the process of historical development, an ethnos can undergo fundamental changes: completely cease to exist, enter into a more large ethnic group, give rise to a new ethnic group.

The main indicators of the ethnic composition and structure of the population are:

The absolute population of individual nationalities in a territorial context, for example in our country, development is carried out in Russia as a whole, administrative-territorial entities, urban and rural settlements, villages with a population of 5 thousand people or more;

Absolute population by nationality and native language, the language of other nationalities that the respondents speak fluently;
the absolute number of the employed population and the unemployed, the economically active population of each nationality; composition of the population of individual nationalities by gender, age, average and median age, marital status; labor structure of the population of individual nationalities; composition and structure of the population of individual nationalities by occupation, economic sectors;

composition and structure of the population of individual nationalities by sources of livelihood, occupation, and economic sectors.
Russia, like the USSR before, remains a multinational country. According to the 2002 census, representatives of 160 nationalities live in it. Seven peoples have a population of 1 million or more people: Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Chechens, Armenians. 80% of the population of Russia are Russians.

Along with the study of the ethnic composition and structure of the population, a study of its racial composition. Ethnographers distinguish open and closed features race

Open: skin, hair, eye color; shape of the skull (ratio of its width to length): height; body proportions; protrusion of the jaws; shape of the nose and lips; eye shape; hair growth (on the face and gel).

Closed: blood type, taste characteristics, teeth structure, etc.

The racial composition of the world's population is in constant flux. Thus, in the process of historical development, large and small races emerged, many transitional forms. By the beginning of the 1990s. The racial composition of the world's population was as follows.
The main indicators when studying the racial composition of the population are:

Population size of individual races, their transitional and mixed forms;

Population structure by race (usually in percentage);

Distribution of the population of individual races by land area, by country and continent (in order to study their concentration by part of the world);

Composition and structure of the population of individual races by gender, age and other characteristics.

When studying the ethnic composition of the world's population, its linguistic composition is necessarily examined. There are 5 thousand languages and about 3 thousand peoples in the world. Differences between the number of languages and the number of peoples exist where ethnic and linguistic processes are poorly developed. For example, in New Guinea, several dozen peoples speak more than 1,000 languages.
The main language family of the world's population is Indo-European with groups: Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Romance, Greek, Albanian, Iranian, Nugan, Indo-Aryan, Armenian.

The second largest Sino-Tibetan family with groups: Chinese, Central, West Malay group.

In our country, the most common languages are Indo-European, Uralic, Altai, Caucasian, Sino-Tibetan and other families.

Analysis of population composition by language family covers:

The size of the population speaking the languages of individual language families, distinguishing groups and subgroups;

Placement of individual language families throughout the territory, highlighting places of their concentration;

Identification of the native languages of individual ethnic groups (the number of speakers of these languages);

Identification of spoken languages of individual countries. Most likely, this includes the official languages of individual countries.

It is known that different nations the nature of population reproduction, birth and death rates are different. Special studies have shown that nationality itself does not determine the birth rate. Fertility is simultaneously influenced by a combination of factors: physiological, marital, social, economic, cultural, religious.

For example, physiological factors include a predisposition to multiple births (especially among the peoples of tropical Africa and South Asia, rarely in Europe and East Asia).

The influence of the religious factor is associated with the attitude of individual religions to remarriages and divorces. It is extremely simple for men who profess Islam; more strict among the Khtians and Hindus. The most ascetic of the world's religions is Buddhism. Most of its trends encourage celibacy; the institution of monasticism is highly developed, for example, in Tibet and Mongolia, every second oldest son in a family becomes a monk. At the same time, Buddhism does not approve of birth control measures. The birth rate is influenced by traditions of large families. Under the influence of various factors, the most high level The birth rate is observed in Africa and South-West Asia, the lowest is in Europe, whose population is facing depopulation.

From special studies it is known that the ethnic factor has an even smaller effect on mortality than on fertility. The mortality rate of individual nations depends on natural factor, geographic environment. For example, in Africa, Europeans are more likely to get skin cancer than locals.

Peoples differ in food systems, formed over centuries. For example, peoples who eat spicy and hot foods and smoked foods are more susceptible to digestive cancer. The tradition of feeding babies with “adult food” leads to increased mortality, etc.

The 2002 census in Russia provided the first insight into citizenship. Of the 145.2 million inhabitants of the country, 142.5 (98.1% of the total population of the country) are citizens of Russia, 44 thousand people (0.3%) have citizenship, 1.025 thousand (0.7%) are foreign citizens, 1.3 million (0.9%) did not indicate what citizenship they have. Of the foreign citizens, 906 thousand are from former Soviet republics (88.4%), the rest are from foreign countries; 9 thousand people (0.9%) are from Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

Ethnic composition of the population.

Humanity is very diverse ethnically. Ethnos- a historically established group of people who speak the same language, have the same origin, culture, and live in a certain territory. The main characteristic of a people or ethnic group is mutual language. One of important signs is also the people’s awareness of their unity and differences from other peoples (customs, traditions, way of life).

There are 11 large peoples on Earth, the number of which exceeds 100 million people: Chinese, Hindustani, Bengalis, US Americans, Brazilians, Russians, Japanese, Punjabis, Biharis, Mexicans, Javanese. In total, there are more than 5 thousand peoples and more than 2 thousand languages in the world. According to the degree of proximity, all languages are united into families and groups. The largest language family is Indo-European (2.8 billion people). The second largest number of representatives is the Chinese-Tibetan (Sino-Tibetan) family (1.3 billion people). The largest ones also include the Afroasiatic family (distributed in the Near and Middle East, North America), the Dravidian family (in South Asia), the Altai family (in Europe and Asia), etc.

On every continent there are countries that are homogeneous and complex in ethnic composition. About half of the world's states are homogeneous in population composition. They are most numerous in Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America. Countries with a complex ethnic composition are characteristic mainly of Asia and Africa. Interethnic relations may become aggravated there. In such countries, two or even more official languages are established.

The first place in terms of prevalence belongs to the Chinese language (1200 million people), the second place to English (520 million people) - the language of international communication. It is used by a significant part of the world's population. There are two official state languages in Belarus - Belarusian and Russian.

Geography of world religions.

Knowledge of not only the linguistic, but also the religious affiliation of the population helps to understand the culture, morals, customs and characteristics of the relationship between peoples, economic development different countries world, their public policies. Religion- This special shape awareness of the world, conditioned by belief in the supernatural. It includes a set of moral norms and types of behavior, rituals. World religions unite believers of individual countries and continents. They are especially widespread. World religions have evolved over many centuries and even millennia. These include: Christianity - 2.3 billion (33% of the world's population), Islam - 1.6 billion (23%), Buddhism - about 470 million people (6.7%). In addition to world religions, there are national religions that are practiced predominantly by one people. The most widespread of them are Hinduism, Confucianism, Shintoism, and Judaism (Fig. 30).

Christianity arose at the beginning of the first millennium AD. e. in South-West Asia. Religion is based on faith in Jesus Christ, who has a divine nature and came to Earth to atone for the sins of people with his martyrdom.

Rice. 30. Religious structure of the world

Rice. 31. St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is the largest Christian church

The main source of Christian doctrine is the Holy Scripture (Bible). The basis of religion is faith in Jesus Christ as the God-man, Savior and God the Son. Christians believe in the equality of all people before God, and that faith in God will lead to reward in heaven. Christianity is divided into 3 main branches: Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy. The center of the largest branch of Christianity - Catholic - is located in the Vatican (Fig. 31). The residence of the head of the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope, is located here. The Vatican plays the role of a state, participates in the activities of international organizations, has permanent observers at the UN, UNESCO, and makes a certain contribution to the protection of peace.

Orthodoxy and Catholicism are the most widely preached religions in Belarus. They gave the world a lot cultural monuments and works of art.

Islam arose in the 7th century. on the Arabian Peninsula. It is distributed in Southwestern Asia, northern Africa, some countries of Central and Eastern Asia, Indonesia, and to a lesser extent in Europe. The founder of Islam is considered to be Muhammad, a resident of Mecca. The creed is based on the worship of one God - Allah and the recognition of Muhammad as the messenger of Allah.

The main principles of Islam (or Islam) are set out in the holy book of the Koran. Muslims, like Christians, believe in the immortality of the soul, the afterlife, heaven and hell. The cities of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia are considered the cradle of Islam.

The city of Jerusalem became the center of three widespread religions in the world - Judaism, Christianity and Islam. This is where the interests of believers around the world intersect. The city has many historical and religious shrines that serve as objects of mass pilgrimage.

Buddhism , the founder of which is considered to be Buddha, originated in India and is widespread in the countries of Southeast and Central Asia, as well as in India, Nepal, etc. This is one of the ancient religions, recognized by a wide variety of peoples with completely different traditions.

The main emphasis in this religion is on a pure, highly moral life of a person, and not on faith in God. Without understanding Buddhism, it is impossible to understand the great cultures of the East - Indian, Chinese, not to mention the cultures of Tibet.

Religion has been and remains an important factor in the development of any state. Its place in the life of countries is determined by the level of development of society, culture, and traditions. At the beginning of the third millennium it is given great importance religion in resolving international conflicts. People are united not only by similarities common tasks facing humanity (preserving life on Earth, preventing military conflicts, resolving environmental problems), but also a vision of spiritual values, their essence, the friendly attitude of man to man, which religions preach.

Geography of world religions. Geography of material and spiritual culture.

The concept of "culture". Civilizations (historical and cultural regions of the world). The concept of “culture” means the totality of material and spiritual values created human society, methods of their creation and application, characterizing a certain level of development of society. The natural conditions surrounding a person largely determine distinctive features his culture. Countries differ in the history of their people, the peculiarities of natural conditions, culture, and a certain commonality of economic activity. They can be called historical and cultural regions of the world or civilizations.

Geography of culture studies the territorial distribution of culture and its individual components - the lifestyle and traditions of the population, elements of material and spiritual culture, and the cultural heritage of previous generations.

The first cultural centers were the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates valleys. Geographical distribution ancient civilizations led to the formation of a civilization zone from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific coast. Outside this civilizational zone, other highly developed cultures and even independent civilizations of the Indian tribes of the Mayans and Aztecs in Central America and the Incas in South America. The history of mankind dates back more than twenty major civilizations peace.

Modern civilizations in various regions of the world preserve their culture and develop it in new conditions. Since the end of the 19th century they have been influenced by Western civilization.

Within the Yellow River basin, an ancient cultural center, an ancient Sino-Confucian civilization , which gave the world a compass, paper, gunpowder, porcelain, the first printed maps, etc. According to the teachings of the founder of Confucianism, Confucius (551-479 BC), the Chinese-Confucian civilization is characterized by an attitude towards self-realization of those human abilities that are embedded in it.

Hindu civilization (the Indus and Ganges basins) was formed under the influence of castes - separate groups of people related by origin and legal status of their members.

Cultural heritage Islamic civilization , which inherited the values of the ancient Egyptians, Sumerians and other peoples, is rich and diverse. It includes palaces, mosques, madrassas, the art of ceramics, carpet weaving, embroidery, artistic metalworking, etc. Contributions to world culture poets and writers of the Islamic East (Nizami, Ferdowsi, O. Khayyam, etc.).

The culture of the peoples of Tropical Africa - the Negro-African civilization - is very distinctive. She is characterized by emotionality, intuition, and a close connection with nature. On current state This civilization was influenced by colonization, the slave trade, racist ideas, mass Islamization and Christianization of the local population.

The young civilizations of the West include Western European, Latin American and Orthodox civilizations. They are characterized by core values: liberalism, human rights, free market, etc. Unique achievements human mind are philosophy and aesthetics, art and science, technology and economics Western Europe. Cultural heritage Western European civilization includes the Colosseum in Rome and the Acropolis of Athens, the Louvre in Paris and Westminster Abbey in London, the polders of Holland and the industrial landscapes of the Ruhr, the scientific ideas of Darwin, Lamarck, the music of Paganini, Beethoven, the works of Rubens and Picasso, etc. The core of Western European civilization coincides with the countries who gave to the world ancient culture, ideas of the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment and French Revolution.

Russia and the Republic of Belarus, as well as Ukraine, are the core of modern Orthodox civilization. The cultures of these countries are close to Western European ones.

The boundaries of the Orthodox world are very blurred and reflect a mixed composition of Slavic and non-Slavic populations. Russia, Belarus and Ukraine serve as a kind of bridge between Western and eastern worlds. (What contribution have Belarusians made to world culture and art?)

Latin American civilization absorbed the culture of pre-Columbian civilizations. Japanese civilization distinguished by its originality, local traditions, customs, cult of beauty.

Material culture includes tools, housing, clothing, food, i.e. everything that is necessary to satisfy human material needs. Taking into account the characteristics of the natural environment, a person on Earth builds dwellings, eats those products that can mainly be obtained in the natural zone of his residence, and dresses in accordance with climatic conditions. Essence material culture is the embodiment of various human needs that allow people to adapt to natural living conditions.

Housing. The ability of people to adapt to natural conditions is evidenced by log houses in the forest zone, in temperate latitudes. The cracks between the logs are caulked with moss and reliably protect from frost. In Japan, due to earthquakes, houses are built with sliding lightweight walls that are resistant to vibrations of the earth's crust (Fig. 32).

Rice. 32. Types of dwellings of different peoples:

1 - traditional Japanese structure; 2 - Mongolian yurt; 3 - huts of the inhabitants of New Guinea: 4 - log house; 5 - Eskimo igloo; 6 - house on stilts

In hot desert areas, the sedentary population lives in round adobe huts with conical thatch roofs, while the nomads pitch tents. The dwellings of the Eskimos in the tundra zone, built from snow, and the pile buildings of the peoples of Malaysia and Indonesia are amazing. Modern houses in large cities are multi-story, but at the same time reflect the national culture and Western influence.

Cloth. Clothing is influenced by the natural environment. In the equatorial climate of many African and Asian countries Women's clothing is a skirt and blouse made of light fabric. Most of The male population of Arab and African equatorial countries prefers to wear floor-length wide shirts. In the tropical regions of South and Southeast Asia, unstitched forms of wrap-around clothing under a belt - sari - are common, convenient for these countries. Robe-like clothing formed the basis of the modern clothing of the Chinese and Vietnamese. The population of the tundra is dominated by warm, deaf long jacket with a hood.

Clothing reflects the national traits, character, temperament of the people, and the scope of their activities. Almost every nation and individual ethnic groups there is a special version of the costume with unique details of cut or ornament (Fig. 33). Modern clothes population reflects the influence of the culture of Western civilization.

Rice. 33. National clothes different peoples: 1 - Arabs; 2 - nilots; 3 - Indians; 4 - Bavarians; 5 - Eskimos

Food. The nutritional habits of people are closely related to natural conditions human habitats, specifics of management Agriculture. Plant foods predominate among almost all peoples of the world. The basis of nutrition is products made from grains. Europe and Asia are areas where they consume quite a lot of wheat and rye products (bread, pastries, cereals, pasta). Corn is the staple grain in the Americas, and rice is the staple grain in South, East, and Southeast Asia.

Almost everywhere, including Belarus, dishes made from vegetables are common, as well as potatoes (in temperate countries), sweet potatoes and cassava (in tropical countries).

Geography of spiritual culture. Toward a spiritual culture connected with the inner, moral world human, include those values that are created to satisfy spiritual needs. This is literature, theater, art, music, dance, architecture, etc. The ancient Greeks formed the peculiarity of the spiritual culture of humanity in this way: truth - goodness - beauty.

Spiritual culture, just like material culture, is closely connected with natural conditions, the history of peoples, their ethnic characteristics, religion. The greatest monuments of the world written culture are the Bible and the Koran - scriptures two major world religions - Christianity and Islam. The influence of the natural environment on spiritual culture is manifested to a lesser extent than on material culture. Nature suggests images for artistic creativity

, provides physical material, promotes or hinders its development.

Everything that a person sees around him and what attracts his attention, he displays in drawings, songs, and dances. From ancient times to the present day, folk arts and crafts (weaving, weaving, pottery) have been preserved in different countries. Rice. 34. Architectural styles: 1 - Gothic (Milan Cathedral in Italy); 2 - classicism (Bolshoi Theater in Moscow); 3 - baroque ( Winter Palace

in St. Petersburg); 4 - modernism (House of World Cultures in Berlin) Different architectural styles developed and changed in different regions of the Earth. Their formation was influenced by religious views, national characteristics, environment , nature. For example, in the architecture of Europe for a long time

Gothic and Baroque styles dominated. The buildings of Gothic cathedrals amaze with their openwork and lightness; they are compared to stone lace. They often express the religious ideas of their creators (Fig. 34).

Many red brick temples are made from local clay. In Belarus, these are the Mir and Lida castles. In the village of Synkovichi, near Slonim, there is a fortress church, which is the oldest defense-type temple in Belarus.

Its architecture displays features characteristic of the Gothic style. The influence of Western European civilization manifested itself in countries. The Baroque style, which has become widespread in Spain, Germany, and France, is manifested in the architecture of magnificent palaces and churches with an abundance of sculptures and paintings on walls in Russia and Lithuania.

Common among all peoples of the world fine And arts and crafts - Creation artistic products, intended for practical use. Asian countries are especially rich in such crafts. Porcelain painting is common in Japan, metal chasing is common in India, and carpet weaving is common in the countries of Southeast Asia. Among the artistic crafts of Belarus, straw weaving, weaving, and artistic ceramics are known.

Spiritual culture accumulates the history of peoples, customs and traditions, and the nature of their countries of residence. Its originality has been known for a long time. Elements of the material and spiritual culture of the peoples of different countries influence mutual influence, mutually enrich and spread throughout the world.

Bibliography

1. Geography 8th grade. Tutorial for 8th grade institutions of general secondary education with Russian as the language of instruction / Edited by Professor P. S. Lopukh - Minsk “People's Asveta” 2014