Ancient culture of ancient Greece and Rome briefly. Traditional culture of ancient Rome and ancient Greece

Abstract on the discipline:

"World art culture»

on the topic “Culture of Ancient Greece and Rome”

Introduction

The term “antiquity” (from the Latin Antiques - ancient) began to be used during the Renaissance, when the unique greatness of the culture of Ancient Greece and its fundamental importance in the development of mankind, and especially European culture, became apparent.

It was antiquity that created that special way of man’s relationship to space, society and himself, which predetermined the fate of the Western world. It is thanks to this way of relating to the world that antiquity is understood as synonymous with a classic, unsurpassed example in sculpture, architecture, literature, oratory, philosophy and other areas of creative activity. This same way of relating a person to the world determined the highest humanistic orientation of the entire value system of the ancient world, to which all the great thinkers, poets, writers, artists and musicians turned. Greek and Latin all European history remained and remain the language of scientists, lawyers, and physicians precisely because in these languages ​​ancient thinkers recorded the fundamental foundations of logic, morphology and basic sciences.

The central event of the ancient Greek model of the world was the cosmos, ruled by the Olympian gods. This event included, respectively, the events of the great and eternal, God-chosen and God-protected ancient society and events ancient man entrusted with a divine mission.

Ancient Greek mythology

Peace was the cornerstone of Greek civilization, defining applied art, literature, philosophy, etc. Myths connected the Greeks with the culture of their ancestors. The attitude towards myth was imbued with a special faith. The Greeks kept objects, monuments, historical places associated with myths and proving their authenticity. Myths combined products of folk art and fantasy, animating natural forces. The whole world in myths is inhabited magical creatures. There are heroic myths that tell about exploits and etiological myths that explain the causes of events, customs, and names. Community-tribal ties are transferred to nature and the whole world, understood as a huge tribal community.

The monsters depicted in myths, their struggle with heroes and the victory of heroes helped people comprehend and partially reflect on hostile natural forces and existential problems of existence. A person living in a world of myths did not feel alienated from nature. Myths created a holistic image of the world in which everything had its meaning, place and explanation. Past, present and future were inextricably linked with each other. Myths determined human lifestyle and behavior.

Mythological thinking does not separate subject and object, object and sign, thing and word. Ancient Greek philosophers - Sophists, Stoics, Pythagoreans - in their philosophical systems rationally rethought myths, allegorically interpreting their content. They laid the foundation for the symbolic interpretation of myths.

Ancient Greek mythology became one of the factors determining the direction and development of the entire Western culture. There is not a single historical era, not a single art movement that is in one way or another not connected with Greek myths.

Ancient Greek theater

A special place in the design of the ancient model of the world belongs to the Greek theater, the process of formation of which shows how the natural harmony of Dionysian and Apollonian principles contained in pagan rites was included in ancient culture, ensuring its vitality and greatness.

The predecessor of the theater was the spring celebration in honor of the god Dionysus. The celebration was accompanied by dancing, singing, and drinking new wine. The people singing songs of praise in honor of Dionysus were dressed in goat skins. The word "tragedy" comes from the Greek "tragos" and is translated as "song of the goats." Comedy originated from funny songs in honor of the god Dionysus.

The theaters were huge and could seat more than twenty thousand spectators. Women did not perform in the theater; their roles were performed by men. The performances set themselves not only entertaining and spectacular goals, but also educational, civic, and political ones. Famous authors theatrical performances there were Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles, Aeschylus.

Ancient Greek polis

Many researchers attribute the central place in the formation of the ancient way of relating to the world to the Greek polis. The polis can truly be considered as the embodiment of the ancient model of the world in the social sphere.

The policy included belonging to the city land. They protected their citizens from military invasions. Economically, the policy system had many advantages. The economic and political priorities of the polis were dictated by its citizens. At the same time, life in the polis educated a person in a certain way, accustoming him to responsibility, to the readiness to make a new decision, free from mechanical adherence to dogmatic patterns.

Antiquity was characterized by democracy, in which full citizens took part in political life and government. It was in the polis that the archetypal set of symbols of social integrity was realized as a central harmonizing event located between the event of the individual and the event of the Cosmos.

A mandatory component of the polis structure was the people's assembly. Unlike ancient Eastern societies, where slavery developed extremely slowly and in most of them did not go beyond the patriarchal structure, ancient society was characterized by the use of slave labor.

As a result of colonization, new ancient city-colonies arose, including Tanais, which arose much later than other colonies (in the 3rd century BC). Tanais is the most northeastern Black Sea colony of the ancient world. The special position of Tanais was its great distance from the ancient center and close proximity to the Scythian, Meotian and Sarmatian tribes of the Azov and Don regions. Ancient Greek culture in Tanais was strongly mixed with barbarian culture.

One of the most important achievements of ancient times Greek culture- recognition of the dignity, rights, civil status of a person. In the further history of culture, in the Middle Ages, this greatness of the individual will be lost, but it will be reborn in the humanism of the Renaissance.

Roman culture and antiquity

The culture of Rome is associated with the completion of the history of ancient society. It continued the Hellenistic tradition and at the same time acted as an independent phenomenon, determined by the course of historical events, the uniqueness of living conditions, religion, the character traits of the Romans and other factors.

The three-dimensional, plastic, sculptural nature of Greek art was a reflection of the holistic and harmonious model of the world and the integral existence of the Greeks corresponding to it.

Instead of ancient Greek living plastic art, symbolism and allegory dominate in the works of the ancient Romans.

The Romans were acutely aware of the loss of a way of holistic and artistic perception world, trying by any means to prove their kinship with the Greek world. This often forced them to create grandiose structures in order to, thus, make up for the limitations of their capabilities in the field of plastic three-dimensional image.

Roman temples, forums, frescoes, mosaics, reliefs, sculptures (even copies of Greek masterpieces) significantly exceeded the scale of ancient Greek ones. However, this has led to the fact that Roman monuments can sometimes evoke a feeling of unnaturalness and duality.

The Romans could no longer get closer to the Greek ideal, since the natural model of the world was lost - the basis and secret of ancient Greek greatness.

But Rome worthily fulfilled its historical mission: it preserved Greek antiquity for Europe, broadcasting and replicating the values ​​of the greatest culture.

The ancient Roman model of the world was fundamentally different from the Greek one. There was no personal event in it, organically inscribed in the events of the polis and the cosmos, like the Greeks. The event model of the Roman was simplified to two events: the event of the individual fit into the event of the state, or the Roman Empire.

That is why the Romans turned their attention to the individual. They own unsurpassed sculptural portraits with a phenomenally accurate representation of the unique features of the face, character, habits, as well as reliefs that reliably recorded the historical events of the life of the empire - the so-called “historical” reliefs and portraits.

The Roman artist, unlike the Greek, saw reality through a harmonious three-event model of the world in its plastic unity, strove for analysis, dismemberment of the whole into parts, a detailed and reliable depiction of the phenomenon in full accordance with his own two-event model of the world. In his description there are always two views on the phenomenon. The first is from the individual's position. The second is from the position of the empire.

The architecture of Rome reached a high level of development, both in engineering and in artistic and social functions. The Romans understood the idea of ​​the unity of artistic form and social space in a fundamentally new way.

It is quite obvious that the attitude of the Romans to form, volume, space, to man and space is fundamentally different than that of the Greeks. AND important point, which explains this difference is the focus on the second event of the two-event Roman model of the world - the event of empire.

For the Roman, this event replaces the cosmic event and seems colossal in accordance with the vast space of the empire.

Even such monumental bronze masterpieces as the Capitoline She-Wolf are recorded in their connection with the legend of the origin of the empire.

In the light of what has been said, it becomes clear why antiquity should be understood primarily as ancient Greek culture.

Conclusion

The main features of the ancient model of the world, the nature of their formation and development can only be studied in parallel with the study of the phenomena of antiquity. So, first of all, the concept of antiquity implies a special type of personality, a system of spiritual values, mythology, art, a method of production, a macro-social and state structure. All these components of the ancient way of life are closely related to the complex processes of formation, maintenance and transmission of the ancient model of the world, but some of them are directly related to the processes of its formation.

The concept of antiquity is also applied to culture. This term was adopted in the early 18th century in French and was originally understood as special kind art dating back to early historical periods. But over time, its content was reduced only to Greco-Roman culture as a cumulative manifestation of antiquity, especially in the field of art. This assessment of Greco-Roman culture is not accidental. Ancient Greece, and then Rome in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. were centers of culture. Culture acted as a system that included the achievements of scientific thought, philosophy, various forms of art, religion, education systems, and upbringing. It had a significant impact on the further development of universal human culture.

In historical terms, antiquity means the period of ancient history (1st millennium BC - 5th century AD), covering the Greco-Roman slave society. Its history ended as a result of the crisis and then the collapse of the Roman Empire. It should be borne in mind that by the 8th century. BC e. Ancient Greece emerges as an empire that seeks to acquire colonies. The ancient Greeks settled on the coast of the Aegean, Marmara and Black seas, settled on the northern coast of Africa, southern Italy, the islands of Sicily and Cyprus.

Bibliography

1. Chernokozov A.I. World Art. Series “Secondary vocational education”. Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix, 2004.
2. www.wikipedia.ru

Book: Cultural Studies, lecture notes

III. CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

1. The importance of ancient culture for world civilization.

2. Culture of Ancient Greece.

3. Culture of Ancient Rome.

1. The importance of ancient culture for world civilization

In the understanding of modern science antiquity- this is the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome - from the emergence of the first ancient Greek states (end of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC) to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the conquest of Rome by barbarian tribes (5th century AD). Accordingly, there are concepts of ancient philosophy, ancient art, ancient literature, etc. The literal translation of the word “antique” from Latin is “ancient.” In Europe, during the Renaissance, collecting antiques became fashionable; they began to be called “antiques.” Later in France the actual concept of “antiquity” arose to designate all early forms art. As research deepened, the content of the term narrowed.

The level of development and the degree of influence on subsequent history give the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome an exceptional character. In the ancient world, all spheres of culture, without exception, flourished - education, science, literature, art. The creativity of ancient authors in both science and art had humanistic character, at its center was a person, his physical and spiritual life. The masterpieces created by ancient writers, sculptors and playwrights later began to be perceived as classic, as unsurpassed and worthy of imitation. Ancient Greek and Latin are the basis of modern scientific terminology.

The position of free people in ancient states was fundamentally different from other ancient societies. Democracy emerges, citizens enjoy political rights and participate in government. Although we must not forget that ancient society was a slave-owning society. Slaves played a significant role in the economy of the ancient Greek states, contributed to their prosperity, and at a certain stage of Roman history even became the main productive force.

2. Culture of Ancient Greece

Creto-Mycenaean (Aegean) culture. The early stage of the history of Ancient Greece is called Crete-Mycenaean or Aegean. At the end of the III-II millennium BC. The first states arose in the Aegean Sea basin - on the island of Crete and the Peloponnese peninsula (the city of Mycenae). These were states of the early monarchical type with a developed bureaucratic apparatus and strong communities. They are similar to ancient Eastern despotism.

Mycenae was discovered by G. Schliemann after his sensational excavations in Asia Minor, where he found the legendary Troy. The impetus for the beginning of the research of the English archaeologist A. Evans in Crete was the plots of many Greek myths: about the great master Daedalus, who built a labyrinth palace for the Cretan king, about the hero Theseus, who defeated the Minotaur, a resident of the labyrinth, and found the way with the help of “Ariadne’s thread.”

At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. the most powerful was the Cretan kingdom, which occupied an exceptional geographical position and had a strong fleet. Cretan craftsmen processed bronze, but did not know iron, and made beautiful ceramic dishes, decorating it with colorful images of plants, animals, and people. Particularly famous is the ceremonial tableware with “sea” themes.

Amazes royal palace in Knossos. The plan of this multi-story building truly resembles a labyrinth. Many rooms, connected by a complex system of passages, corridors, and stairs, did not have external windows and were illuminated through special light shafts. The palace had a ventilation and water supply system. The walls were decorated with magnificent frescoes, the most famous of which is “Parisian Woman”. This is what A. Evans called the image of a young well-dressed woman with dark hair. The palace was the center of not only political but also religious life. There is a hypothesis that the structure of the palace is somehow connected with ideas about the other world. Many finds indicate that in religious beliefs, bull cult . The roof of the palace was decorated with monumental stylized images of horns, ritual utensils were made in the shape of a bull’s head, and one of the frescoes depicts acrobats playing with a bull. Knossos was destroyed and Crete lost its dominant position in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. as a result of an unknown catastrophe - be it an earthquake (which was accompanied by volcanic eruptions), or an external attack, or internal strife.

After this, the center of early Greek civilization became the city of Mycenae, where the Achaean Greeks lived. It was surrounded by powerful defensive walls made of huge, rough stone blocks. The main gate - the Lion Gate - was decorated with a triangular stele with a relief image of two lionesses. G. Schliemann also found the “golden tomb” of the Mycenaean kings - underground structures with a domed ceiling are located in a circle. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Mycenae led the Greek war against the city of Troy in Asia Minor. Around the 12th century. BC. The Achaean Greeks were displaced by tribes of the Dorian Greeks who moved from the north of the Balkan Peninsula. The latter were at a lower level of development. The invasion of the primitive Dorian tribes led to the decline of cities and political life, and the loss of early Greek writing.

The main periods of the history of Ancient Greece. The history of Ancient Greece after the Dorian invasion, figuratively speaking, begins anew. The decomposition of primitive relations and the formation of statehood occurs again. This period was a kind of “dark times”, which lasted approximately from the 11th to the 9th centuries. BC, called Homeric, since it is known primarily from Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”.

Next long period - policy(VIII - IV centuries BC): statehood was formed in the form of policies - city-states predominantly with a republican system. In addition, Greek colonization unfolded in the Mediterranean and Northern Black Sea region, where the Greeks founded numerous colony cities (on the territory of modern Ukraine - Olbia, Chersonesus, Panticapaeum, Feodosia, etc.). It must be taken into account that the name “Ancient Greece” (for the Greeks - Hellas) does not mean a single state, but independent policies that had a common language, religion, cultural traditions, political and trade ties. A manifestation of such a community was, for example, the Olympic Games.

Within the policy period there are archaic stage when the gradual composition of the basic forms of ancient Greek culture occurs, and classic stage- the time of the highest rise - V-IV centuries. BC. The most influential political and cultural center after the victory in the Greco-Persian wars was Athens. They reached their maximum power and cultural flourishing when the outstanding political figure, the democrat Pericles, was at the head of the state.

A new stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean - Hellenistic stage- begins with the campaigns of Alexander the Great (IV century BC) and ends with the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Rome (I century BC, Egypt was the last to be captured). Macedonia conquered Greece, fully adopted its culture, and after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, ancient Greek culture spread to the conquered eastern countries. In turn, these peoples were carriers of their own rich tradition and themselves influenced ancient culture.

Throughout all periods of ancient Greek history, common features and continuity of cultural development were preserved. Therefore, we can give a general description of the main areas of ancient Greek culture.

Mythology. Mythology played a connecting and form-creating role for the development of culture. It began to take shape back in the Cretan-Mycenaean period. The ancients were deities who personified the forces of nature. From the union of Gaia - earth and Uranus - sky, the titans appeared, the eldest was Ocean, the youngest was Kron. The children of Cronus - the gods led by Zeus - in a fierce struggle with the titans won a victory and distributed power over the world. The Thunderer Zeus became the king of gods and people, Poseidon - the seas, springs and waters, Hades - the dark underground kingdom.

Mount Olympus was considered the home of the twelve supreme gods, led by Zeus. Hera, the wife of Zeus, was the patroness of marriage and family, one sister of Zeus, Demeter, was the goddess of fertility, the other, Hestia, was the patroness of the hearth. The beloved daughter of Zeus, Athena, was revered as the goddess of military wisdom and wisdom in general; she patronized knowledge and crafts. According to the myth, Athena emerged from the head of Zeus in full battle garb - helmet and armor. The god of war was the son of Zeus and Hera Ares. Hermes - originally the god of cattle breeding and shepherds, later was revered as the messenger of the Olympic gods, the patron of travelers, merchants, the god of trade, the inventor of the measure and the shepherd's flute. Artemis was originally the goddess of fertility and the patroness of animals and hunting, the goddess of the Moon; later she became the patroness of female chastity and the guardian of women in labor. Apollo is the brother of Artemis, the deity of sunlight, education, medicine, art, who is embodied by his companions - the nine muses. Another daughter of Zeus is Aphrodite, born from the foam of the sea near the island of Cyprus, the goddess of love and beauty. Aphrodite's husband was the blacksmith god Hephaestus. Dionysus is the most cheerful of the gods, the patron saint of winegrowers and winemakers; noisy holidays at the end of the agricultural year were dedicated to him. In addition to the Olympian ones, there were many other, mostly local, gods who had their own functions.

In the minds of the Greeks, the gods looked like people, had human desires, thoughts, feelings, even human vices and shortcomings. They severely punished those who tried to approach them for beauty, intelligence and power. A special place is occupied by the myth of the titan Prometheus - the defender of people from the tyranny of the gods. Prometheus stole fire from Olympus and gave it to people, for which Zeus chained him to a rock and doomed him to eternal torment.

In addition to myths about gods, there were legends about heroes, the most beloved of which was Hercules, who performed twelve great labors. Myths and legends about gods and heroes developed into cycles.

In parallel with mythology, cult practice developed - sacrifices and prayers that took place in temples. Each city had a patron god. Athena was considered the patroness of Athens. Olympia was the center of worship of Zeus, to whom sports competitions were dedicated here. The site of the main sanctuary of Apollo is Delphi, where the center (“navel”) of the Earth was marked with a special stone. and the famous oracle(oracle is a place in the sanctuary where the deity’s answer to a question was received, or this is the prophecy of the deity).

Humane, harmonious images of Greek mythology became the basis for the development of art. The mythology of the ancient Greeks had a decisive influence on the formation of ancient Roman mythology and religion; during the Renaissance it was actively included in the European cultural process. Until now, scientific, educational and aesthetic interest in it has not waned.

The science. IN ancient greek mythology one can feel the desire to give a comprehensive picture of the world, to find an explanation for everything that exists. At another ideological level, these searches were continued by scientists of Ancient Hellas. It was in ancient culture that science was first human history stands out as an independent sphere, and we can talk not just about the accumulation of scientific knowledge (which was in the hands of the priests), but about the development of professional science.

Of particular importance is the antique philosophy. In Ancient Greece, philosophy arose as a scientific theory, a system of concepts developed, related and received its original solution basic philosophical problems. One of the most important features of ancient Greek philosophy is cosmology- development of questions about the origin of the Universe, about human nature.

Tradition considers Thales of Miletus to be the first Greek philosopher, astronomer and mathematician. His name begins the list of “seven wise men”; many famous sayings are attributed to him: “Know yourself”, “The largest in all space, because he contains everything within himself”, “The strongest is necessity, for it has power over everything”, “ Time is the wisest, because it reveals everything.” Thales considered water to be the fundamental principle of all things - “reasonable and divine.” Thales stands at the origins of the demythologization of the world: he considered Zeus to be the world's mind, and the gods to be the forces acting in the world. Thales became the founder spontaneous materialist school philosophy.

In the materialist tradition belongs atomistic concept the structure of the world of Democritus (“atomos” - indivisible). In the making dialectics Heraclitus played an important role, and Socrates played an important role in the formulation and deep development of socio-ethical problems. His student Plato became the founder of the philosophical school objective idealism, one of the most influential philosophers of all time. Aristotle, the most famous encyclopedic mind in the history of mankind, in his teaching tried to combine the strengths of the views of Democritus and Plato. His teachings significantly influenced philosophical directions Middle Ages and Modern Times.

Distinctive feature philosophical works Hellenistic times is an increased attention to the individual and his problems. The philosophy of Epicurus saw its task in freeing man from the fear of death and fate; he denied the intervention of the gods in the life of nature and man, and proved the materiality of the soul. The life ideal of the philosophical school stoicism there was equanimity and calm that a person should maintain in contrast to the changing world. The Stoics considered the main virtues to be understanding (that is, knowledge of what is good and evil), courage and justice. Stoicism became especially popular in Ancient Rome.

The historical science of Ancient Greece is primarily associated with the name of Herodotus. He traveled a lot: he visited Asia Minor, Egypt, Phenicia, various cities of Balkan Greece, and the Black Sea coast. Herodotus’s main work, “History,” is dedicated to the most important political event in Greek history - the Greco-Persian Wars. Despite the fact that “History” is not always distinguished by its integrity and scientific character, the facts that are given in it are mostly reliable. The work of Herodotus is of great importance for studying the past of the peoples who lived on the territory of modern Ukraine. It was Herodotus who wrote the first systematic description of the life and everyday life of the Scythians in ancient literature.

Medical knowledge began to be generalized quite early. One of the Olympian gods, Apollo, was considered the supreme patron of medicine and the healer god. Asclepius became the god of medicine itself, and many scientists now believe that this mythological character had a historical prototype, a real, skilled doctor. Several scientific medical schools have developed in Greece, the most famous being Knidos (city of Knidos) and Koska (island of Kos). The representative of the latter was Hippocrates, who lived in the classical era. His ideas about the causes of diseases, the four temperaments, the role of prognosis in treatment, and the moral and ethical requirements for a doctor had an exceptional influence on the further development of medicine. The Hippocratic Oath is still the moral code of doctors around the world today.

The era of successful development of science was Hellenism . This stage is characterized by the emergence of new scientific centers, especially in the elinistic states in the East. The largest scientific center Hellenistic world there was Alexandria of Egypt with its Museion (“House of the Muses”) and a library that numbered more than half a million books. Outstanding scientists, poets, and artists from all over the Mediterranean came here to work.

The synthesis of the mathematical knowledge accumulated at that time can be considered the work “Elements” (or “Principles”) of Euclid, who lived in Alexandria. The postulates and axioms presented here, the deductive method of proof, have served as the basis of geometry for centuries. The name of Archimedes from the city of Syracuse is associated with the discovery of one of the basic laws of hydrostatics, the beginning of calculating infinitely large and small quantities, and a number of important technical inventions. The study of man has made significant progress. Herophilus of Chalcedon discovered nerves and established their connection with the brain, and he also suggested that human mental abilities are connected with the brain. Erasistratus studied the anatomy of the heart. This is a very incomplete list of the successes of ancient Greek science.

Education. With the development of ancient spiritual culture, the ideal of a person was gradually developed, which presupposes harmony a combination of physical and spiritual beauty. The entire system of upbringing and education, unique for its time, correlated with this ideal. It was the policies of Hellas that, for the first time in history, set the task of educating the children of the entire free population (we were talking primarily about boys). Moreover, attention was paid both to the acquisition of scientific knowledge and to physical development, to the assimilation of the moral code of a free citizen. There were private and public educational institutions. The structure of education was affected by political differences between policies. In Athens, a city with a democratic republican system, such a training system was formed. After home education, boys from the age of seven studied at a primary school called didaxaleon(from the Greek “didaktikos” - instructive). Here they studied literacy, literature, starting with Homer, music, arithmetic, and drawing. A more in-depth study of these subjects with the addition of the basics of astronomy and philosophy continued in grammar schools(ages 12 to 15 years). Physical education training was carried out simultaneously in a special complex - palestri. All of these types of educational institutions in Athens were owned by private individuals. Boys aged 16-18 completed their general education in gymnasiums. There were the following subjects: rhetoric, ethics, logic, geography, and gymnastics. The state took care of the gymnasium; monumental buildings were erected for them. Rich people considered it an honor to take the elected position of head of the gymnasium, despite the fact that it required large personal expenses. Gymnasiums were centers scientific life policy. In Athens, the Academy, where Plato conducted conversations with his students, and the Lyceum, founded by Aristotle, became famous. After the gymnasium one could become ephebe- a student of a higher educational institution, who in the Polish era was a military man, but during the Hellenistic era he changed radically and became a civilian. Circles created around prominent scientists can be considered a unique form of higher education.

In Sparta, state control over personal development was quite strict. According to legend, newborns were examined by members gerusia(city council of elders) and selected only healthy children. The frail and sickly were thrown into the abyss of the Taygetian spine. There was a system of public schooling, compulsory for every Spartiate from 8 to 20 years of age. Unlike Athens, both boys and girls studied in schools.

Literature. The very early beginning of the ancient Greek literary tradition is associated with mythology, its plots and images. The development of individual spheres of culture does not always occur evenly. Thus, in Ancient Greece, the heights of poetic creativity were reached much earlier than classical science, education and art took shape.

Around the 8th century. BC. Homer folded his big epic poems"Iliad" and "Odyssey". Most scientists believe that Homer lived in Asia Minor and was rhapsode- this is the name given to poets who recited their poems. It is difficult to say when these poems were written down. There is a point of view that the first records appeared during Homer’s lifetime. According to others, this happened later - in the 6th century. BC. Both versions relate to the history of Greek writing. Alphabet(phonetic letter) was borrowed by the Greeks from the Phoenicians in the 8th century. BC. The Greeks then even wrote like the Phoenicians: from right to left and without vowels. In the VI century. BC. Greek writing has acquired a form that is already familiar to us.

The poems are associated with the folk heroic epic dedicated to the Trojan War, which intertwined real historical events (the military campaign of the Achaean Greeks against Troy, which they called Ilion), and fantastic stories (“the apple of discord” as the cause of the war, the participation of the gods in the conflict, "Trojan horse"). However, Homer does not retell myths, but creates artistic images, depicts the inner world of heroes, the clash of characters. “The Iliad” is dedicated to one episode of the last, tenth year of the war, the anger of the most powerful and bravest of the Greek warriors, Achilles, who was offended by the leader of the Greeks, the Mycenaean king Agamemnon. Achilles refuses to participate in the battle, the Trojans break through to the ships, and Achilles's best friend, Patroclus, dies. Achilles changes his mind, enters into a duel with the main defender of Troy - the son of King Priam Hector - and kills him. The scene of the meeting between Achilles and Priam is stunning, when the king, kissing the hands of the winner, asks to give him the body of his son for burial with all honors.

“Odyssey” is the second in composition and plot. It tells about the long journey home of one of the main participants in the war, full of incredible fabulous adventures - the king of the island of Ithaca, the cunning Odysseus.

A medieval Byzantine writer gave an accurate and figurative assessment of the meaning of the “Iliad” and “Odyssey”: “Just as, in the words of Homer, all rivers and streams originate from the Ocean, so the source of any art of speech is Homer.” The Greeks not only loved Homeric poems, but worshiped them. They were known by heart and rewritten many times. They became the basis of upbringing and education.

Hesiod continued the epic tradition of Homer. In the poem “Theogony” he outlined mythological ideas about the origin of the gods and the structure of the world. In “Works and Days” for the first time he introduced personal assessments and a description of the circumstances of his own life into the epic poem. Subsequently, lyric poetry began to develop in Greece. We know the names of the poetess Sappho (sapphic stanza is a special poetic meter), Anacreon (anacreontics - lyrics glorifying the joy of life and worldly pleasures), however, the poems of these and other ancient Greek authors have survived only in fragments. Drama has emerged as an independent genre of literary creativity.

Theater. The origin of the theater is connected with the holidays in honor of the god of viticulture, Dionysus. Participants in ritual processions portrayed the retinue of Dionysus, put on goat skins, sang and danced (the word “tragedy” is translated from Greek as “song of goats”). The historical roots of the theater are evidenced by the obligatory participation in ancient Greek tragedies of the choir, with whom at first one actor conducted dialogues, later the number of actors increased to three. The combination with literary tradition in the classical era transformed theater from religious, folk performances into an independent art form.

Theatrical performances have become an integral part of public holidays - Dionysius and Lineus. Grandiose stone theaters were built for them, designed for thousands of spectators (the Theater of Dionysus in Athens and the amphitheater in Epidaurus have been preserved). City leaders found chorega(the person who provided financing), the order of showing comedies and tragedies was determined by lot. Poor people received money for admission. The actors were only men; they played in special masks. The director was the poet himself. After the end of the performances, which lasted for several days from morning to evening, special judges determined the best and awarded prizes.

The most famous playwrights are the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Unfortunately, most of the dramatic works have been lost. Only seven plays by Aeschylus (wrote 90 plays, won 13 times in drama competitions), seven by Sophocles (written 123 tragedies, of which 24 won), a little more - 17 - by Euripides (108 plays, 4 victories) have been completely preserved.

Aeschylus in historical play“Persians” glorifies the victory of the Greeks in the war against the invaders, in which, by the way, he himself took part. Other plays written with mythological stories. The authors interpreted them quite freely and expressed their own views. Aeschylus in the tragedy “Prometheus Bound” admires the courage and love of freedom of the titan.

Sophocles introduced psychological motivations for the actions of the heroes. For example, in Antigone main character sacrifices himself, but fulfills his moral duty: contrary to the king’s prohibition, he buries his dead brother. It is in this tragedy that the chorus sounds with the famous refrain: “There are many great forces in the world, but there is nothing stronger in nature than man.”

Euripides, the youngest of the three great playwrights, already lived in an era of crisis, civil wars, and external danger that was growing from Macedonia. All this was reflected in his work (“Medea”, “Hippolytus”). Aristotle called Euripides “the most tragic of poets.”

Aristophanes (“Clouds,” “Wasps,” “Frogs”) is deservedly considered a master of comedy. Dramatic works of the ancient Greeks still remain in the repertoire of many theaters; they have been filmed several times.

Music occupied an important place in the life of the Hellenes. There were special collegiums (associations) of singers, musicians, and dancers. The music was unanimous, the choir sang in unison. Common musical instruments were the lyre and flute.

Architecture. In the ancient Greek city policies, a system of regular city planning developed, with a rectangular network of streets, a square - the center of trade and public life. The cult and architectural-compositional core of the city was the temple, which was built on the top acropolis- a high and fortified part of the city.

The Hellenes developed a completely different type of temple than ancient Eastern civilizations - open, bright. He glorified man, not caused fear. It is characteristic that architecture contains a human metrical principle. A mathematical analysis of the proportions of the temples proved that they correspond to the proportions of the human figure. The classical Greek temple was rectangular in plan, surrounded on all sides by a colonnade. The roof was built with a gable roof. Triangular planes that were formed from the facade - gables, as a rule, they were decorated with sculptures.

A characteristic feature of Greek architecture is purity and unity of style. Three main architectural designs have been developed warrants("order" - translated from Greek as “order”) - they differ in the types of columns and ceilings, proportions, decorative decoration. The Dorian and Ionic styles arose during the polis period. The most elegant ones - the Corinthian order - appeared during Hellenistic times.

The most perfect architectural ensemble Classical Greece is the Acropolis of Athens. It was built in the second half of the 5th century. BC, during the period of greatest power of Athens. The rock of the Acropolis, which rises 150 m above sea level, has long been a fortress, and then the location of the main religious buildings. However, during the Persian attack, the ancient temples were destroyed. After the victory, Pericles initiated a grandiose reconstruction of the Acropolis. The work was supervised by Pericles' personal friend, the outstanding sculptor Phidias.

A characteristic feature of this complex is its extraordinary harmony, which is explained by the unity of design and the speed of construction (about 40 years). The main entrance to the Acropolis - Propylaea - was built by the architect Mnesikles. Later, a small temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Nike) was built in front of them on an artificially enlarged rock ledge - a symbol that the goddess of victory would never leave the city.

The main temple of the Acropolis is the white marble Parthenon - the temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). Its architects Iktin and Kallikrat conceived and designed the building so proportionately that it certainly stands out as the most majestic building of the complex, but its size does not “press” on others. In ancient times, in the center of the Acropolis, on a pedestal in golden vestments, stood the grandiose figure of Pallas Athena (Warrior Athena) by Phidias.

The Erechtheion is a temple dedicated to Poseidon, who, according to myth, argued with Athena for the right to patronize the city. The most famous portico of the caryatids in this temple. Portico called a gallery open on one side, supported by columns, and in the Erechtheion the columns are replaced by six marble figures of caryatid girls. We can still repeat after the Roman historian Plutarch, who wrote about the construction of the Acropolis: “...their eternal novelty saved them from the touch of time.”

The architecture of Hellenistic city-states continued Greek traditions, but more attention was paid to public construction - the architecture of theaters, gymnasiums, and palaces of Hellenic rulers. The construction of such famous “wonders of the world” as the tomb of King Mausolus in Halicarnassus and the Pharos lighthouse at the entrance to the Alexandria harbor dates back to this time.

art. The favorite form of art of the Hellenes was sculpture. Statues of gods were placed in temples and city squares, built for the winners of the Olympic Games and great playwrights.

The acquisition, very gradual, of perfection in this art form dates back to archaic times. Archaeologists have found dozens of very similar friends on each other archaic statues of two types: the so-called Kuroshi- statues of naked youths and bark- female statues. These figures still look very constrained; so far only attempts to convey living movement can be seen.

The era of ancient Greek classics gave the world masterpieces of sculpture that humanity never ceases to admire. Contemporaries were the great masters Phidias, Myron, and Polykleitos. Phidias was called “the creator of the gods.” His main works have not reached us; we can judge them only from enthusiastic descriptions and mediocre copies. The statue of Zeus, lined with gold and ivory, in the main temple of Zeus at Olympia was classified by contemporaries as one of the seven wonders of the world. He also created outstanding bas-reliefs and sculptures of the Parthenon, including the main statue - Athena Parthenos (Athena-Virgin).

Myron reached heights in his desire to convey human movement in a sculptural image. In his famous “Discoball”, for the first time in art, the problem of conveying the moment of transition from one movement to another was solved, staticity was overcome. At the same time, according to the general aesthetic ideal, the sculptor depicts the athlete’s face as absolutely calm.

Poliklet owns a series of statues of athletes - winners of the Olympic Games. The most famous figure is “Doriphoros” (a young man with a spear). Polykleitos theoretically summarized the experience of his mastery in the treatise “Canon”.

The greatest creator of female sculptural images was Praxiteles. His “Aphrodite of Knidos” has many imitations. The famous “Aphrodite de Milo” by an unknown artist also belongs to this tradition. The proportionality of classical sculptures became a model for masters of many eras.

The era of the conquests of Alexander the Great, the subsequent collapse of his empire, is full of passions, ups and downs human destinies entire states, brought a new atmosphere to art. If we compare the sculptures of the Hellenistic era with the previous one, classical period, then their appearance lost equanimity and calm. Artists began to be interested in the spiritual impulses of people, their state in tragic moments (for example, the sculptural group “Laocoon”). Sculptural portraits appear that convey individual features. The work of Lysippos was bright (a sculptural portrait of Alexander the Great has reached us). Advances in science have expanded the technical capabilities of art. One of the “seven wonders” of the world is the Colossus of Rhodes, which was a bronze statue of the sun god Helios (the height of the colossus was about 35 m).

Picturesque works (frescoes, paintings) have not survived, but the magnificent vazovy painting. With the improvement of ceramic technology, the artistic level also grew: archaic art is characterized by the so-called black-figured style images (dark figures were drawn on a light background), in the classical era appeared chervonofigurny style, which made the image more realistic.

With the political and military defeat of Greece and the Hellenistic states from the Roman state, the ancient cultural tradition was not interrupted; its new stage began.

3. Culture of Ancient Rome

The culture of Ancient Rome is the second stage of ancient culture. The influence of the culture of Ancient Greece on Rome is beyond doubt. The ancient Greek historian, author of the fundamental 40-volume “General History” Polybius, who lived in Rome for 16 years, emphasized one of the features of ancient Roman culture: “The Romans, it turns out, are better than any other people at changing their habits and borrowing useful things.” But at the same time, Roman culture did not copy Greek, it developed, deepened what was achieved, and also introduced its own national traits - practicality, discipline, adherence to a strict system. The greatest conquerors of antiquity - the Romans, conquering various peoples, absorbed them cultural achievements, but at the same time retained their “home” customs. The dynamism of Roman culture is as essential a feature as traditionalism. The interaction of these two principles determined both its viability and its enormous role for the subsequent cultural history of Europe, especially Western.

Periodization. The periods in the development of ancient Roman culture very clearly correspond to three main stages of political history: tsarist, republican period And period of the empire.

Traditionally, the history of Ancient Rome begins in the 8th century. BC, from the legendary date of the founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus in 753 BC. By the 6th century BC. Rome was a polis led by kings. Neighboring peoples had a great cultural influence on the Romans, especially the mysterious Etruscans (the origin of this people is unclear, because their writing remains unclear). From them the Romans borrowed most of the letters of their alphabet, construction techniques, and some rituals (for example, gladiator fights). The symbol of Rome is a bronze statue of a she-wolf, made by an Etruscan master. Etruska was the last of the royal dynasties.

After the expulsion of the king, power passes to the people's assemblies, the Senate and the election of two consuls. IN republic period(VI-I centuries BC) Rome conquered all of Italy, defeated Carthage and conquered Greece. The Greeks become teachers of their conquerors, the Greek influence on Roman culture dominates: Greek philosophy and literature are studied, knowledge of the Greek language becomes mandatory for an educated person, Greek sculptures are copied.

The internal crisis of the republican system, the transformation of the army into a professional one, and the change in the role of military leaders entail civil wars. Gaius Julius Caesar proclaimed himself emperor. After the assassination of Caesar and a fierce struggle, his nephew Octavian Augustus came to power. His reign begins imperial period(I century BC - V century AD). The accumulated cultural potential, political stability, and enormous material wealth determine the rise of Roman culture. Conquered eastern peoples also make their contribution to the culture of Rome, their influence is especially felt in the religious sphere. Rome did not experience military failures for a long time, but internal contradictions weakened it, at the end of the 4th century. AD The Roman Empire is divided into Western and Eastern. In 476, Rome was destroyed by barbarians, and this event is considered the end of the history of Ancient Rome and ancient history in general.

Religion. The religion of the Romans of ancient times was based mainly on the idea of internal forces, characteristic of individual objects and people, based on the belief in spirits - guardians and patrons of places, actions, states. These included geniuses(good spirits that protected a person during his life), Penates(guards and deputies of the native home, and then of the entire Roman people, this is where the well-known expression originates - “return to one’s native land,” that is, return to one’s homeland, home). They also believed in the deities of mountains, springs, and forests. These spirits and deities were initially impersonal and genderless, often called both masculine and feminine (Janus and Yana, Faun and Faun). Sacrifices were made to these deities and religious ceremonies were dedicated to them. Great importance was given to various kinds of fortune-telling (by the flight of birds, by the entrails of animals, etc.).

Under the influence of the Italian tribes, the god Saturn, the supreme god Jupiter, Juno and Minerva appeared. U plebeians(the lowest stratum of citizens) had its own trinity of deities: Ceres (goddess of cereals), Liber (god of winegrowers) and Libera. The transgallonian gods were Mars (god of war), Diana (goddess of the Moon), Fortuna (goddess of happiness, success), Venus (goddess of spring and gardens, then love and beauty). Some gods were revered mainly by people of one class or profession (merchants revered Mercury, artisans revered Minerva). The Romans did not have their own developed mythology. With the strengthening of Greek influence, there was a certain rapprochement of the Roman gods with the Greek ones and the borrowing of Greek mythology (Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Athena - Minerva, Asclepius - Aesculapius, etc.). Eastern cults also penetrated Rome - Isis, Osiris, Cybele, the dying and resurrecting god Mithras.

A characteristic feature of the worldview of the ancient Romans was the mythologization of their history. If there were practically no plot stories about the gods, then the founding of Rome was told by the myth of the brothers Romulus and Remus, who at first miraculously remained alive after a conspiracy against their father and were then suckled by a she-wolf. Since ancient times, stories have been passed down about the military valor and patriotism of the Romans. One of them is about Gaius Mutsia, nicknamed Scaevola (Left-handed). During the Etruscan siege of Rome, he sneaked into the enemy camp and tried to kill the king, but was captured. To show the enemy the fortitude of the Roman spirit, Gaius Mucius himself laid right hand into the fire of the lamp and burned it without uttering a sound. The stunned Etruscans released Mucius and lifted the siege. Later, grandiose triumphs were organized in honor of Rome's military victories, and generals became objects of cult. The Roman people considered themselves chosen, and their state as one of the highest values. At the empire stage, the cult of the emperor as a living god was formed.

The emergence of Christianity. As the general crisis of the Roman Empire grew, so did the crisis of traditional religion. As a result of a complex synthesis of Eastern religions and cults, primarily Judaism, Platonic and Hellenistic philosophy (in particular Stoicism) and social utopias, a new religion arises - Christianity. From Judaism- the national monotheistic religion of the Jewish people - that part of the Bible called the Old Testament - a collection of ancient sacred texts - came to Christianity. It took shape during the 1st millennium BC. and contains a presentation of mythological systems and plots, historical legends, religious journalism and parables, philosophical and moralistic works and love lyrics, examples of religious mysticism.

What is the content of the new religion - Christianity? If we try to put it briefly, it is the belief that two thousand years ago God came to our world - he was born, took the name Jesus, preached, suffered and died on the cross as a man. The holy book of Christians was the Bible, which included the Old Testament and the New Testament. New Testament contains: 4 gospel(translated from Greek “gospel” - good news) - from Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, which describe earthly life Jesus Christ; Acts of the Holy Apostles (disciples of Christ); Council Epistles of the Holy Apostles; The Epistles of the Apostle Paul and the Revelation of John the Theologian, or the Apocalypse. The experience, embodied and recorded in the Bible, enriched folk wisdom and influenced the development of literature, fine arts, and philosophical thought.

Modern historical science proceeds from the fact that the Gospel stories about Jesus have an undoubted historical basis. Most historians agree that Jesus (who was born in 4 BC) was a real-life ascetic and preacher who lived in Judea and heroically suffered martyrdom for his faith and truth. Most of the apostles - the closest disciples of Christ (Peter, Andrew, John, Paul, etc.) are also considered historical (i.e., those who really existed) personalities. Following the example of their Teacher, the apostles were not supposed to own property, they were not allowed to stay in one place for more than one or two days and take anything with them on the road except bread.

Christ preached the two greatest commandments in the law,” in which the entire spirit and meaning of true faith is concentrated. The first of them: “...thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind...”, the second: “thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; on these two commandments the whole law is established...” (Gospel of Matthew. 22.37; 39-40).

Leading in early Christianity the idea of ​​equality of people before God was a unique form of protest of the conquered and oppressed. The new religion, which first spread among the lower classes of society in the eastern provinces, experienced severe persecution. The first mentions of Christians in Roman sources date back to the reign of Emperor Nero (1st century AD), when they were accused of setting fire to Rome and carried out a mass execution. Gradually, Christianity wins more and more supporters, and the top clergy enters into an alliance with the authorities. Emperor Constantine I at the beginning of the 4th century. AD recognized Christianity as an equal religion, and at the end of the 4th century. Emperor Theodosius I banned all pagan rituals, that is, Christianity became the state religion.

System of upbringing and education. Family education played a special role in the Romans. Children were raised in the spirit of respect for the beliefs and customs of their ancestors and unquestioning submission to their father's authority. A true citizen among the Romans is an obedient son and a disciplined warrior. Ancient legislation provided for strict punishment for violation of parental will, and the state religion with its adoration of civil and military virtue acted in the same direction. In the 5th century BC. appeared elementary(translated from Latin - basic) schools, where mainly children of free citizens studied. Subjects - Latin and Greek languages, writing, reading and counting. Later, home education became widespread among noble and wealthy families. In the II century. BC. arose grammatical And rhetorical schools, which were also only available to the children of wealthy Romans. Rhetorical schools were unique institutions of higher education (oratory, law, philosophy, poetry). Gradually, lawyer-teachers formed fairly stable groups, which were called “departments.” The departments of rhetoric and philosophy, medicine and architecture are designed according to the same principle. Several higher schools appeared in the 2nd century. AD (Rome, Athens). Students who came to receive education from different parts of the Roman Empire united into fraternities - “choirs”.

During the republican period, education was private, and the state did not interfere with it. However, during the empire, the state began to control the education system. Teachers became paid government employees. In accordance with the size of each city, the number of rhetoricians and grammarians was established. Teachers enjoyed a number of privileges, and in the 4th century. AD all teacher candidates were subject to approval by the emperor. This system had both positive and negative consequences.

The science. The Romans were able to master and process the potential accumulated by science in different countries and, developing it, achieve significant results, especially in those branches of knowledge where the practical application of scientific achievements was possible.

Roman philosophy was most strongly affected by Greek influence; not a single original direction developed here. First of all, moral and ethical teachings gained popularity. It became almost the official doctrine of the Roman state stoicism, who saw the purpose of philosophy as showing the path to happiness. An outstanding representative of this trend was Seneca. He played a significant political role under Emperor Nero, but his career ended tragically. Suspecting Seneca's participation in the conspiracy, Nero forced the philosopher to commit suicide. Seneca primarily developed problems of practical morality: overcoming the fear of death, the importance of restraint, the ethical equality of people, the existence of fate. The philosophical development of such a range of ideas allows us to consider the teachings of Seneca one of the sources of Christian ethics.

A notable contribution of Roman science was the creation of a number of encyclopedic works that systematized the knowledge accumulated in various fields. Thus, the basic ideas of ancient materialistic thought about atoms, the mortality of the soul, the independence of nature from the will of the gods are taught by Titus Lucretius Carus in the scientific and educational poem “On the Nature of Things.” He, in particular, formulates the fundamental ideas of the connection between movement and time, the conservation of matter (“nothing can arise from nothing and return to complete nothingness”), the infinity of the world (“The Universe really is not closed in one direction by a single boundary... I must admit that which has no end, no matter which way it spreads, the universe."

The classic work on geography belongs to Strabo, who collected in his “Geography” all existing information about countries and peoples - from Britain to India. Ptolemy, summarizing astronomical observations, developed a geocentric model of the world, according to which the Sun and other planets revolve around the Earth, which is spherical. This model remained dominant until modern times. The main figure of ancient medicine and the unquestioned authority over the next millennium was Galen, who studied the nervous system and the spinal cord. Galen owns the first concept of blood circulation in the history of science.

Considering the special attitude of the Romans to their state, the exceptional role of historical science in Ancient Rome is clear. Historians often became people who held high social status and took an active part in political life. Historical works belong to Julius Caesar (“Notes on Gallic War"). Close to Octavian Augustus was Titus Livius, whose works are almost the only source for the study of the early periods in the history of Rome. Tacitus painted a picture of Roman history during the empire, giving significant space to the barbarian tribes that attacked Rome, mentioning, among others, Venedov(one of the names of Slavic tribes in the old days). One of the most popular historians of the world remains Plutarch, who chose the genre historical portrait. His works are still published large editions, are read. In Comparative Lives, he finds parallels in Greek and Roman history by examining the biographies of famous people.

The exceptionally significant and original contribution of Ancient Rome to the world scientific tradition is the creation jurisprudence. Roman law is necessarily included in the curriculum of all modern higher educational institutions that train lawyers. The first laws were written down during the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians in the early republic and embodied the victory of equal political rights for all citizens of Rome. As a result, the so-called “Laws of the 12 Tables” appeared, which laid the foundations of Roman legislation. An important contribution to the development of jurisprudence was made by Marcus Tullius Cicero, an outstanding speaker, author of works on the philosophy of state, and a consistent supporter of democratic government. After the assassination of Caesar, he tried to recreate the republic, but in vain.

Rome had a clear judicial system . During the late Republic and Empire, when laws were frequently changed, there was a need to inform citizens about the laws that were being passed. For Julius Caesar, a plaster board with messages about military victories and government acts and decisions - “Daily Gazette of the Roman People” (a kind of prototype of newspapers) was displayed in the central square. Copies were sent throughout the state to all provinces.

Literary tradition. A very special role belongs to the Latin language in the world cultural tradition. The scale of the Roman conquests turned it into a language of interethnic communication for all conquered peoples from Spain to Mesopotamia. On the basis of the so-called “folk Latin” many modern European languages ​​arose: Italian, Spanish, French, English. Subsequently, Latin remained for a long time in Europe the language of literature and science, and in medicine it has not lost this role today. Catholic worship is conducted in Latin.

The peculiarity of the development of Latin lies in the fact that for a long time this speech was improved not in artistic creativity, but primarily in political sphere: in speeches by speakers in the Senate and at trials, in lawmaking, in political journalism. The figurativeness of the language is evidenced by many aphorisms that are still alive today: “Carthage must be destroyed” (Cato), “I came, I saw, I conquered” (Julius Caesar), “Until, Catiline, will you test our patience?” (Cicero) and many others. Cicero, who considered himself primarily a politician, was essentially the creator of Latin literary prose. The style of his speeches, letters, and philosophical works became exemplary. We see a kind of continuation of this tradition in fiction: it was in Ancient Rome that the prose novel first appeared. The most popular was the satirical novel “Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass” by Apuleius.

The poetry of Ancient Rome did not have its own national tradition. It begins to actively develop only under the influence of Greek literature, at the end of the republican period. The work of Catullus played a turning point. Its main theme is not the Roman state, not the Roman people, but personal experiences, feelings and thoughts. He creates a cycle of lyrical poems, most of which convey the dramatic fractures of a relationship with a woman, published under the poetic pseudonym Lesbia. Unlike epic poems, when reading his poems you practically do not feel any temporal distance.

The reign of Octavian Augustus is often called the “golden age” of Roman literature. Contemporaries were three major Roman poets - Virgil, Horace and Ovid. The most famous work of Roman literature was Virgil’s poem “The Aeneid.” Virgil brilliantly solved a very difficult creative task. The fact is that the Aeneid is literary epic, that is, it does not have a folk oral basis, being completely created by the poet. In addition, the poem immediately became an integral part of the Roman state ideology - the poet wrote for the political order of the emperor. Briefly the content of the poem is as follows. Aeneas is the son of King Anchises and the goddess Venus, one of the defenders of Troy after its fall, sets sail on a ship, wanders for a long time and finally, fulfilling the will of the gods, arrives in Italy and becomes the ancestor of the Roman people. From him comes the Julian family, to which Octavian Augustus belonged. Virgil's command of the expressive means of language is considered unsurpassed. V. Bryusov wrote that “for a poet, reading the Aeneid in the original is a continuous series of bewilderments... before the power of man over the element of words.” There are many translations of the poem into modern languages. We may recall that the formation of the modern Ukrainian literary language began with the authorized “Aeneid” by Ivan Kotlyarevsky.

Horace and Ovid were lyric poets. Horace's work is imbued with an understanding of the role of the poet in society. These thoughts sounded especially clearly in the ode “monument”. Before this story, Horace was addressed by A.S. Pushkin (“I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...”), others.

The fate of Ovid was difficult. His collection “The Art of Love” brought him enormous popularity and accusations of immorality. Then he turned to classical plots - “Metamorphoses” (“Transformations”) - a poetic reworking of myths, the plot of which contains miraculous transformations. For reasons that are not entirely clear, probably political, Ovid was exiled to the Black Sea region, from where he wrote the melancholy “Letters from Pontus” (the Greek name for the Black Sea is Pont Euxine).

In Roman times, many new products appeared in the book business. In addition to papyrus, writing material was invented in the Asia Minor city of Pergamum - in a special way treated leather - parchment. In addition to scroll books, codices appeared, which from modern books They differed only in the way the sheets were fastened. Libraries as repositories of documents and books have existed for a long time, but libraries for public use arose in Rome. It is interesting that these libraries provided quite isolated places to work, since in those days people only read aloud.

Art. For practical Romans, art was one of the means of rational organization of life, hence - leading place architecture. In architecture, the Romans combined Etruscan and Greek traditions and oriental elements. The Romans diversified their building materials: they used very durable limestone mortar and invented concrete. Roman architects and builders perfectly mastered and very widely used the arched structure; vaults and domes became its development.

The centers of political and cultural life in cities were forums(literal meaning - market square). Here, in the early stages, public meetings were held, main temples and other public buildings were erected (most of them were basilicas- rectangular in plan, divided by transverse walls into several halls, translated - “royal house”). Already in the Republican era, of course, the Roman Forum surpassed everyone. Julius Caesar began the tradition of building forums with each new emperor (Forum of Augustus, Forum of Trajan). Part of the forums were memorial structures that glorified the victories of Roman arms, outstanding generals, and then emperors: triumphal arches And columns(the most famous is Trajan's Column).

As before, religious construction was important. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans most often placed a colonnade only in front of the front side of the temple. Temples that were round in plan were often built - rotundas(from Latin - round). They developed their own versions of the Dorian, Ionian and Corinthian orders, and their use was not as strict as the Greeks. As the power of Rome grew, the temples, at first rather modest, became richer and more beautiful.

The architectural and engineering thought of Ancient Rome received its highest embodiment in the Pantheon - the temple of all gods, built in the 2nd century. AD, probably by Apollodorus of Damascus. The temple is a rotunda, the entrance to which is decorated with a portico. The dome of this temple, cast from concrete, exceeds 40 m in diameter (in size it remained unsurpassed in Europe until the 19th century). People of antiquity perceived the dome as a symbol of the sky - the embodiment of the supreme god Jupiter. In this regard, a special role was played by the only hole located at the highest point of the dome. The column of light that penetrated through it became the center of the composition. The perimeter of the temple and its height are almost the same; such proportions “enlarge” the room. In ancient times, statues of gods stood in the niches around the hall. Is very rich interior decoration various types of marble, which have been fully preserved to this day. For the first time in world architecture, in this temple the main role is given not to the external appearance, but to the creation of a special internal atmosphere.

In Ancient Rome, a number of completely new types of structures were created. This is first of all amphitheatres. The largest is the Flavian Amphitheater or Colosseum (1st century AD). Seats for 50 thousand spectators rested on a structure whose façade looked like a three-tier arcade. The ellipse-shaped arena was equipped with a complex system of underground technical rooms. An important part of the Roman way of life was baths, which served not only as baths, but also cultural centers, places of meeting, relaxation. During the era of the empire, the baths became huge structures with interior decoration that were not inferior to palaces. In addition to rooms with cold and hot pools, they included rooms for recreation, for physical exercise, and sometimes libraries. Multi-storey residential buildings are appearing in poor urban areas for the first time - insulins.

The Romans and their technical structures were glorified. A network of magnificent stone-paved roads connected all parts of the huge state. The ancient Appian Way, which led to Rome, is still in use today. The Romans borrowed from the East and perfected the arched design of bridges. Cities were necessarily equipped with a complex water supply system. A symbol of the power and wealth of Rome was the flowing water that flowed in Roman street fountains. Water pipelines were both underground and above ground. In ground water pipelines - aqueducts- ceramic pipes were placed on a high arcade. Underground canals were built for dirty water.

Fine art had its own characteristics. If Greek sculpture became famous primarily for generalized images that personified human beauty, then in Rome the genre of psychological sculptural portrait acquired significant development. Its sources were: a special cult of the family (in Latin - “surname”), ancestors among the Romans, on the one hand, and on the other - a new perception of the individual, his role in history. Art “revitalizes” history, leaving a portrait gallery of its main characters: Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Octavian and others.

Fresco painting and mosaics - realistic, with a rich range of colors, conveying the volume and depth of space - became known after the excavations of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, destroyed during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. This tragedy, which brought death to people, preserved the life of works of art. Excavations here began in the 18th century and continue to this day. We learned about picturesque portraits after archaeological finds in the Fayum oasis in Egypt, where it developed funeral rite, which united the eastern and Western traditions. Portraits of the dead were painted on boards (sometimes fabrics) on a wax basis, which amaze with their grace, as well as the accuracy of conveying not only the appearance, but also the inner world of a person.

The emergence of theatrical art in Rome is associated with harvest festivals. The original Roman theatrical genre was mimes- everyday comic scenes that included dialogues, singing, music and dancing (a kind of prototype of modern operetta). Later comedies and tragedies began to be classified as Greek model. Roman actors came from freedmen or slaves. They occupied, as a rule, a low social position. For the first time, professional acting troupes and chamber (for a small number of spectators) theatrical performances appeared in Rome.

Circus performances and gladiator fights were very popular in Rome, especially during the period of decline, which indicated the degradation of theatrical culture.

In antiquity, in comparison with ancient civilizations, a fundamental step forward was taken regarding the position of man in society, understanding artistic creativity- consists of humanistic tradition. The difference lies in the degree of influence on other peoples of antiquity, and in the fact that the culture of Greece and Rome was never forgotten and directly influenced the further development of culture.

Despite all the unity of ancient culture, its Greek and Roman stages have their own characteristics. The political and religious thinking, philosophical and legal views, literature and art of Western Europe were more strongly influenced by Rome. In the cultural tradition of Eastern Europe, including Ukraine, Greek influence was leading through the mediation of Byzantium. In antiquity, phenomena arose that in further stages would become decisive in culture, especially the Christian religion.

Of course, Greek and Roman cultures are very similar. But at the same time, there were many significant differences between these two civilizations. This was primarily due to the complexity of communication over long distances, which greatly limited the interaction of the two cultures.

In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society took shape. Its distinctive feature was the combination of an emerging sense of collectivism and an agonistic (competitive) principle. How to form a policy special type communities, which replaced the loose associations of the “heroic” era, gave rise to a new, polis morality - collectivist at its core, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the polis was impossible. The military organization of the polis also contributed to the development of this morality. The highest valor of a citizen consisted in the defense of his polis: “It is sweet to lose your life, among the valiant warriors, to a brave man in battle for the sake of his fatherland” - these words of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus perfectly expressed the mentality of this era, characterizing the system of values ​​that prevailed then. Religion also experienced a certain transformation. The formation of a single Greek world, with all its local features, entailed the creation of a pantheon common to all Greeks.

The forums of Rome were especially luxurious. The emperors added a number of new ones to the ancient forum of the republic. The most magnificent was the Forum of Trajan. No less magnificent were the “altar of peace,” erected by Augustus, and the mausoleum of Augustus, a large domed temple to “all gods” - the “Pantheon,” built by Agrippa and then rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian.

Gradually, an ideology and a system of values ​​of Roman citizens took shape. It was determined primarily by patriotism - the idea of ​​​​the special chosenness of God of the Roman people and the very fate of the victories destined for them, of Rome as highest value, about the duty of a citizen to serve him with all his might, not sparing his strength and life. Politics, war, agriculture, and the development of law were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. The early culture of Rome was formed on this basis. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, were accepted only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values ​​and were processed in accordance with it.

Thus, we can conclude that the ancient Roman and ancient Greek civilizations are very similar to each other. In some cases, their cultures can even be considered as one common Greco-Roman culture. Developing under the influence of early civilization, the culture of antiquity made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. The monuments of architecture and sculpture that have reached us, masterpieces of painting and poetry, are evidence of a high level of cultural development. They have significance not only as works of art, but also social and moral significance.

Most likely, Greek culture had a greater influence on the development of Roman culture due to the fact that it developed in an earlier period of time, and Roman culture seemed to inherit its features, it was their logical development and, of course, added many new signs and features to it. Therefore, when considering Roman culture, one can often say that its described features are also inherent in Greek culture.

On the basis of ancient culture, categories of scientific thinking first appeared and began to develop; the contribution of antiquity to the development of astronomy and theoretical mathematics was great. That is why ancient philosophy and science played such an important role in the emergence of modern science and the development of technology. In general, the culture of antiquity was the basis for the further development of world culture.

Of course, in such a small work it is impossible to fully describe the rich cultural heritage of Greece and Rome; we can only talk about the main features of these two cultures.

Ancient (or ancient) Greece was the cradle of European civilization and culture. It was here that those material, spiritual, aesthetic values ​​were laid down, which to one degree or another found their development among almost all European peoples.

Ancient Greece still arouses keen interest among researchers. Friedrich Nietzsche made an important contribution to the study of its culture. He wrote that two principles coexisted there: Apollonian (harmonious) and Dionysian (spontaneous, wild).

The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural eras:

• - Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean (III - II millennium BC),
• - Homeric (XI - IX centuries BC),
• - archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC),
• - classical (V - IV centuries BC),
• - Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st centuries BC).

The earliest period in the history of Ancient Greece is called Crete-Mycenaean. On the island of Crete and Mycenae, states were formed that were in many ways similar to eastern despotisms. They were radically different from the Ancient Greece that we are used to imagining, with its city-states.

Even then people revered Zeus. The double ax occupied an important place in their cult. Scientists are not sure whether she was an object of worship in herself, or whether she personified some kind of deity. The palace of the kings of Crete was called the “Labyrinth,” which, according to some hypotheses, means “house of the double axe.” In addition to the double ax, perhaps in those days they also revered the double shield.

The cult of animals was widespread. This is evidenced by numerous images of animals, birds and snakes. There are also indications that there were cults of the sun, stones, and trees.

The main characteristics of the Cretan-Mycenaean period are the presence of a “palace culture”, strict centralization of the economic, religious and military-political spheres of life. During that period, powerful, fortified citadel palaces were created. These were enormous architectural complexes.

At the head of the citadel was a priest-king, whose main task was to preserve and maintain sacred order. Communal settlements were built nearby, some buildings stood apart from the main complex. The duties of the king also included the functions of the supreme military commander, who ensured the protection of settlements.

The second stage in the development of ancient Greek culture begins with the fall of the centralized systems of Crete and Mycenae. A strong earthquake caused the death of civilization on Crete. Mycenae fell to the invading barbarians. The inhabitants of Crete and Mycenae are called Achaean Greeks. They created a high civilization, which, like many others, was destroyed after the invasion of the more primitive tribes of the Dorians and Ionians.

The early religion of these peoples is similar in many ways to other early religions. First of all, it should be said about the agricultural cult. The goddess of fertility was Demeter. There were also cults associated with hunting (trade). People worshiped Artemis, Zeus, and read Medea's spells. For this period, the concept of the divine origin of professions - technology - is important.

The ancient Greeks had little faith in magic. Only harmful magic has spread quite widely among them. This magic assumed divine help (primarily Hecate), and therefore was closer to prayers than to witchcraft rituals. The Greeks also believed in healing gods. The main one was Asclepius; Hercules, Pan, Apollo, Dionysus, Demeter, other gods, and nymphs also performed treatment.

The destruction of the palace-citadel led to a change in the role of the king-priest, and the very concept of “anax”, i.e. “king”, disappeared. Basileus is not a king, but a representative of the highest nobility.

For the Homeric era, military valor becomes important. Achieving fame is fundamental. Competition (agonistics) played a significant role in culture.

Heroes are judged in terms of their valor (arete). The assessment can be either positive or negative, this is determined by the hero’s behavior in battle. Depending on the valor demonstrated, we can talk about honor (tim). A person of high honor receives not only spiritual, but also material encouragement, most of the trophies, social status, and respect. A person and society are connected by such a concept as shame (aidos). Valor, honor and shame constitute the norms of the Greek of Homeric times.

And one more very important feature that A.N. noted. Chanyshev: “... Homeric heroes,... knowing that their cause is doomed to failure, moreover, knowing about their imminent death, act as if they were immortal and confident in their triumph.”

The Archaic era follows Homeric time and dates back to the 8th-6th centuries. BC. At this time, there is a reassessment of values ​​and moral standards. Hesiod in his work “Works and Days” presents a new look at moral values, calls for listening to good advice and knowing various crafts.

At the end of Homeric time everything higher value acquires a mountainous region in the southeast of Central Asia called Attica. Here they formed favorable conditions for agriculture - in its western part there were fertile lands. Rich reserves of silver, marble and clay contributed to the development of crafts. The shores of Attica were convenient for anchoring ships. On the plain was the city of Athens, which was destined to play a large role in the life of the Greeks. However, despite the good natural conditions, crop failures still occurred there. Peasants, having taken a loan from a noble person, placed a debt stone in their field, on which the names of the debtor and creditor and the deadline for repaying the debt were carved.

Attica was ruled by a council of elders and 9 elected archons. Thanks to its convenient geographical location, trade developed rapidly. In the VI century. BC. In Athens, silver coins began to be issued, on which the image of the head of the goddess Athena was minted. The entire free population was called “demos”: peasants, sailors, farm laborers, etc. It also included those who managed to get rich as a result of their activities - merchants, shipowners. But even they, despite their money, initially could not take part in management.

The formation of Greek democracy is associated with the emergence and strengthening of poleis (VIII-VII centuries BC) and the struggle of the demos against the aristocracy. The struggle ended in the 7th century. BC. and led to the publication of written laws. “Legalization of custom” was of great importance. The arbitrariness of the clan nobility was limited, and in connection with this, the very concept of legal consciousness changed. “If previously custom was considered a divine institution and was called themis, now custom, freed from divine sanction, has turned into a human institution - nomos (law, legal regulation), into a legal norm subject to discussion.”

At the end of the 6th century. BC. the so-called court of shards (ostracism) is established. This measure was introduced to avoid the possibility of tyranny arising in Athens. The main goal was to “pacify and curb” pride and power.

Of particular note are the reforms of Solon (c. 640-560 BC). In 594 BC. At his proposal, important changes were made in government. Solon was one of the first to pass a law according to which all debts were forgiven and it was forbidden to give money as collateral for the body. He repealed many previous laws. As a result, it became impossible to enslave the Athenians; the demos gained the right to take part in government. Solon also assessed the property of citizens. After Solon's reforms, the council of the Areopagus consisted of archons, who changed annually. A second council was created, which included 100 people from each of the four phyla. This council conducted preliminary discussions on matters before they reached the People's Assembly.

Solon was not only a legislator, but also a poet. In the elegies “Testament to Self” and “Testament to the Athenians,” he denounces the dishonest methods of struggle that people used to acquire wealth.

The reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes (509 BC) not only laid the foundations of a democratic system, but strengthened the idea of ​​nomos. Legal norms can now be discussed, changed and even replaced by others that are more consistent with the changes that have occurred or are occurring in society. Discussion of laws turns into discussion of traditions, which are reinterpreted into critically. Previously, it was possible to simply refer to the will of the gods, rely on the power of traditions and the covenants of the fathers. Now anyone who wanted to achieve something had to take into account many circumstances. It was necessary to take into account the balance of power in the People's Assembly, the mood of citizens, the situation in international relations etc. The ability to convince oneself that one is right becomes very important.

The Greeks' passion for debate and their love of disagreement played a big role. In the court of the ancient Greeks there was neither a lawyer nor a prosecutor: the one who made the accusation was the prosecutor, and the accused had to defend himself.

It is no coincidence that during this period the art of oratory comes to the fore. The profession of sophist appears - a teacher who taught rhetoric and philosophy, the ability to speak and convince an interlocutor. Sophists also began to be called people who were distinguished by their knowledge, abilities, and talents. These included philosophers, doctors, poets, and prominent statesmen. However, over time, this word takes on a slightly different meaning. Now sophists are those who teach eloquence and philosophy for a fee. The word "sophist" also takes on a negative meaning - a false sage, a charlatan, a magician. Sophistry is understood and viewed as the science of persuasion.

The sophists put forward the theory of the social contract, arguing that the origin of the state was contractual. They also raised the issue of the reliability of human knowledge, stating that human knowledge and ideas are subjective. They said: what seems beautiful to one, another considers ugly. The sophists denied the expediency and rationality of the search for truth in general, justice in general.

Socrates did not accept either the individualism, subjectivism, or relativism of the Sophists. However, the Sophists and Socrates had something in common. The Sophists and Socrates considered man as the center of the universe. However, the views of the Sophists and Socrates differed on many issues. The Sophists believed that since all people are different, they cannot come to a common understanding of any subject. Socrates believed that there is something that “can be expressed by a single concept or idea.” The sophists tried to find some reasonable meaning in myths. Socrates believed that it was pointless to interpret myths about gods and heroes. For Socrates, it was more important to understand what people are like by nature and purpose, what a person is like in essence and what he is worth in general. (Plato. Phaedrus, 230a).

In the southeast of the Peloponnese is the region of Laconia, in the center of which is the Laconian Valley. It is surrounded on three sides by mountains. Favorable conditions have developed here for the development of crafts and agriculture. The only drawback was the distance from the sea and the impossibility of building ships. One of the Greek tribes conquered Lakonica. Gradually, the individual settlements of the conquerors merged into one city, which received the name Sparta. The conquerors considered it shameful to communicate with the local population. Almost all of them were turned into slaves - helots.

At the head of Sparta was a council of elders; noble Spartans at least 60 years old were elected there. Two kings commanded troops during wars. They also served on the council. All Spartans were warriors. From childhood they were prepared to defend the state. Children were raised in harsh conditions, taught not to be afraid of either heat or cold. To develop cruelty and ruthlessness, they were tasked with tracking down and destroying rebellious helots. The Spartans believed that security did not depend on the height and strength of the walls surrounding the city, but on the army. Sparta managed to force all the cities of the Peloponnese to enter into a military alliance with it, which was called the Peloponnesian.

Around the Archaic period, Greek colonies emerged outside Greece. Moving to other countries, the Greeks built closer to the sea, near sea bays, conquering new lands and turning local residents into slaves.

At the end of the 6th century. BC. The Greco-Persian wars begin. Persia conquered Greek cities in Asia Minor and invaded the lands of the Scythians. Using retreat and luring tactics, the Scythians forced the invaders to surrender. The defeat of the Persians became a signal for other conquered peoples. Miletus rebelled against his enslavers. Athens provided assistance to the rebels, which, in turn, served as a convenient pretext for the Persian king Darius to attack the Greeks. But the Greeks were able to win the Battle of Marathon. Athens creates a fleet to further fight the Persians. In 480 BC. Persian troops invaded Greece and won a victory at Thermopylae. The enemy captured and set fire to Athens. The Greek fleet was stationed in the Strait of Salamis. The Battle of Salamis was of great importance for the Greeks - they managed not only to win, but also to expel the Persians from Greece. The war with Persia marked the beginning of the unification of the coastal Greek cities, which concluded the Athenian Maritime Union.

The classical era dates back to the 5th-4th centuries. BC. During this period, the Greeks were able to achieve unprecedented heights in art, architecture, literature, philosophy, and science. This is the era of Pericles, the teachings of Plato and Aristotle.

Plato (428-347) was a student of Socrates. In his work “The State,” he substantiates his own social views by appealing to Socrates: the teacher always believed that the best should be at the head of the state. The population should be divided into three groups. Rulers govern the state based on reason and wisdom. The duties of soldiers include protecting the inviolability and inviolability of the state; they must be courageous and firm. Craftsmen and other working people must be prudent and moderate, their duty is to take care of their material well-being. Plato points out the need to teach arithmetic, mathematics, geometry and astronomy, especially the importance of dialectics, i.e. the ability to defend the truth in a dispute.

Aristotle (c. 384-322/1) was initially a member of Plato's Academy. Founded his own school - Lyceum (Lyceum). He believed that it was necessary to comprehensively study all the facts. Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

Every adult male in the city-state participated in decision-making on vital issues. The range of issues was very wide - war and peace, distribution of duties, distribution of money to the poor, public works. For the citizens of the policy, it was important how this or that citizen managed to dispose of the property received, whether he was able not only to preserve it, but also to increase it. If he is not capable of managing his own property affairs, then he cannot be a good politician.

In the early stages of the development of Greek religion, community cults played a significant role in it, then, as social relations developed, polis cults came to the fore. There was also a cult of heroes. The most famous of them was Hercules, who was later deified. The cult (deification) of heroes should not be confused with legends about cultural heroes - those who taught people crafts, agriculture, etc. The Greeks usually attributed these achievements to the gods, the patrons of these professions (Demeter, Dionysus, Apollo, Hermes). Standing apart is the myth of Prometheus, who helped people against the will of the gods, for which he was severely punished by Zeus. TO cultural heroes There are also legendary and semi-legendary characters (Daedalus, Pygmalion, Orpheus, even Homer himself).

According to ancient Greek mythology, in the beginning there was chaos. Then from it the Earth (Gaia) and Sky (Uranus), Day and Night, Light are born. These deities are rather abstract concepts, in contrast to the bright and colorful Olympian gods. The second generation were the titans led by Kronos. Kronos overthrows his father, Ouranos, and becomes ruler.

Kronos was afraid that the same fate might await him, so he ate his own children. However, Zeus still managed to escape. This is how the third generation of gods appears. The Olympian gods overthrow the Titans, and Zeus the Thunderer becomes the main one. His wife was Hera. The ancient Greeks especially revered Artemis. About 80 temples are dedicated to her - more than other deities.

Athena was the goddess of wisdom, but at the same time a warrior. She was especially revered in Athens. Athena also had other names, for example, Pallas (“shaking with a spear”). In terms of the number of temples and sanctuaries (about 73), she ranked second after Artemis. Artemis' brother was Apollo, the sun god. The ancient Greeks also considered him the patron saint of healing, music, even divination (the famous temple of Apollo in Delphi).

Poseidon was considered the ruler of the seas, Ares the god of war, Aphrodite was the goddess of love. Son of Aphrodite - Eros. Hephaestus patronized blacksmiths, Hestia patronized the home.

In Ancient Greece there were religious schools. The Pythagoreans believed in reincarnation and paid special attention to the veneration of fire. It was not just a religious movement, but also a philosophical school. The Orphics relied on the teaching legendary singer Orpheus, who allegedly lived before Homer. They believed that the titans killed Dionysus, then Dionysus was resurrected, and Zeus incinerated the titans and created people from their ashes.

People brought sacrifices to the gods - usually fruits, grains. On ceremonial occasions, hecatombs were performed - the slaughter of 100 animals. Part of the cult also included caring for altars and statues of gods and decorating them. Religious holidays were held in many cities.

The ancient Greeks placed particular importance on burying the dead in the ground. Initially they burned the dead, but then this ritual became a thing of the past. Myths often tell of the torment that awaits in the underworld. But they are prepared, first of all, for those who led an unrighteous life, for those who angered the gods. The concepts of fairness and justice had no place here; everything was decided by the arbitrariness of the gods.

Greek paideia is, according to F. H. Cassidy, a product of Greek democracy. This word itself combines such concepts as education, training, education, culture, enlightenment.

The first monuments of ancient Greek literature are the epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”; they contain about 30 thousand verses. Aristotle noted that before “Homer we cannot name anyone’s poem of this kind, although, of course, there were many poets.”

V--IV centuries BC. are considered the time of greatest flowering of Greek literature. By the middle of the 5th century. BC. Athens received the right to be called the “school of Hellas.” One of the most amazing monuments from the time of Pericles is the ensemble of the Acropolis. The builders erected it in the center. A wide marble staircase led from the city to the Acropolis. To the south was the temple of Nike. The bas-reliefs depicted scenes of the glorious victories of the Greeks over their enemies. The complex of buildings of the acropolis also includes the Erechtheion. This was the name of the temple dedicated to the three guardians of Athens. These were the goddess Athena herself, Poseidon and the mythical king Erechtheus. According to custom, the temple was surrounded by columns. On one side stood 6 female figures - caryatids. The bronze statue of Athena the Warrior was amazing. She was about 10 m tall, a formidable maiden stood with a spear in her hand, as if blocking the path of anyone who dared to disturb the peace and quiet of the city. It was in Ancient Greece that a system of architectural orders developed: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.

Special mention should be made of dramatic art. The Greeks are considered the creators of drama. The word drama means action. At the end of the 6th century. BC the first theater arose. Literary drama is divided into tragedy, satyr drama and comedy. A well-compacted circle-shaped platform (about 27 m in diameter) served as the basis of the theater. In the center stood the altar of the god Dionysus. The steps of the altar served as a place for musicians, and the choir moved around it.

The venue was called the orchestra (“dance”). Two passages (parods) led to the orchestra from the west and east. At first they were decorated with dedicatory gifts, then they were replaced bronze sculptures poets. The orchestra was separated by a low, wide barrier. Stairs rose from it, on the steps of which spectators sat. The place for spectators was called a theater. Behind the orchestra there was a small utility room where theatrical props were stored. This room (later they began to build it from stone) was called a skene. Later, two more pavilions were added - paraskenias.

The theater had three levels. 78 rows could accommodate up to 17 thousand spectators. In the first row were priests, archons and important officials. The places were named. The central, most honorable place was given to the priest of the god Dionysus. The actors performed in masks, all female roles were played by men. Mythical heroes were supposed to be taller than ordinary people, so the artists wore special shoes - buskins.

Aeschylus is called the father of Greek tragedy. Before him, there was practically no action in tragedies. Aeschylus's merit lies in the following - he introduced a second actor instead of one, reduced the role of the chorus, and dialogue came first. According to surviving information, Aeschylus created about 80 dramas, and their productions brought him 13 victories. (Competitiveness was of great importance for artists.) He created such dramas as “The Entreaties,” “The Persians,” “Seven Against Thebes,” “The Sphinx,” “Prometheus Bound,” and the dramatic trilogy “The Oresteia.”

In 468, Aeschylus was defeated by another playwright - Sophocles. This victory was significant for the new tragedian: since then he has not known a single defeat for 60 years. Sophocles lived for almost 90 years; he was not only a playwright, but also wrote lyrics, practiced as a doctor, and held important government posts. He did a lot for the further development of the theater business. With his light hand it was introduced decorative painting, he wrote a treatise on the choir, introduced a third actor, and increased the number of choruses by three people.

Aeschylus put the fate of the family at the forefront of his work. Representatives of different generations appear in his tragedies. Sophocles was attracted by the fate of an individual person in a separate completed tragedy. As a rule, Sophocles borrowed plots from myths. These are “Ajax”, “Antigone”, “The Trachinian Women”, “Oedipus the King”, “Electra”. Sophocles is considered the poet of the heyday of Greek tragedy. If Aeschylus and Sophocles created classical tragedy, then the work of Euripides puzzled his contemporaries. During his lifetime, Euripides did not enjoy recognition. “Aeschylus and especially Sophocles defended in their works the ideological foundations of the Athenian polis and proclaimed the inviolability of social principles based on the harmonious combination of personal and social aspirations of man. Euripides, like the Sophists, was primarily interested in the individual person.” For Euripides, it is important to reflect a person’s struggle with himself. The surviving dramas include Alcestis, Medea, Hippolytus, Electra, etc.

Some of the best representatives of the comedy genre include Cratinus, Eupolis and Aristophanes. Kratin was considered the creator of political comedy. Eupolis used a lot of fantasy in his works; in design and plot, they were considered very bold.

The work of Aristophanes is most fully represented. He wrote many comedies that were successful. “Acharnians” is a hymn to the world and the generation of marathon fighters, “Riders” is a denunciation of the policies of the omnipotent Cleon, in “Clouds” the author ridicules philosophers, “Peace” is a glorification of the new world. Two comedies are dedicated to women - “Lysistrata” and “Women at the Festival”.

By the beginning of the Hellenistic era, significant changes were taking place in the social and political way of life of the Greeks. This also affected the state of the theater. “The success of a play often depended not so much on the literary quality of the work, but on the performance of the actors and the theatrical setting.” The tragedy loses its original meaning. The interests of the audience focus on issues of private life. A new one appears Attic comedy, small comic genres - mimes, mimiambas, meliambas, pantomimes. Wandering actors are divided into gilarods (tragedies) and magods (performers). comic scenes). Parodies were very popular.

End of IV-I century. BC. - Hellenistic era. It is considered to be the most important turning point in the history of ancient Greece. Wars, slave uprisings, the ruin of peasants, and irrational use of land led to the decline of the economy. A protracted crisis began, affecting all spheres of society. The poor became mercenaries. They easily passed from one owner to another depending on who would pay the most. Many representatives of the nobility hoped that with the help of a strong monarch it would be possible to maintain their power and revive their former power. The idea of ​​a “pan-Hellenic unification” has long been in the air. To implement this plan, the firm hand of one person was required - the monarch. Around this time, the rise of the Macedonian state took place, and many Greeks cast hopes in its direction. They believed that a strong Macedonian government would be able to better protect their power and wealth from slaves.

But other Greeks were against it. One of the opponents of Macedonian intervention in Greek affairs was the famous orator Demosthenes. He studied oratory for a very long time, because he had weak voice. In addition, his habit of raising his shoulders when speaking made his speeches unconvincing. Demosthenes hung a sharp sword over his shoulders to get rid of a disturbing habit. After hard training, he was able to overcome his shortcomings and went down in history as a great orator. However, his speeches failed to stop the Macedonian invasion. 338 BC - a tragic year in the history of the Greeks. In Central Greece, a battle took place between the Macedonians and the Greeks. It led to a complete loss of independence.

After the conclusion of a peace treaty between King Philip and the Greek cities (337 BC), the Hellenistic period, or Hellenism, begins. Hellenism ends with the conquest of the last post-Alexander state. During the period of Macedonian rule, a monarchy arose and power became hereditary. The head of the state is the king, his power is supported by the Greek-Macedonian army and a large staff of officials. Polis are gradually being replaced by cities. Trade is developing. The Mediterranean Sea becomes the center of world trade. In the Hellenistic period, the development of sciences came to the fore - mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, physics, geography, medicine, physiology.

During the Hellenistic era, many discoveries were made, the names of the creators of which have not been preserved. Optical lenses, water clocks, mills and many other mechanisms were invented.

In the 3rd century. the theory of Aristarchus of Samos appears, who stated that the center of the universe is the Sun, and not the Earth, as was previously thought. True, his discovery never received either support or further development. Geometry is developing successfully. Euclid creates his work “Elements of Geometry”, the provisions of which are a model to this day.

In the 3rd century. mathematician and engineer Archimedes built the first planetarium. He was the founder theoretical mechanics, creator of advanced siege mechanisms and catapults. Eratosthenes was the first to establish the circumference of the Earth; it was he who came up with the idea that India could be reached from Spain by going around Africa. Medicine is developing rapidly. Doctors realized that blood moves through the human body and connected the pulse rate with heartbeats. Surgeons had made great progress at this time. Dietetics was discovered.

Athens still remains the center of philosophical thought. The Academy of Plato and the school of Aristotle are working, new teachings are appearing. The founder of the Stoic school was Zeno. The Stoics believed that there is an ideal of a sage who is able to control all feelings and emotions by the arguments of reason. Logos, or the World Mind, was represented by them as the subtlest form of matter, the creative principle of which penetrates everywhere. An outstanding representative of the Cynic school was Diogenes, who received the nickname “biting dog.” The goal of the Cynics is to debunk all existing human values. Sermons were structured in the form of a conversation (diatribe). The Cynics widely reflected their ideas in literary works.

The founder of another school was Epicurus. It began to be called by the name of its creator - Epicureanism. His main work is “On Nature”. Epicurus believed that the gods do not take part in the development of the world and do not interfere in the destinies of people. Only a sage is able to enjoy life; the highest pleasure is available only to him. This highest pleasure is serenity, it is acquired in the process of learning the truth. Serenity of the soul gives a person inner independence, peace of mind, frees him from mistakes and misconceptions.

The center of Hellenistic culture and world trade moves to Alexandria. A Museum (Temple of the Muses) was built here. The richest Library of Alexandria is being created. A new science is emerging - philology. In the II century. BC Dionysius of Thracia compiles the first Grammar. Gradually, in literature, global problems of the universe fade into the background. Literature for entertainment—fiction—emerges.

Late antiquity can be seen as a transitional period. Classical antiquity is already over. Her achievements and discoveries served as fertile ground for the emergence of a new world. “When the Greek city-states lost their independence and Greece came under the rule of first Macedonia and then Rome, Greek culture did not fall, but, on the contrary, together with the conquests of Alexander the Great, it, having experienced a certain influence of ancient Eastern cultures, acquired a global character, becoming Hellenistic. The end of classical Greek and Hellenistic culture was brought about by Christianity.”

For a long time, Rome waged wars of conquest, which resulted in the annexation of new peoples, each with its own culture and moral values. The Romans consider the beginning of their history to be the founding of Rome in 751 BC.

The early history of Rome remains largely a mystery to us. There is a point of view according to which Rome owes its emergence to the fall of Troy.

Almost until the 6th century. BC. all state affairs were under the authority of the king. He relied on a council of elders (elders), of 300 people. The Council was otherwise called the Senate. When particularly important matters arose, the king and the Senate convened a meeting of the patricians. According to legend, which can be considered based on real events, the king who ruled Rome caused discontent among the citizens. His actions overflowed the cup of patience, the angry Romans expelled the king. Now the government of Rome became a public affair. Around 510 BC. The first republic was created.

The establishment of the republic raised new problems. Only patricians could be involved in government. For a year, two consuls ruled, nominated by an assembly of patricians. Consuls dealt with legal proceedings and military affairs during the war. In peacetime, they had to consult the Senate on all matters. The Senate remained in charge of military affairs, relations with other states, and finances. Senators, like consuls, came from patricians.

The plebeians are dissatisfied with the current situation; they find themselves out of work. Therefore, a large group of well-organized and armed plebeians, leaving Rome, becomes a camp near the city. The patricians faced a difficult dilemma. On the one hand, they feared that external enemies, having learned that the Roman army had been reduced, would attack the practically defenseless city. On the other hand, they were not sure that the plebeians themselves would not seize Rome in order to achieve their rights. There was also a threat of an alliance between the plebeians and foreigners.

The rulers were forced to give the plebeians the right to participate in governing the republic. Every year they could elect tribunes of the people. Their right was to impose a veto, which overturned the decisions of the consuls and even the Senate in matters that directly affected the plebeians. Soon the plebeians began to convene plebeian assemblies, where demands were developed for the Senate. Over time, they achieved that of the two consuls, one was elected by the plebeians. At their request, the law that allowed people to be taken into slavery for debt was repealed. Beginning of the 3rd century marked by another victory: the decisions of the plebeian assemblies received the status of the law of the republic.

Rich plebeian and patrician families were considered aristocrats (nobiles). The Republic of Rome was an aristocratic one. Nobiles did not have the right to engage in trade and crafts; this was left to the horsemen - people who had the means to buy a horse. The horsemen dealt with purely organizational issues of managing the republic; they could receive the right to collect taxes in favor of Rome. Most horsemen gave much less to the treasury than they actually collected.

The Romans begin their campaigns of conquest. In the 3rd century. BC. they occupy the Apennine Peninsula, at the end of the 1st century. BC. “encircled the Mediterranean Sea, by the beginning of the 2nd century. BC. are rounded up and exist in this form for another 3 centuries.” After the conquest of the Apennine Peninsula, Rome practically did not stop its wars of conquest. The war between Rome and Carthage lasted almost 20 years (III century BC). The Romans called the Carthaginians Punics, so the war was called the first Punic. It ended in complete victory for the Romans. Then Rome captures Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. In the Second Punic War (III century BC), the Romans met a worthy opponent in the person of the commander Hannibal. However, they managed to win this time too, putting the enemy in an extremely unfavorable strategic position.

Having defeated and weakened Carthage, the Roman commanders did not calm down. They feared that the advantageous geographical position of their opponents would allow them to revive trade and restore their previous position. The third Punic War begins, which had as its goal the complete destruction of Carthage (II century BC). The place where the destroyed city stood was declared cursed. The commanders, having won another victory, entered Rome with trophies. The ceremonial entry into the city was called a triumph. All the spoils of war went to the rich Romans.

Roman culture organically included all the achievements of the culture of the conquered peoples. First it was the people living in the North of Italy (Etruscans), then Greece and, finally, the East. The Etruscans had developed agriculture and crafts. They built fortified cities, locating them in inaccessible places. According to many researchers, their social system was aristocratic. At its head was the military-priestly nobility - the Lukumons. Women occupied a place of honor in society. The Etruscan culture experienced significant Greek influence. The cultural traditions of the Etruscans and Greeks had a lot in common.

The Etruscans were one of the first peoples conquered by the Romans. Comparing the culture of the Romans and the Etruscans, it should be noted that from the latter the conquerors adopted some political institutions, music, and the way of depicting numbers. That is why the Romans, having conquered Greek cities, were ready to adopt many of the cultural norms of the Greeks, which they had already borrowed from the Etruscans.

Manism was one of the most ancient forms religious beliefs ancient Romans. It was a cult of the spirits of the dead who patronized the living. The spirits that helped people were called penates and were the guardians of the house. Protective spirits were also called lares; they patronized people in home life, both on the road and in war. Ancient monuments that have come down to us are sacred hymns. One of them was used in their rituals by the Arval (field) brothers, who belonged to the most ancient priestly college. In addition to sacred hymns, in ancient times there were work and ritual songs, wedding songs and epitaphs.

The veneration of patron spirits was a tribal, family cult. Each clan revered its own spirit. Subsequently, some spirits turned into general deities, as in other countries. Nevertheless, the belief in Lares and Penates persisted in Rome for a very long time, even after the adoption of Christianity; it was prohibited by imperial decree at the end of the 3rd century. AD Patron spirits existed not only among families, but also among each individual person. Men's patrons were called geniuses, women's patrons were called Junos.

The cult of fire also played an important role in that era. The goddess Vesta was depicted as a flame and was never represented in human form. Her fire was to burn forever in the temple dedicated to her. In addition, the ancient Romans were already in early era They believed in an afterlife and in afterlife reward. There is an underworld where the cruel Orc rules, and the souls of all the dead end up there. The righteous go to heaven (Elysium). After death, a person’s soul largely depends on how the living treat it. If no one cares about the deceased, his soul turns into an evil spirit. They were called larvas or lemurs. To appease the lemurs or at least get rid of them for a while, special ceremonies were held - lemurias. A special burial ritual was observed. There were special funeral masks for deceased ancestors - during burial they participated in the ritual as if they were alive.

The agricultural cult was mainly widespread among the plebeians, the common people. Many deities, who later began to play an important role in the Roman pantheon, were originally associated with the cult of fertility - Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, even Mars. In addition to them, farmers also revered Faun, Liber, Ceres, Terminus, Consus, Palesa, etc. Religious holidays were dedicated to them. All of them were timed to coincide with certain events in the life of a farmer: sowing, harvesting, etc.

Roman mythology was significantly influenced by other religions. The Romans themselves distinguished between local and foreign gods. The mythology of Ancient Rome was too poor.

Having become acquainted with Greek culture, the Romans began to attribute to their gods the qualities and adventures for which the gods of Ancient Greece were famous. Thus, the Romans borrowed not the pantheon itself (the Roman gods were originally associated with the cult of fertility), but the content of ancient Greek legends and myths, their emotional and plot content, which the Romans themselves were not strong in.

If the ancient Romans were so strongly influenced by the culture of Ancient Greece, then what can we say about the culture of the Ancient East. It was significantly different from the culture of Ancient Rome and, in the eyes of the average Roman, for the better. Two points can be highlighted here. The gods of Ancient Rome did not help the common man in any way, so he began to look for intercessors among the eastern deities. The cult of Mithras, and then Christianity, spread widely in Rome.

The mystical nature of ancient Eastern religions opened up a new side of life, the orgiastic. The veneration of the eastern gods among the ancient Romans is closely associated with obscene drunken festivities (bacchanalia). The official authorities tried to overcome the influence of the eastern gods and prohibited their worship, but to no avail.

“Instant” gods, who were responsible for various events of human life, were also revered. For each of these events there was a separate deity, for example, for the first cry of a child. If it came to something more important, say, about the period when a child learns to speak, or about his physical maturation, then several gods supervised this at once. A special goddess took the child to school, and another goddess returned him home.

There were also gods who personified individual virtues and concepts, for example, Peace, Hope, Valor, Justice, Happiness. When we talk about the goddess Fortuna these days, we mean exactly one of these deities. In general, the mythology of Ancient Rome is very stingy and faded.

In the classical era, the gods - the patrons of cities - came to the fore. As in many other religions, in ancient Rome it was believed that the gods supported the rulers. Emperors were deified, first posthumously (Caesar, Octavian), and then during their lifetime (Caligula).

Religious ceremonies in Ancient Rome had their own characteristics. A believer did not strive to spiritually communicate with God, to merge with him, to get closer to him. On the contrary, communication with the deity took on the character of business negotiations and transactions. The main attention was paid to the formal correctness of the ceremonies. The prayer had to be very precise, as if it were legal language.

The ancient Romans believed that you can only get the help of the gods if you turn to them at the right time.

The Romans almost did not resort to magic, they were too rational, but they attached great importance to fortune telling. The most common were fortune telling by the flight of birds (auspicion) and by the entrails of animals (haruspicy). They also guessed by the way birds pecked grain, or by lightning.

Initially, the Romans knew neither images of gods nor temples. Instead of sculptures of deities, ordinary objects were used. Thus, Mars was represented by a spear. The custom of building temples probably arose under the influence of the ancient Greeks. However, in the complex of beliefs of the ancient Romans special meaning attached to images of the dead, which is associated with the cult of patron spirits.

The priests did not play a particularly important role in the political life of Rome. Rome did not know the struggle between secular and religious authorities, and the priests themselves were considered civil servants. There were various colleges of priests. The pontiffs were in charge of the calendar and celebration of holidays, and were also chroniclers. Fetials played the role of ambassadors and diplomats. Augurs practiced fortune telling.

The Vestals kept the fire burning in the Temple of Vesta. Because Vesta was considered a patron goddess, the Vestals were very influential in Rome. The price for this was a strict vow of celibacy and chastity. The custom also imposed many restrictions on the Flamins, the priests who were in charge of certain gods (for example, Jupiter, Mars). Like the Vestals, they had considerable authority. Initially, only patricians could be priests, and only they could participate in the worship. Then it became available to plebeians. Over time, the positions of priests became elective.

Slaves did not have the right to make sacrifices or participate in religious holidays, with rare exceptions (Saturnalia). Roman slaves were effectively cut off from Roman religion, so it is not surprising that they readily embraced Christianity.

The Romans are characterized by great religious tolerance. Scientists point out the differences between the myths of the Greeks and Romans. Greek mythology centers on the deeds of the gods and their relationship to each other and people. For the Romans, the center of all their interests is Rome itself and its people. The most important virtues are iron discipline, courage, courage, and loyalty. Any career for a Roman begins with the career of a warrior. The father teaches his son the craft of a warrior, a farmer, and introduces him to the responsibilities of a citizen. It is believed that although the Romans did not create such a coherent mythology as the Greeks, they became the creators of many historical legends, the main characters of which were kings, military heroes, and generals.

Long before the 2nd century. BC. bilingualism arises in Roman culture: representatives of the nobility read and speak Greek, while at the same time the foundations and provisions of the Latin language are developed.

Oratory becomes important. During the period of the Republic, the Romans decided state affairs in the people's assembly, widely using the practice of debate. Comparing the Greeks and Romans, we are convinced that for the Romans, politics and law always came to the fore. Art and literature were viewed as secondary phenomena.

Roman eloquence is rooted in the language of laws, debates in court, the Senate, and the people's assembly. Every free Roman could speak in court. The art of eloquence was widespread, highly valued and, to a certain extent, folk character. He was greatly influenced by Greek oratory.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) achieved amazing heights in the field of oratory. He was a knowledgeable lawyer and a great statesman.

The speaker must not forget that the appropriate style should be used to solve each task. Calm, clear and simple style - for evidence. Elegant, discreet - for pleasure. Excited, pathetic - to influence the will. Cicero was the last representative of Roman classical eloquence. His age ended with the death of the Republic.

Oratory had a great influence on the development of literature and historiography.

In the II century. BC. The situation in Rome is difficult. The situation of slaves becomes unbearable. They were considered a “talking instrument.” Many in their education (in particular the Greeks) were much higher than their masters. Slaves were divided into household slaves, those working on latifundia and quarries, and gladiators. In the second half of the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC e. slaves begin to fight against unbearable living conditions. The uprising in Sicily lasted about 6 years and ended in the defeat of the rebels. The consequence of this uprising was the weakening of the Roman army. The growing number of slaves and the ruin of the peasants posed a real threat to Rome.

Except internal problems, the Roman Republic was constantly faced with the struggle of conquered peoples who wanted to get rid of foreign yoke. The difficult internal situation ended with the establishment of the dictatorship of Sulla. He ruled Rome for three years; these were years of absolute lawlessness and lawlessness. At that time, a slave uprising led by Spartacus was brutally suppressed.

The difficult internal political situation required government reform. At this time, Julius Caesar, Pompeii and Crassus are trying to seize power. They could not act alone, since they lacked the strength to do so. Therefore, a triumvirate was concluded. Caesar marched with his troops to Rome (49 BC). Thus, he openly opposed the republic. He managed to defeat his former ally Pompey and become dictator for life. Nevertheless, there were many dissatisfied with Caesar's dictatorship. Among the ardent defenders of the republic was the famous orator Cicero. Caesar's legionaries won several brilliant victories. But he was afraid to proclaim himself king, although he was given royal honors. His chair could rather be called a throne made of gold and ivory. His portrait was printed on coins, and statues were placed next to statues of gods. A conspiracy was organized against Caesar, and he fell at the hands of the conspirators.

After the death of Caesar, his legions were led by Antony and Octavian, who managed to agree on the division of power. But the agreement did not last long. It ended with a new civil war and the final victory of Octavian. He reigned from 30 BC. to 14 AD Under him, Rome turns into an empire. Octavian tried to preserve the traditions and customs of the times of the republic, so as not to face resistance from its supporters. He left elected positions, the Senate, consuls, and tribunes of the people. From the Senate he receives the name Augustus (“Sacred”). Nevertheless, Octavian sought to strengthen his personal power. He himself was not only an emperor, but also a senator, a tribune of the people, and for some time a consul.

Ruined artisans and peasants began to flock to Rome. Augustus, fearing that such a huge mass of unemployed would start an uprising, tried to appease them. Impoverished people believed that work was too humiliating for free man, this is the lot of slaves. They put forward a demand: “Bread and circuses.” Augustus was forced to stage performances to distract people from pressing problems. The poor received free bread, small change, and free shows in circuses.

Long civil wars ended with the establishment of an empire; Octavian Augustus surrounded himself with supporters and writers. He tries to win over all segments of society, which was quite difficult. The Principate had to face stiff opposition from the Republicans. Augustus, in order to justify his behavior, writes a will, which should be exhibited in the mausoleum after death. In it, Octavian does not skimp on laudatory characteristics addressed to him. He claims that his main merit is that he brought long-awaited peace and tranquility to Rome. The Principate proclaims the advent of a golden age, for thanks to its skillful actions wars and ruin have ceased. Indeed, it has arrived desired world. The cessation of wars contributed to the development of literature, architecture and art. At this time, Rome is being rebuilt, literally immersed in the greenery of parks and gardens. At the Forum of Augustus, a majestic temple is created to Mars the Avenger, who helped Octavian take revenge on the traitors for the death of Caesar. Near the temple there is a gallery with busts of great military leaders. The construction of the Temple of Apollo dates back to this period. A rich library is being created at the temple. The library displays a bust of Augustus, which is given the features of the god Apollo.

Painting, architecture and poetry of the 1st century. BC. and the beginning of the 1st century. AD form an artistic unity. It is to this period that the activities of Augustus’s supporter, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, date back. He gathers talented people of art in his house, provides them with support, but at the same time tries to direct their creativity to the service of Octavian Augustus. The work of Virgil's Publius dates back to this time. Virgil had a great influence on the development European epic and pastorals. You should also pay attention to the work of Horace. True, he does not agree with Virgil regarding the onset of the golden age and treats bucolic poetry with irony. The poet moves from the epic genre to satire. Each satire of Horace reveals a specific theme. He argues that a person must become a sage and artist of his own life. Mark Valery Martial also belongs to the galaxy of famous Latin writers. The genre in which he worked - epigrams - was popular. The poet puts forward one of the most important points: it is life that should become the only material for fiction; it is high time to abandon the “lifeless reworkings” of myths.

After the death of Augustus, imperial power in Rome strengthened. This period until the end of Trajan's reign is usually called the Silver Age of Roman literature.

The territory of the empire continued to expand due to military campaigns. However, these were already the last campaigns. At the end of the 1st century. Emperor Trajan comes to power. He started a war in Asia, but in the rear the conquered peoples did not stop fighting against the conquerors. Researchers believe that the emperor's last unsuccessful campaign in Asia was the beginning of the end of the brilliant military victories of the Romans. The pressure from the Germans is intensifying. In the II century. The empire is already finally moving from offensive to defensive.

Gradually, many rich Romans themselves came to the conclusion that the labor of slaves was extremely ineffective, even harmful for the further development of the economy. The temporary strengthening of the empire under Diocletian and Constantine was short-lived. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern. Continuous uprisings of slaves, conquered peoples and attacks by barbarians led to the collapse of the Western Empire. The fall of Rome in 476 marks the end of antiquity.

Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece are such political and cultural phenomena antiquities, the existence of which laid a powerful foundation for the further development of Europe. The achievements of antiquity were not lost during the Dark Middle Ages.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece in 3-2 millennia BC.

Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome as objects historical process have certain stages of their development, political and cultural evolution. On the territory of Greece, the primitive communal system ceased to exist earlier than in the Apennines. Let us consider the features of the development of Greece. The Balkan and Cretan territories are characterized by slightly different stages of history. For example, on the island evolution happened like this:

• From the 30th to the 20th century BC, the Early Minoan period is distinguished. At this time, the tribal system still existed, but the transition to civilization was already visible.
• Civilization on Crete arose between the 20th and 17th centuries BC. Historians call this time the "period of the old palaces."
• The period from the 17th to approximately the 10th century is called the Late Minoan (ended with the conquest of Crete by the Achaean tribes).

In the Balkan part of Greece there are also three periods. But to be honest, we are interested in the later stage, because after the invasion of the tribes for several centuries, Greece fell again into the period of the tribal system.

Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece: continuity of traditions

The history of Great Greece is usually calculated from the 8th century BC. Soviet and Russian historians take the following classification as a basis:

From 8th to 6th century BC the ancient Greek civilization, the polis political system and democracy were formed;

Period from 6th to 4th century BC is considered the most indicative in the development of Greece, because the polis system was fully formed and reached its perfection;

From 4th to 1st century BC Some crisis moments began to appear in political life: the fact is that democracy, as it turned out, was no longer so effective when the monarchy of Macedonia strengthened.

Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome have a lot in common. This can be traced even based on the periodization of the history of Ancient Rome:

From the 8th to the 6th centuries there was a period when there were Greek colonies in the south of modern Italy, it was at this time that the city of Rome was founded;

From the 6th to the 3rd century, Rome conquers Italy; the formation of a class society is completed; republican foundations are strengthened;

The heyday of the Roman state occurred in the period from the second century BC. to the 2nd century AD, although there were moments of crisis, for example, Rome turned from a republic into an empire;

3rd-4th century AD - collapse of the Roman state.

Development of culture

The culture of Ancient Greece and Rome is, in principle, almost the same. The fact is that, as we have already noted, the development of civilized life began earlier on the territory of Greece. Accordingly, the cultural level of the Greeks in the 6th-5th centuries BC. was much higher than the level of culture of the average Roman. The central element of Greek culture was the real person, living here and now. This is why Greek sculptures are valued, that is, the culture of the body was at a high level. By the way, Greece is the birthplace of the Olympic Games. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome were states where, in addition to intellectual strength, physical strength and a strong body were also revered. The Olympics were held in 4 years more than 100 times. Although Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece were states that often took part in hostilities, any wars stopped during these sports competitions. Also, don't forget about the theater. All major cities had theaters. The largest of them was located in Athens, its capacity reached 17 thousand spectators. Performances in ancient theaters, of course, did not take place every weekend. There was a different system. Theater festivals were held several times a year. For three or four days, from morning to evening, the audience watched the magnificent performance of the actors. The direction of theatrical acts was different. What are we talking about? Life consists of both positive and negative, which is why ancient authors created comedies and tragedies. People watched every performance with pleasure.

Architecture

Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece are Meccas for architects. How many buildings created during that period are still preserved and attract tourists! Every tourist who has visited Rome at least once in his life has been to the Colosseum. In addition, let us remember the Acropolis, the Pantheon, other Greek and Roman temples, the statue of Pallas Athena, the Colossus of Rhodes. The buildings that were erected were quite massive and complex in terms of engineering, so we can confidently say that these advanced civilizations at that time made a huge contribution to historical development.

The history of Ancient Greece and Rome is very rich in various facts and moments. That is why these civilizations left a huge mark on world development. Firstly, Greek and Roman architecture are still popular today. The foundations of many sciences were also laid then. The famous mathematician Pythagoras discovered the pattern in the 5th century, during the beginning of the rise of ancient Greece.