3 literary genres lyrics epic drama definition. Division of literature into genres epic lyric drama

Features of the epic kind; prose and poetic epic texts; presence of a plot; the role of external circumstances; specificity lyrical kind; technique of versification; division of lyrics into types; dramaturgical gender; elements of drama; conflict in drama

Speaking about the structure of a work of art, about interaction within the artistic whole, we must remember that any literary fact represents a sample of a certain kind and, accordingly, within its framework, a literary type.

About concepts and terms. A literary scholar is faced with terms that, it should be noted, are not always used with appropriate semantic accuracy to this day. Most often, this scientific material includes such nominations as genus, type, genre, genre form, genre content. As broad concepts The nominations “genus” and “genre” are used here.

Teachings of L.I. Timofeeva about genera and species puts forward the following sequence: within the genus “it is easy to notice an additional division”, such a division “is called literary species. Within a species there may be additional divisions called genres.” The complexity of Timofeev’s concept lies in the fact that the scientist includes “story, tale, novel” in the concept of type, and then the concept of genre grows from the genre type. The genus itself is characterized by “three types of compositional organization,” which are considered as three literary genera. L.I. Timofeev defines the category of “genus” as a generalizing and historically stable concept, but it cannot function independently; it always manifests itself through the species. The concept of “species” is less broad than genus. There are many more types. Within each genus, in different historical periods, the process of development of species was observed. In the epic, plot actions are manifested, in the lyrics - the movement of the feelings of the soul, in the drama - actions.

G.N. Pospelov accepts the theory literary kind created by Aristotle and Hegel. As for Aristotelian teaching, G.N. Pospelov especially designated the category of “mimesis”: Homer imitated life and his epic narrator, remaining himself, does not change his face for masks. In the time of Aristotle, they did not know about the term “lyrics”; according to G.N. Pospelov, appeared after Aristotle. The philosopher Plato also discussed lyricism. Aristotle included the following topics in the Poetics project: a) poetry as imitation; b) tragedy and epic as imitative varieties of art. Aristotle does not observe historical sequence when studying literary genera. First he paid attention to poetry, then to tragedy, and only then to the epic (“Iliad” and “Odyssey”). In reality, the chronicle of literary genera is as follows: 1) epic, 2) lyricism, 3) drama.

In Hegel's theory, Prof. G.N. Pospelov appreciated the historicism of the origin of literary genera: the epic in ancient Greek art reached the culmination of its development (VIII - VII centuries BC), then poetry approached its artistic level (VI century BC), and later drama ( V century BC). At the same time, Hegel established dialectical principles in the system of the generic triad: 1) epic - thesis, 2) lyricism - the antithesis of epic, 3) drama was a synthesis of epic and lyricism.

The generic triad (epic - lyric - drama) is the most general, historically stable category. The division of literature into genera is caused by the need to depict the main forms of manifestation of the human personality: a) objective interaction with other characters, events, complex social processes (epic); b) subjective - experiences and thoughts (lyrics); c) in action and conflict (drama) (S. Kalacheva, P. Roshchin).

EPOS AS A LITERARY GENDE

Forms of storytelling; plot; chronotopic volume of events; branched system of images

Epic (Greek - word, story, song) belongs to one of three genera fiction, it is distinguished by its objective-narrative form: the impartial picture of the world here moves by itself, according to its own predetermined laws.

Based on formal characteristics, epic works are divided into prosaic and poetic (epic, novel, story, short story, poem, ballad, fable, romance). The main indicators of epicness are: the presence of a plot in a work, eventfulness; external circumstances determine the behavior of actors in their present and future. Fate and fate reign in ancient heroic poems; they are omnipotent, although they are outside of eventual situations. Most often, rock is thought of as a symbol hostile to man. In the new era, different relationships between the hero and society are being developed. The truth of life in an epic work comes closer to the truth of art, the author acts as a researcher of reality.

An epic is a writer’s story; there are various ways of describing it, for example, the event line is given to the chronicler. In some cases, the personality does not determine the development of events, in others, it actively influences them. And with his willful effort he changes the storyline. Forms of storytelling are used, for example, with the help of an author and a hero. Thus, in G. Böll’s novel “The House Without a Master” there are as many narrators as there are characters. It should be remembered that combined models retelling is not just an optional device in the epic. The method of presenting the material is important means character analysis and assessment. All this dictates the choice of manner of depicting paintings. When we talk about the objectivity of showing life, we remember that it absorbs elements of direct depiction. If the epic did not contain anything without intermediaries, then the idea of ​​staging would be excluded. IN author's story the position of quotes is influenced by disputes, conversations of characters, rumors, and is affected by an organic connection or the dominance of one method of description over others. If we take and separate narrative polyphony from the epic, we will get a completely different idea of ​​this type.

There are things that essentially cannot be filmed. From here we see how close the immediate and the indirect are: the stories of A.P. Chekhov is easily filmed, but the works of A. Kuprin are not. It turns out wild when they pull the image of the author onto the screen. And it is not the author who acts on the screen, but the image. The mediated element dominates in the epic. It is also impossible to reject the immediate. You can only create a new work that is close, although not identical, to the version being filmed. Epic is a genre of plot, in contrast to plotless lyrics. Drama is a plot (action) genre, but here the similarity is not complete, visible. Because in one case the plot is told, in the other the plot becomes an action shown, recreated in its immediate forms.

The epic artist has two powerful tools for recreating, analyzing and assessing reality. These are descriptions and dialogues, which in their unity serve as a means of developing the plot. In other words, in the hands of the epic, in comparison with the lyricist, the plot is in the hands; in comparison with the playwright, the epic is in the hands of the description. Hence the most capacious, multifaceted, deeply conscious and appreciated way of depicting the world in various aspects and manifestations. When they talk about literature as an encyclopedia of life, they mean, first of all, the epic. However, while winning in certain respects, it loses in others; for example, it has an incomparably less powerful emotional impact on the reader than lyrics or drama. Thus, the filmed “Hamlet” stands out with the significant advantage of its accessibility and influence on the broad masses, although in comparison with the original it loses the philosophy of Renaissance humanism.

By comparing lyrics and epic, a distinction can be made between prose and music. The epic takes you slowly, it demands detachment. The lyrics immediately captivate. The epic contains something that compensates for the emotional impact. If you delve deeply into the epic, then neither drama nor lyrics provide such universalism of feelings.

LYRICS AS A LITERARY GENDE

Term; biography of the hero's soul; trust, secrecy; emotionality; chronotope

Lyrics (gr. - lyre - musical instrument; literally: singing to the accompaniment of a lyre) are distinguished by an emotional description of the history of emotional experiences and thoughts. This kind of subjectivity is inherent in tone (meditations and their types), inner world The hero is characterized not only by the objective and logical meaning of speech, but also by its very structure (expressiveness and emotionality of speech).

The subject and content of the lyrics are the emotional experiences of the poet as a person. In the so-called “pure” lyrics, one tone, one feeling, one mood predominates, which brings it closer to music. The musicality of a verse is created by such elements as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, refrain, and anaphora. Lyrics master not only poetic forms, but also turn to rhythmic prose (prose poem).

Thematically, it is divided into love, landscape, philosophical, and civil.

Poems, like megatexts by individual authors, cannot just be read right away; you have to prepare yourself for it. The lyrical genre is fundamentally different from the epic in that in it the object of exploration of the world is reality, refracted in the soul, in the complex of feelings and experiences of the poet, however, this does not mean at all that external reality is not reflected here. Then it would be one-sided, one-sided. Anything and everything is accessible to poetry. And everything that the poet addresses, refracted through the prism of his feelings, acquires a living soul. In the poem, the actual event appears through the personal.

The property of the lyrical kind should be considered a subjective factor, but at the same time it must be objectified and objective, impartial in the sense that the subject turns into a property for many. Poetry can have an audience of millions. The objective in the lyrics suggests that behind the personal there is something that is usually denoted by the concepts of the unity of the poet’s “I” and the reader’s “We.” What is meant here is that the best friend is revealed in poetry. In this regard, in poetry it is necessary to distinguish the specifics of the relationship between the rational and emotional principles. Poetry, Allah forgive me, should be “a little stupid.” This does not mean that reason is alien to lyrics; pure rationalism is not characteristic of it. The expression of feelings and experiences cannot do without thought, otherwise the poems will not be “sensual”, and the thought must pass through the mysterious laboratory of the soul, absorbing the universal human principle. In other words, the rational in the lyrics should be the property of the emotional factor.

There is one more feature of poetry that must be mentioned in the connection being revealed. Lyrics are usually distinguished by elements of spontaneity, that ease and freshness that is characteristic of drama. Epic is always the past tense; in drama, as in poetry, it functions as if it were an absolutely present tense. There may be a narrative element in the lyrics, but the relationship between the hero and his immediate ideal will develop the image of what is experienced. Such contact also presupposes a deep internal difference. In drama, the action takes place before our eyes; in lyric poetry, the plot is replaced by a complex of anxiety, feelings and thoughts of the hero, caused by something or someone.

In poetry there are plot forms. For example, a ballad, song, or romance are characterized by the eventual development of their content. We can talk about what indicators define the concept of “lyrical plot”, but this is not pure lyricism, but an epico-lyrical genre in small poetic forms. There is an epic plot, dramatic action, and a lyrical plot.

What is meant by “lyrical plot”? This means that not all events can form the basis of the plot, be refracted in it, or cause a certain reaction. Hence the absence of all known elements of intrigue in the lyrical text; we will not find the beginning, denouement, or climax applied to the traditions of the epic kind. From the beginning the poet immediately moves to the climax. For the whole point is not in the event, but in empathy with them. Poetry is the most laconic and at the same time the most loaded type of literature in an aesthetic sense. Each element in this insignificant space lifts an impressive aesthetic weight. Hence the wide popularity and at the same time maximum impressiveness. In a poem, it is important where each word stands, what the context is until the end of the incident, the movement of feelings should also indicate the spirit of the era.

DRAMA AS A LITERARY KIND

Action; stage performance; remarks, monologues, dialogues; convention; conflict

Drama (gr. - action) is the third literary genre after epic and lyric poetry. The drama depicts the relationships between people and the conflicts that arise between them. The following categories perform an important function in this literary genre.

• § Presentation of the characters, indicating their age, inclinations, and portrait characteristics.
• § The system of events in a drama is called not plot, but action, although most philologists use the term “plot”. The concept of “hero” here is most often and rightly replaced by the phrase “actor”. The event line should be characterized by increased tension, energy of delusion and insight.
• § The composition of a drama consists of pictures, scenes, and episodes. Ancient drama necessarily began with a “Prologue,” which almost completely set out the meaning of the work.
• § Dialogue form becomes the main feature of dramaturgy.

This system includes monologues, single or crowd scenes.

• § Directions (French - remark, notes) precede and accompany the course of action in the play. The remark is mainly addressed to the director. She explains the location of the action, the attire of the characters, their state of mind, behavior, gestures (replicas to the side), voice intonations (the timbre of the voice changes depending on the state of mind: joy, depression, fear, anger, lies, truth) are measured by an artistic “lie or truth detector”.
• § Conflict in drama. It rests on a tragic, comedic, dramatic basis.
• § Genre varieties (tragedy, comedy, drama, medieval forms: from farce to mystery; musical drama; drama of the absurd).
• § The duration of the play must coincide with the stage time, since European theater gives preference to dramas whose events develop no more than three to four hours.

Stage conventions in drama. The characters in the drama reveal themselves and their character through their actions and behavior. And here an important indicator is the actor’s speech professionalism, his diction and voice modulation, the very process of pronouncing words. The form of drama is distinguished by a rich arsenal of “multi-talk”. The characters’ words are oriented not only to the stage, but also to the space of the auditorium.

The behavior of the characters should be theatrical, designed for mass effect. For this purpose, forms of dramatic conventions are used. Emile Zola called drama and theater “the citadel of everything conventional” (Zola E. “Naturalism in the Theater”). Thus, in ancient drama, additional characters were introduced, who either themselves narrated what was not shown on stage, what was happening behind the scenes (messenger), or became interlocutors of the main characters, encouraged to talk about an unknown event.

The next form of convention is monologues pronounced by the characters alone. Such confessions do not belong to the deep psychological ways of self-expression of the hero; they are associated with a relative stage technique. In the 20th century, drama began to move closer to Shakespearean authenticity, abandoning deliberate theatricality, mask techniques and prompting.

It is also necessary to outline in detail such points as “composition of action”, “features of speech”, “drama during reading and acting on stage”.

In the history of the evolution of drama as a literary genre, there were eras when dramatic genres dominated, pushing epic and lyricism (antiquity, Western European classicism) into the background.

Drama is not a literary genre proper; it lives in the theater and is subject to the laws of the stage; its possibilities inevitably shape the logic and internal structure of a dramatic work. The point is not only that drama is almost impossible to read, it must be seen on stage. The impression from reading drama and from direct contact with it in the theater differs in the most radical way. There are plays that are specifically designed for reading. These are the so-called “lesedramas” (German - “lezen” - reading), however, such dialogic texts with extensive stage directions are not widely popular (there are exceptions to this series, for example, the plays of B. Shaw). The connection between theater and stage work is determined not only by the fact that the drama must be presented, this connection extends quite deeply. The real birth of drama is often associated with its implementation on the stage. Like the reader, the playwright does not see it until it is shown to the audience. Drama is theater of a certain tonality, it is a specific performance. Theater is a living creativity and co-creation; it is an actor, an artist, a composer, a decorator, and a lighting designer. All greatest works reached heights when a magical connection was established between the hall and the stage.

Sometimes a play is created for a very specific actor. People go to the theater to see their “favorite” (recognizable) actors, and in the cinema, a “familiar” artist evokes an ironic attitude towards himself if he was unable to transform himself and become unrecognizable. The laws of the theater have the most favorable role for drama, which is characterized by spontaneity, strict objectivity and does not allow any interference on stage. This literary genre is much more conventional than epic and lyric poetry.

The plot (action) in the drama is visual, shown, it requires increased characterization. The hero of the epic is an incident, the hero of the play is a person. Here we observe the most intimate, living, immediate transitions in the nature of the action and, on the contrary, unclear actions, as if dictated by logic itself and the situation in which they are conditioned. The viewer sees that it should be this way and not otherwise. “Every hero has his own curtain” (A.N. Arbuzov). If a character (or actor) is unraveled in the sense that his actions resemble a mannequin, then he may remain on stage, but the effect will be negative. At the same time, one cannot absolutize the differences between the hero, the actor and the author. Let us repeat once again: the hero of a drama is a person, the hero of an epic is an incident. In order to reveal a certain topic, you have to make this topic a hero.

Drama as a literary genre intersects not only with epic, but also with lyric poetry, the power of direct action, the intensity of passions in drama is high and affects the viewer “now” with its pathos and keeps him in suspense until “its curtain.”

Literary genera from a historical perspective, they were formed in the following sequence: initially the epic appears, then the lyrics become its antithesis, and, finally, the drama seeks to synthesize the first two types. Meanwhile, this triadic series cannot be considered complete and perfect, since the generic principles are ignored here. These omissions can be restored in the following diagram, taking into account the fact that myth in the artistic sphere can be more reliable historical truth, because real information is not enough to understand the world and man:

Claude Levi-Strauss believes that “myth explains” equally the past, the present and the future” (“Structural Anthropology”, p. 186). And when the consistency in the movement of the world order of time is disrupted, then a catastrophe occurs in society (for example, the history of the first French revolution). In this regard, J. Michelet wrote: “On that day (when the revolution occurred) everything was possible... The future became the present. In other words, there was no more time, there was a flash of eternity.”

Scheme of literary genera

"Literary genus - a number of works that are similar in the type of their speech organization and cognitive focus on the subject and the object” (Davydova T.T. Pronin V.A. Theory of Literature. - M., 2003, p. 47).

A.N. Veselovsky wrote about the formation of three types of literature in his “Historical Poetics” (M., 1989). According to the scientist, at the dawn of art there was a certain syncretic form - a choral performance that joined the ritual. At first, lyrical-epic songs emerged from it, which, in the conditions of druzhina life, turned into epic songs. Those, in turn, were united into cycles, sometimes reaching epic forms. Later, lyric poetry emerged, then cult drama appeared, on the basis of which artistic drama subsequently arose.

The theory of the origin of literary genera put forward by A.N. Veselovsky, is confirmed by historical data about the life of primitive peoples. However, epic and lyric poetry could be formed in addition to ritual actions.

The issue of differentiation of literary works is considered from antiquity to modern times, at each stage literary process new decisions and priorities arise, clarifications and amendments are made, although the division of all verbal art into three types - epic, lyric, drama – remains unchanged since the times of Plato and Aristotle (IV centuries BC). A trend arose in the aesthetics of the ancient world understanding literary genres as ways of expressing artistic content.

Aristotle, based on the concept of “imitation,” identified three types of poetry in “Poetics”: epic, tragic and lyrical, which differ in the ways of imitation. “... You can imitate (...) in such a way that [the author] either leads the narrative [from the outside], or becomes in it someone else like Homer; or [all the time remains] himself and does not change; or [deduces] all imitated [in the form of persons] active and active” - these are the brief characteristics epic, lyric, drama(Aristotle. Poetics // Works. In 4 vols. T.4 - M., 1984, p. 648).

Aristotle's observations and ideas gave impetus to all subsequent development of theoretical and literary thought. Aristotle's triad was returned to during the Renaissance. The literary genera of I.V. were viewed from the same perspective. Goethe and F. Schiller in their correspondence and the article they co-wrote “On Epic and Dramatic Poetry” (1797).

At the same time, in the 19th century, in the aesthetics of romanticism, a different understanding of epic, lyricism and drama as certain types of artistic content arose. With this approach, literary genera began to be defined using philosophical categories. So, F.V. Schelling in his work “Philosophy of Art” (1802 – 1804) defined lyrics How the most subjective kind(in Schelling's terminology, a type) of literature in which freedom prevails. Lyrics “are allowed the most daring deviations from the usual sequence of thought, and only a connection in the soul of the poet or listener is required, and not a connection of an objective or external nature.” IN epic, whose task is to be a picture of history, objectively“pure necessity is portrayed.” Schelling considered the “synthesis of all poetry” drama,“in which what is depicted is as objective as in an epic work, and yet the subject is in the same movement as in a lyric poem: this is precisely the image where the action is not given in the story, but is presented itself in reality (the subjective is depicted by the objective )". Drama can only arise from the struggle between freedom and necessity."(Schelling F.V. Philosophy of Art - M., 1995, p. 345, 351, 398 – 400).

The most successful of these definitions of literary genres is the one that relates to lyric poetry. Despite the subjectivity and abstractness of this approach to literature, it was Schelling who first used the philosophical categories of subject and object, and also characterized the drama as mixed gender. These discoveries of romantic aesthetics were subsequently taken into account by G.V.F. Hegel, who substantiated his more reasoned theory of literary genera also with the help of philosophical categories.

Features of the epic, lyrics and drama of G.V.F. Hegel outlined through philosophical concepts object And subject of cognition(the predominance of the object in the epic, the subject in the lyrics, the synthesis of object and subject in drama). On this basis, the subject of each literary type is characterized: being in its integrity and the dominance of events over the will of individual people in the epic; emotional excitement, emotions in the lyrics; aspiration towards a goal, volitional activity in drama, the dominance of a person over an event in it. In an epic, a poet or prose writer recreates a reality that exists independently of the author (“the essence of the matter freely reveals itself, and the poet recedes into the background”). In the lyrics, reality, filtered through the prism of the author’s imagination, is colored subjectively (the content of the lyrics is “everything subjective, the inner world”, “verbal self-expression of the subject”). The drama reveals a synthesis of objective stage action and subjective self-expression of characters (drama is a “way of presentation” that connects “both of the former into a new integrity, where we are presented with both the objective development and its origins in the depths of the individual’s soul” (Hegel G.V.F. Aesthetics. In 4 volumes. T. 3 - M., 1971, pp. 419 - 421).

At the same time, in the characteristics of the epic and drama G.V.F. Hegel pays primary attention to the relationship between deeply meaningful categories events and actions. At the core epic is artistically mastered event, at the core dramas - action. But the event and action themselves are categories of real life. To become an artistic reality, they must be transformed into the “matter” of plot, composition, and artistic speech. Therefore, in epic and drama, the event and action appear in the form of epic and dramatic plots. By recreating an event, the epic strives to master the integrity of existence, capturing all its sides and spheres. Therefore, unlike the dramatic literary genre, the epic is not limited to depicting actions, which, first of all, is a striving towards a specific goal and, due to this, one-sidedly reveals a person. Epic author depicts event, appearing as a separate manifestation of a multilateral integral being.

Although Hegel's theory of literary genera is somewhat controversial, it was supported and developed by V.G. Belinsky in the article “The Division of Poetry into Genera and Species” (1841) and a number of other works. Nevertheless, he made comments that encourage us to take a critical look at Hegel's concept. He discovered cases when there is no direct correspondence between the generic content and the generic form: “... Another work that is epic in form is distinguished by its dramatic character, and vice versa. There is drama in an epic, and there is an epic in a drama” (Belinsky V.G. Complete collected works. Vol. 5 - M., 1954 - p. 22)

Belinsky gave clear definitions of epic and lyric poetry: “ Epic And lyrical poetry represents two abstract extremes of the real world, diametrically opposed to each other...

Epic poetry is primarily objective, external poetry, both in relation to itself and to the poet and his reader. Epic poetry expresses the contemplation of the world and life as existing by oneself and being in complete indifference to themselves and the poet or reader contemplating them.” Belinsky especially emphasized the contrast between the epic and lyric poetry: “Lyrical poetry is, on the contrary, poetry par excellence subjective, internal, the expression of the poet himself” (ibid., p. 10). Epic conveys visible, lyrics – inner world, although, according to Belinsky’s observation, they are often mixed.

In grammatical forms, the epic is determined by a past tense verb and a 3rd person singular pronoun or plural. The epic is characterized by two spatio-temporal situations, consisting of a distance between the present time of the narrative and the past time of the event that is being narrated. The lyrics are dominated by the 1st person pronoun singular and a present tense verb. If lyrical emotion was experienced in the past, it retains its relevance in this moment(“I loved you...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Letter to a Woman” by S.A. Yesenin, etc.).

Epic and lyric poetry differ both in the type of speech organization and in the emotional state of the author or hero captured in the text.

Considering the epic using the example of Homeric poems, A.A. Potebnya gave the following characteristic epic creativity: “Epic – perfectum. Hence calm contemplation, objectivity (the absence of any other personal interest in the things depicted in events, except that which is necessary for the possibility of the image itself). In pure epic, the narrator is not visible. He does not express his thoughts about events and feelings (compare the lyric-epic poems of Byron and others). It is not the singer-poet who loves his homeland, but the Odysseus depicted by him, who wants to see the smoke of his homeland, at least then die. The singer is completely hidden behind Odysseus. The fictitious omnipresence of Homer" (Potebnya A.A. Aesthetics and poetics. - M., 1976, p. 440).

In the lyrics, Potebnya notes the unity of experience and cognition, draws attention to the ways of expressing the changeable emotional states of the soul: “Lyrics are praesens. It is poetic knowledge, which, objectifying a feeling, subordinating it to thoughts, calms this feeling, pushing it into the past and thus makes it possible to rise above it.

Lyrics speak about the future and the past (an objective object) only to the extent that it excites, worries, pleases or repels. From this follow the properties of the lyrical image: brevity, understatement, conciseness, the so-called lyrical disorder” (Potebnya A.A., ibid., p. 440).

There's one in the lyrics main character is an author capable of countless reincarnations, but at the same time of self-observation. A lyrical work is always a “poem for the occasion.” As a result, lyric poetry is natural and similar to impromptu.

Drama as a type of literature, most often having a stage embodiment, retains its system of conventions, which the theater lover readily recognizes and forgives the author. This is primarily the fact that in drama the action takes place in a strictly limited space and time. The latter invariably coincides with the time of reading a play or watching a performance. The time sequence here, as a rule, corresponds to the chronology of the action, which moves from the present to the future, although sometimes there are events that preceded the beginning of the action, but they are invariably revealed (“Oedipus the King” by Sophocles, “Hamlet” by W. Shakespeare, etc.)

As emphasized by G.V.F. Hegel, the dramatic kind is based on action and, therefore, on conflict. The very term “drama” (Greek dráma - action) indicates that works belonging to this type are based on rapid, compared to epic works, action, which arises from the conflict of characters with each other, the hero with himself, and often with the era and timeless existential laws (“Faust” by I.V. Goethe, “Cain” by D.H. Byron, etc.).

The “implausibility” of the drama is also manifested in the emphasized arrangement of characters, the obligatory nature of each remark, which works on the dynamics of the action, in aside remarks that the characters in the drama do not hear, but are heard by the audience, in long poetic monologues reminiscent of the speeches of rhetoricians (voiced internal speech). If you try to look at drama through the eyes of a follower of Aristotle, it is not difficult to notice its main tendency: a single external action with unexpected twists and turns - unpredictable events, recognitions, coincidences, accidents, associated with direct confrontation between the heroes. Along with this, drama imitates living speech, people who become prototypes of stage and off-stage characters.

Dramatic works, like epic works, have a plot that takes place in time and space. But the artistic possibilities of drama, in comparison with the vast possibilities of epic, are limited: drama relates to epic in the same way as graphics relates to painting. This means that the drama does not have a detailed narrative, landscapes, descriptions of the characters, or the setting in which the action takes place. All this is sometimes given extremely concisely in the speech of the characters or in the author’s remarks. The main thing in a dramatic work is the monologues and dialogues of the characters.

Two types of drama can be distinguished. The first, based on external action and most of all gravitating towards a hyperbolic or grotesque revelation of the essence of the characters. From antiquity until the era of romanticism, the leading properties of drama corresponded to the main trends of pan-European literary development: forms of secondary convention prevailed in it over life-likeness. However, the desire for life-like typification, which prevailed in realistic and naturalistic literature, changed the artistic structure of drama. In the 19th–20th centuries, its “implausibility” is reduced to a minimum, external action is replaced by internal action or intertwined with it, everyday and psychological traits increase in the images of characters (A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, etc.) . This is how the second type of drama arises. However, “improbability” remains in the plays of these playwrights as one of generic traits dramas.

The problem of delimiting literary genres and highlighting their essential features continues to attract the attention of literary scholars. So, for example, V.E. Khalizev correlates the main properties of each of the literary genres with three aspects of the utterance (speech act): a message about the subject of speech - representation; expression - the expression of the speaker's emotions and appeal - the speaker's appeal to someone, which makes the statement an actual action.

“In a lyrical work, speech expression becomes the organizing principle and dominant element. Drama emphasizes the appellative, actually effective side of speech, and the word appears as a kind of act performed at a certain moment in the unfolding of events. The epic also widely relies on appellative beginnings of speech (since the composition of the works includes statements of heroes that mark their actions). But this literary genre is dominated by messages about something external to the speaker.

With these properties of the speech fabric of lyric poetry, drama and epic, other properties of types of literature are also organically connected (and are predetermined by them): methods of spatio-temporal organization of works; the uniqueness of the appearance of man in them; forms of the author's presence; the nature of the text's appeal to the reader. Each of the types of literature, in other words, has a special, unique set of properties” (Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature - M., 1999, p. 296)

Epic- (from the Greek epos - word, narrative, story) - one of the three main types of literature, in contrast to lyrics and drama, highlighting an objective image of reality, the author's description of events unfolding in space and time, a narration about various phenomena life, people, their destinies, characters, actions, etc. Special role in works epic genres plays the bearer of the narrative (author-narrator or storyteller), reporting on events, their development, characters, their lives, while separating himself from the depicted. Depending on the time span of events, they are distinguished major genres epic - epic, novel, epic poem, or epic poem; medium - a story and small - a story, short story, essay. Some genres of oral folk art also belong to the epic family: fairy tales, epics, fables.

Epic genres:

Novel- (from French roman - originally: a work written in one of the Romance (i.e. modern, living) languages, as opposed to written in Latin) - epic genre: a large epic work that comprehensively depicts the life of people in a certain period time or for a whole human life. Characteristic properties novel: multi-linear plot, covering the fate of a number of characters; the presence of a system of equivalent characters; coverage of a wide range of life phenomena, formulation of socially significant problems; significant duration of action.

Story- small epic genre: prose work a small volume in which, as a rule, one or several events in the hero’s life are depicted. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the action described is short in time. Sometimes a work of this genre may have a narrator. The masters of storytelling were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.

Tale- a middle (between short story and novel) epic genre, in which a number of episodes from the life of the hero (heroes) are presented. The story is larger in scope than a short story and depicts reality more broadly, depicting a chain of episodes that make up a certain period in the life of the main character, in which more events and characters, however, unlike a novel, as a rule, there is one storyline.

Epic- the largest genre form of epic. The epic is characterized by:

1. Wide coverage of the phenomena of reality, depiction of the life of the people in a historically significant way, crucial moment

2. Rise global problems, universal significance

3. National content

4. Multiple storylines

5. Very often - relying on history and folklore

Journey- a literary genre based on a description of the hero’s wanderings. This can be information about the countries and peoples the traveler has seen in the form of travel diaries, notes, essays, and so on.

Epistolary genre is a genre of literary work characterized by the form of personal letters.

Confession- a literary genre that can be epic or lyrical in nature. one of the seven Christian sacraments, which also include baptism, communion, confirmation, marriage, etc. Confession required complete sincerity from a person, a desire to get rid of sins, and repentance. Having penetrated into the artist. Literally, confession acquired a didactic connotation, becoming a kind of act of public repentance (for example, in J. J. Rousseau, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy). But at the same time, confession was also a means of moral self-affirmation of the individual. As a genre of lyric poetry, poetry was developed by the romantics. A confession is akin to a diary, but unlike it, it is not attached to a book. place and time.

Lyrics- one of the three main types of literature, highlighting the subjective image of reality: individual states, thoughts, feelings, impressions of the author, caused by certain circumstances, impressions. In the lyrics, life is reflected in the experiences of the poet (or lyrical hero): it is not narrated, but an image-experience is created. The most important property of lyrics is the ability to convey an individual (feeling, state) as universal. Characteristic features of the lyrics: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size.

Lyric genres:

Elegy is a genre of lyric poetry: a poem of meditative (from the Latin meditatio - in-depth reflection) or emotional content, conveying deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, as a rule, imbued with moods of sadness and light sadness. Most often written in the first person. The most common themes of the elegy are contemplation of nature, accompanied by philosophical thoughts, love, as a rule, unrequited, life and death, etc. The greatest popularity of this arose in ancient times the genre was used in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism; the elegies of V.A. became especially famous. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkova, A.A. Pushkina, E.A. Baratynsky, N.M. Yazykova.

Message is a poetic genre: a poetic letter, a work written in the form of an appeal to someone and containing appeals, requests, wishes, etc. (“To Chaadaev”, “Message to the Censor” by A.S. Pushkin; “Message to the Proletarian Poets” "V.V. Mayakovsky). There are lyrical, friendly, satirical, journalistic, etc.

There are lyric-epic genres that are at the intersection of lyric and epic. From the lyrics they have a subjective beginning, a clearly expressed author’s emotion, from the epic they have a plot, a narration of events. Lyric-epic genres gravitate toward poetic form. The larger lyric epic genre is the poem, the smaller one is the ballad.

Poem is a lyric-epic genre: a large or medium-sized poetic work (a poetic story, a novel in verse), the main features of which are the presence of a plot (as in an epic) and an image of a lyrical hero (as in lyric poetry)

Ballad is a genre of lyric-epic poetry: a narrative song or poem of a relatively small volume, with a dynamic development of the plot, the basis of which is an extraordinary incident. Often in a ballad there is an element of the mysterious, fantastic, inexplicable, unspoken, even tragically insoluble. By origin, ballads are associated with legends, folk legends, combine the features of a story and a song. Ballads are one of the main genres in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism. For example: ballads by V.A. Zhukovsky, M.Yu. Lermontov.

Drama- one of the three main types of literature, reflecting life in actions taking place in the present. These are works intended to be staged. The dramatic genre includes tragedies, comedies, dramas proper, melodramas and vaudeville.

Drama Genres:

Tragedy- (from Greek tragodia - goat song< греч. tragos - козел и ode - песнь) - один из основных жанров драмы: пьеса, в которой изображаются крайне острые, зачастую неразрешимые жизненные противоречия. В основе сюжета трагедии - непримиримый конфликт Героя, сильной личности, с надличными силами (судьбой, государством, стихией и др.) или с самим собой. В этой борьбе герой, как правило, погибает, но одерживает нравственную победу. Цель трагедии - вызвать в зрителе потрясение увиденным, что, в свою очередь, рождает в их сердцах скорбь и сострадание: такое душевное состояние ведет к катарсису – очищение благодаря потряснию.

Comedy- (from the Greek from komos - a cheerful crowd, a procession at Dionysian festivals and odie - a song) - one of the leading genres of drama: a work based on ridicule of social and human imperfection.

Drama– (in the narrow sense) one of the leading genres of drama; a literary work written in the form of a dialogue between characters. Intended for performance on stage. Focused on spectacular expressiveness. The relationships between people and the conflicts that arise between them are revealed through the actions of the heroes and are embodied in a monologue-dialogue form. Unlike tragedy, drama does not end in catharsis.

About poetic meter

When working on any essay related to the analysis of a poetic text, it is necessary to analyze the poetic meter. Why is this so important? Because in a poetic work, not only the content is important, but also the form - that is, the rhythm, sound, music of the poem, which, in fact, forms the poem itself.

The most important thing is not just to determine the size, but to say in your essay what this size brings to the poem.

Iambic is an energetic, often solemn sound of verse, trochee is melodious and gentle (all lullabies are written in trochee and, by the way, following Lermontov - all poems in which there is night landscape). Three-syllable sizes are more flexible intonation, close to colloquial speech(This is probably why Nekrasov preferred them).

Well, let's get down to business. To easily determine the size, you must first remember what a foot is. A foot is a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. That's all.

Everyone knows, of course, that there are five poetic meters in Russian versification: two two-syllable and three three-syllable. Two-syllables are when there are two syllables in a foot, three-syllables are when there are three, respectively:

Trochee is a two-syllable meter with stress on the first syllable.

Iambic is a two-syllable meter with stress on the second syllable.

Let us introduce the following notations: ` - stressed syllable, _ - unstressed syllable.

Then the trochee will look like this: | ` _ |, and iambic - like this: | _` |.

Dactyl - like this: | ` _ _ |. It’s easy to remember: dactyl means “finger” in Greek. It’s true, it looks like: three phalanges, on the first nail, like three syllables, the first is marked with stress.

Anapest (“inverted, reflected” - even sounds in Russian like “stick (pestle) in reverse”) looks like this: | _ _ ` |.

Amphibrachium ("surrounded") - | _ ` _ |.

Now that we know everything, the simplest and, oddly enough, the most difficult thing for the guys to do is to mark each syllable of a poetic line with a dash. It is more convenient when all the strokes are the same, regardless of the length of the syllable. (Just in case: the number of syllables is equal to the number of vowel sounds). Function words, as a rule, are not marked with stress unless logical stress falls on them when reading a poem.

Well, for example, let’s take the first two lines of Akhmatova’s poem “Native Land”.

We don’t carry them on our chests in our treasured amulet,

We don’t write sobbing poems about her...

It will turn out like this:

_ ` _ ` _ _ _ ` _ _ _ `

_ ` _ ` _ ` _ _ _ ` _

Now this needs to be divided into groups of syllables (foots) so that inside each there is a stressed syllable... “Something is wrong here,” you say. Indeed, two-syllable Russian verse is characterized by pyrrhich - omission of stress. And this is very natural: not all words in our country consist of two syllables! If there were no such omissions, the poems would be like a monotonous drumbeat.

By the way, I’ll offer a twist for your essay: if you note that the sound of a word in a verse (a verse is a line of poetry) is emphasized and highlighted due to pyrrhic, that will be great. Provided, of course, that your teacher knows what pyrrhichium is.

Let's return to our (i.e. Akhmatov's) poem:

| _ ` | _ ` | _ _ | _ ` | _ _ | _ ` |

| _ ` | _ ` | _ ` | _ _ | _ ` | _

Note that the “tail” (what remains outside the foot) is not taken into account when determining the size.

So, for the first stanza of her poem, Akhmatova turns to the solemn sound of iambic pentameter - this or a conclusion close to this is what you would have to draw when analyzing the size of this poem.

But the second stanza will bring us surprises. It is so different that even the size changes:

Yes, for us it’s dirt on our galoshes,

Yes, for us it’s a crunch in the teeth...

How the size has changed is up to you to determine. What is also important is why it has changed so much, what this change reflects. I would like to draw your attention to this: the poetess emphasizes the first word (“yes”) with extra-metric stress (i.e., unnecessary in the verse). It's called a spondee and is quite rare. For example, in Pushkin’s “Poltava” the spondee conveys the rumbling, confusion of battle:

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...

POETRY RHYTHM

BIOSYLLABLE AND TRIPYSYLLABLE VERSE SIZES

The literature textbook for grade 6 contains the topics “Two-syllable meters of verse” and “Three-syllable meters of verse”, placed in different sections of the book. How do we work with them? First, we combine the topics. Secondly, to fully understand the topic, we use the following types of work.

I. Linguistic experiment.

Compare two performances of a stanza from the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov

"Three Palms"

First reading:

But darkness has just fallen to the ground,

The ax clattered on the elastic roots,

And the pets of centuries fell without life.

Their clothes were torn off by small children,

Their bodies were then destroyed,

And they slowly burned them with fire until the morning.

What words sound unusual because we don’t usually pronounce them?

Second reading: (The student reads this stanza, observing the normative

emphasis: “by the roots”, “plucked”, “until the morning”).

What changed? The poem spreads out, its energy and rhythm are lost. This means that rhythm is the most important attribute of a poem. (We are not talking about free verse without rhythm here.)

II. Comparison of the rhythms of surrounding life and poetic rhythm

The life around us, the life of nature and people, is built on rhythms. Day alternates with night, winter is replaced by spring... Where else do we find rhythmic alternations?

The guys’ answers: “At school, lessons alternate with breaks, the clock is ticking, the heart is beating, inhalation and exhalation alternate. There is rhythm in music, in dancing.”

Poems are also built on rhythm. Just as, for example, day alternates with night, forming a day, so a stressed syllable alternates with an unstressed one, forming a foot. The foot is repeated to form a line. The lines alternate with each other to form a poem.

III. Algorithm for determining poetic meter.

We try to read the poem expressively in order to convey its meaning to the listeners. But small children, having learned their first poems in their lives, read them in a chant, chant (that is, they read them incorrectly, “sticking out” the stressed syllables), but at the same time convey to the listener the clear rhythm of the verse:

1. Our / Tanya / loudly / cries/

2. Uro / nila / into the river / ball /

3. Hush / Tanya / don’t / cry

4. The ball is not / drowning / in the river.

There are 4 feet in a line. Each foot (except for two incomplete ones in 3.4 lines) represents an ordered alternation of two syllables (bisyllabic foot); first stressed – second unstressed |-- --|. The rhythmic pattern of the line is as follows:

1. ta-ta / ta-ta / ta-ta / ta-ta /

A two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable is a trochee. Easy to remember. If a keyword fits several times in a line - any two-syllable word with stress on the first syllable (for example, COLD) - it is a trochee:

2. cold/cold/cold/ho/

hush / Tanya / don’t / cry /

There are two two-syllable meters, three three-syllable meters. All other poetic meters are also determined using this algorithm:

Read the poetic stanza expressively.

Scan it.

Give it a rhythmic pattern.

Fill in the stanza with keywords.

Please indicate the size of the verse.

IV. Reference diagram

Key words for each of the five poetic meters are contained in the following table:

SUPPORT DIAGRAM

COLD, strong, HOREUS

JANUARY sweeps, IAMB

DASHENKA DACTYL

IN THE PHARMACY OF AMPHIBRACHIUS

PINEAPPLE takes ANAPEST

Let’s immediately make a reservation that pineapples are not sold in pharmacies, but for the reference scheme it is not life-likeness that is important, but ease of memorization.

In literature courses, students are taught the following:

Anna Akhmatova - dactyl

Marina Tsvetaeva - amphibrachium

Nikolay Gumilyov - anapaest

This support can also be adopted.

For students, the reference scheme I propose is convenient in that the key words already suggest the name of the poetic meter. This is easier than placing accents, dividing a line into feet, especially since quite often the emphasis in a foot is not obvious, but hidden, additional | --- ---|, for example,

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry/

Everything will pass/ go like / with white/ apples/ smoke/

U-vya/ dan-ya/ zo-lo/ tom o/ grabbed/ ny/

I won't/ will/ more/ mo-lo/ smoke/

Traditionally, the phenomenon of missing schematic stress is called pyrrhichium (Literary encyclopedic Dictionary M, 1987, p. 278). Gradually the term "pyrrhic" comes out of their use.

Based on a given situation with given rhymes, compose quatrains using all poetic meters (group work).

Situation: The boy Sanya brought a snake to school to scare the girls.

The girls got scared, and then, united, they pulled the joker’s ears.

Rhymes: Sanya - in your pocket

He rang out - he stayed

Possible options:

Horey: Managed to go to school Sanya

Bring the snake in your pocket.

A terrible scream suddenly rang out -

The hero remained a little alive.

Iambic (sing): Sanya decided today

Carrying a snake in your pocket,

The real bastard

Beautiful, shiny,

Such a cry was heard here -

Barely left alive!

Dactyl: This Sanya is such a strange person:

He managed to find a monster in his pocket

Bring it to class. A heart-rending scream rang out.

Our hero was almost left without ears.

Amphibrachius: Yesterday this Sanya made us laugh to tears:

He quietly brought the snake in his pocket.

A frantic scream rang out throughout the school,

Our Sanya was almost left without hair.

Anapest: Once Sanya came to school,

He brought the snake in his pocket.

Then such a heart-rending cry was heard -

Sanya almost became a stutterer.

CONCLUSION: The same content can be conveyed in different

poetic sizes.

Scope of application of the algorithm that determines poetic meter

Using the algorithm given above, the size of lines written in the syllabic-tonic (syllabic-stressed) system of versification is easily determined, including the size of the so-called “blank verse” (non-rhymed), for example, “Song of the Falcon” - iambic, “Song of Petrel" - trochee.

Naturally, it is impossible to determine the metric size (for lack of one) in A. Blok’s poem “She Came from the Frost,” written in free verse (free verse without rhythm), in some poems by A. Fet, E. Vinokurov, V. Soloukhin and others.

It is interesting to follow the rhythmic pattern in the poems written by Dolnik:

The girl/ sang/ in the church/ choir Dashenka/ cold/ pharmacy/ cold

About everyone/ tired/ in a foreign/ land January/ pharmacy/ January/ January

About all/ ships/ gone/ to sea January/ pineapple/ pharmacy/ cold

About everyone/ who forgot/ joy/ their January/ pharmacy/ cold/ January

We see here a random alternation of three-syllable and two-syllable feet with the same number of stresses in each line. Strictly speaking, these are not feet, but strong places (stressed syllables). The alternation of strong points (icts) and weak points (inter-tict intervals) gives the beat (beat, krat) and provides the poem with a tangible internal rhythm. (Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary, p. 87). The volume of interictic intervals is not constant, as in syllabic-tonic meters, but fluctuates in the range of 1-2 syllables (see first line):

 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

And here is the rhythmic pattern of another Blok poem. Do you recognize his first line?

Ta / ta-ta-ta / ta-ta / ta-ta-ta

Xo/ Dashenka/ January/ pharmacy/

Yes, this is the well-known “Night. Smart girl. Flashlight. Pharmacy". Here we are also dealing with a debtor. Let us also remember the great importance of pauses in such verses (another name for dolnik is pauznik).

Dolnik (previously, the term pausnik was sometimes used) is a type of tonic verse, where only the number of stressed syllables coincides in the lines, and the number of unstressed syllables between them ranges from 2 to 0.

"Days (0) bull (0) peg,

Slow (2) years (1) cart,

Our (0) god (0) running,

The heart is (1) our (2) drum.

Vladimir Mayakovsky

General formula X Ú X Ú X Ú, etc. (Ú - stressed syllables, X - unstressed; the value of X is variable; X = 0, 1, 2). Depending on the number of stresses in a line, a distinction is made between two-stress, three-stress, four-stress, etc. This type of verse is typical for languages ​​with tonic versification and is very often found in English, Russian, and German poetry. Can be distinguished whole line modifications of the dolnik, depending on the number of stresses in the line (some modifications of the dolnik do not retain an equal number of stresses, for example, many of Mayakovsky’s poems), on the degree of variation in the number of unstressed syllables between stressed syllables, etc.

If lines with an inter-beat interval of 3 are allowed, they speak of a tact, if 4 or more - of an accented verse.

In Russian poetry, dolnik is a very old verse form. In its structure, it undoubtedly goes back to folk verse, which - minus the musical side of it - basically fits the formula of the tactician, and many lines fit into the rhythm of the dolnik (it was from folk verse that he argued theoretically ("An Experience on Russian Versification", 1812) and practically (“Rivers”, translated from Confucius and others) by Vostokov, who defended the introduction of dolnik into Russian poetry). In a certain sense, the trisyllabic meters of syllabic-tonic versification are also close to the dolnik, in which the pattern of the number of unstressed words between the stressed ones in a number of cases was not observed, due to which they represented a formation close to the dolnik (for example, Russian hexameter).

In Russian poetry, the dolnik was cultivated by the Symbolists, then by the Futurists. It was especially widespread in the poetry of the early 20th century (see chapters on dolnik in “Introduction to Metrics” by V. M. Zhirmunsky, pp. XXX, 184 and following).

The term “dolnik” was introduced in the early 1920s by V. Ya. Bryusov and G. A. Shengeli, but in relation to what is now known as accented verse. Initially, dolnik was called pausnik in Russian poetry (a term first noted by S.P. Bobrov), however, starting from the works of V.M. Zhirmunsky, the terms “dolnik” and “pausnik” are used as equivalent.

Rhyme

Rhyme (from the Greek rhythmós - harmony, proportionality), consonance of poetic lines, which has phonetic, metric and compositional meaning. R. emphasizes the boundary between verses and connects verses into stanzas. In the poetry of most peoples, R. is located at the ends of verses, but regular initial consonances are found (for example, initial assonances in Mongolian poetry). At different times and among different peoples, different requirements were placed on rhyme, therefore there cannot be a single universal definition of rhyme in terms of sound composition: it depends on both the literary tradition and the phonetic structure of the language. For example, in Russian poetry the basis of rhyme is the consonance of stressed vowels; in the Czech language, in which the stress always falls on the initial syllable, the consonance of the last syllables may not depend on the place of stress.

According to the place of emphasis, R. are divided into men's- with emphasis on the last syllable (banks - rays), women's- with emphasis on the penultimate syllable (Ruslana - novel), dactylic- with stress on the third syllable from the end (chained - enchanted) and very rare hyperdactylic(quacks - jumps up) with a large number of post-stressed syllables (see Clause). Mutual arrangement rhyming lines can be different. Basic rhyming methods: adjacent- according to the pattern aa bb... (The raven flies to the raven, / The raven shouts to the crow... - Pushkin ); cross- abab (The east was covered with a ruddy dawn, /In a village across the river/ A light went out... - Pushkin); encompassing, or encircling, - abba(The hops are already drying up on the tine. /Behind the farmsteads, on the farms, /In the cool sun rays/ Bronze melons turn red... - Bunin). These rhyming methods can alternate and intertwine in different ways. Poems for one R. - monorimes- are rare in European poetry, but widespread in the poetry of the Near and Middle East (see Ghazal, Qasida, Rubai). A certain, repeating arrangement of R. is one of the signs of a stanza.

In Russian poetry, rhyme originates from syntactic parallelism, widespread in folklore, thanks to which identical parts of speech appear at the ends of verses in the same way. grammatical form, which generates the consonance: “Praise the hay in the stack, and the master in the coffin.” In Old Russian. poetry was dominated by the so-called grammatical (suffixal-inflectional) R.: byashe - znashe, beats - drives away. From the 18th century R. heterogeneous, educated begins to be valued in different parts speeches (night - away, etc.). At the same time (as earlier in French poetry, etc.), the requirement for an exact R. is gradually established, that is, one in which the final stressed vowel and all the sounds that follow it coincide (by you - by hand). If the so-called supporting consonants preceding the stressed vowel also coincide, R. is then called rich (rake - Zeus); if the consonance captures the pre-stressed syllable, it is deep (ill - could not). From the middle of the 19th century. in Russian verse, so-called approximate vowels are increasingly encountered, in which the overstressed vowels do not coincide (air - rozdykh). Since the beginning of the 20th century. poets more often use inaccurate R. different types: assonance - consonance of vowels with a mismatch (usually partial) of consonants (cloud - about); truncated R., with truncation of the final consonant in one of the words (forest - cross, flame - memory); compound R. (to grow up to one hundred - old age); consonances in which the stressed vowels are different (norov - communards); unequally syllabic rhymes, in which masculine or dactylic endings rhyme with feminine or hyperdactylic endings (papakha - pokakhivaya).

R. also has a semantic meaning: it “... returns you to the previous line... makes all the lines that form one thought stick together” (Mayakovsky V.V., Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 12, 1959 , p. 235). An aesthetic assessment of poetry (its accuracy or inaccuracy, novelty or traditionality, etc.) is impossible outside the context of the poem, without taking into account its composition and style.

Sonnet(Italian sonetto, from Provence sonet - song), solid poetic form: poem of 14 lines, divided by 2 quatrains (quatrain) And 2 tercets (tercet); in quatrains only 2 rhymes are repeated, in terzettos - 2 or 3. The most common are 2 types of rhyme arrangement: 1) “Italian” - quatrains according to the scheme abab abab or abba abba, tercettoes according to the scheme cdc dcd or cdc cde; 2) "French" - abba abba and ccd eed or ccd ede. S.'s verse is 11-syllable in Italian and Spanish poetry, 12-syllable in French, iambic 5-foot in English, iambic 5- and 6-foot in German and Russian poetry. Various deviations from the classical scheme are possible: changing the order of rhymes (abab baab, “To the Poet” by A. S. Pushkin), introducing extra rhymes (abba cddc, etc.), introducing extra lines (S. with coda, etc. ), free order of quatrains and tercets, use of non-traditional meters, etc. Of these “free forms”, only “English S.” has been canonized to some extent. Shakespearean type (abab cdcd efef gg). The clear internal division of the syllable makes it possible to emphasize the dialectical development of the theme: already early theorists provided “rules” not only for the form, but also for the content of the syllable (pauses, dots on the boundaries of stanzas; not a single meaningful word is repeated; the last word- the semantic key of the entire poem, etc.); In modern times, the development of a theme across 4 stanzas of S. has been more than once conceptualized as the sequence “thesis - development of the thesis - antithesis - synthesis”, “commence - development - climax - denouement”, etc.

Of all the solid poetic forms of European poetry, only S. has received wide and free use in lyric poetry. S. originated in Italy in the first half of the 13th century. It received its classical form in Florence at the end of the 13th century. (Dante), gained widest popularity thanks to F. Petrarch (317 sonnets about Laura), dominates in lyric poetry Italian Renaissance and Baroque, from the 16th century. goes to Spain, Portugal, France, England (L. de Vega, L. Camoes, P. Ronsard, Du Bellay, W. Shakespeare, J. Donne, etc.), in the 17th century. reaches Germany in the 18th century. - Russia (V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov). Romanticism revives interest in S., which had fallen during the era of classicism and Enlightenment; The centers of S. culture are Germany (A. Schlegel, N. Lenau, A. Platen), England (W. Wordsworth, E. B. Browning, D. G. Rossetti), and partly famous. countries (J. Kollar, A. Mickiewicz, in Russia - A. A. Delvig, A. A. Grigoriev) and France (C. Baudelaire, J. Heredia). S. was cultivated by the poetry of symbolism and modernism - P. Verlaine, P. Valery, G. D. Annunzio, S. George, R. M. Rilke, V. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Bryusov and others; among the poets who overcame modernism - I. Becher, but for none of them this form became

fundamental in his work. In Sov. In poetry, I. Selvinsky, S. Kirsanov, and others experimented with the form of S.

Haiku

Haiku(otherwise known as haiku), genre and form Japanese poetry; tercet, consisting of two encircling five-syllable verses and one seven-syllable in the middle. Genetically goes back to the first half-strophe tank(Hokku literally - initial verses), from which it differs in the simplicity of the poetic language, the rejection of previous canonical rules, and the increased role of associativity, understatement, and hint. In his development, X. went through several stages. The poets Arakida Moritake (1465-1549) and Yamazaki Sokan (1465-1553) saw X as a purely comic genre. The credit for turning X into a leading lyrical genre belongs to Matsuo Basho (1644-94); The main content of X. became landscape lyrics. The name of Taniguchi Buson (1716-83) is associated with the expansion of the theme of X. In parallel, in the 18th century. Comic X. developed, becoming an independent satirical and humorous genre of senryu. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Kobayashi Issa introduces civic motives into X. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Masaoka Shiki applied to X. the method of “sketches from life” (shasei), borrowed from painting, which contributed to the development of realism in the X genre.

What is haiku

HAIKU(otherwise - haiku, haikai) - a three-line (three-line) lyric poem, as a rule, which is the national Japanese form of "Dentosshi" ("poetic tradition"). Haiku usually depicts nature and man in their eternal inseparability. Each Hokku has a certain measure of verses - the first and third verses have five syllables, the second verse has seven, and a total of 17 syllables in a Hokku. Of course, this applies to Haiku in Japanese, but in Russian it is customary to adhere to a certain rhythmic pattern when writing Haiku.

Matsuo Basho- recognized Master of Japanese poetry. Basho's haiku are truly masterpieces among the haiku of other Japanese poets. Basho is the pseudonym of the great poet. At birth, Basho was named Kinzaku, upon reaching adulthood - Munefusa; another name for Basho is Jinsichiro. Matsuo Basho is a great Japanese poet and theorist of verse. Basho was born in 1644 in the small castle town of Ueno, Iga Province (Hons Island

"Autumn has already arrived!" -

The wind whispered in my ear,

Sneaking up to my pillow.

He is a hundred times nobler

Who does not say at the flash of lightning:

"This is our life!"

All the excitement, all the sadness

Of your troubled heart

Give it to the flexible willow.

Tanka - Japanese pentaverse poems

And I watch with envy how the white wave

He runs back to the abandoned edge.

Oh, if only in the world

You've never been here

Cherry blossoms!

Probably then in the spring

My heart was comforted.

Rubaiyat(quatrain), a form of lyric poetry of the peoples of the Middle East. Borrowed from the widespread oral folk art of the Persians and Tajiks (another name for R. in folklore is dubaiti or taran). In written literature, in which, unlike the syllabic folk meter, R. is built in the Aruz meter, it appears already in the 9th-10th centuries. (Rudaki and others) and since then has invariably served to express lyrical theme with predominance philosophical reflections. From Persian-language literature, R. passes into Arabic, many Turkic-language literatures, and Urdu literature. As a genre form, poetry reached its peak in the mid-11th century, but from the 2nd half of the 12th century. noticeably gives way to the gazelle. R. consists of 4 hemistiches (or two beits), rhyming like aaba, less often like aaaa.

Omar Khayyam

Where did we come from? Where are we going on our way?

What is the meaning of our life? He is incomprehensible to us.

How many pure souls are under the azure wheel

It burns to ashes, to dust, and where, tell me, is the smoke?

Gazelle

Abu Ali ibn Sina.

Gazelleь (ghazal) – lyric poem, in which two hemistiches of the first beit rhyme, and then the same rhyme is maintained in all second hemistiches of each subsequent beit like “aa, ba, ca, da”, etc. In the last beit of a gazelle the poetic name (tahallus) of the author is often called .

Beautifully pure wine, its spirit is sublime and rich,

Its fragrance outshone the scent of roses

As in the teaching of the father, in bliss there is bitterness and grace,

A prude finds lies in wine, but a wise man finds a generous treasure of truths.

Wine is not harmful to the wise, it is ruin for the ignorant,

It contains poison and honey, good and evil, shadow of sorrows and light of delights.

A ban has been placed on wine due to the ignorance of the ignorant,

Unbelief splits the world into a bright paradise and a dark hell.

What guilt is there in the wine that a fool drinks it,

When drunk, he is happy to talk idle and, whatever he says, is out of place.

Drink wisely, like Abu Ali, I swear by the truth:

Wine will show the right path to the country, the true wind town.

There are ten signs of a noble soul,

Six humiliate her. You need to be free

To her from meanness, lies and low envy,

Neglect of loved ones leads to people's misfortune and pain.

If you are rich, then show your generosity to your friends,

Be their support and guiding star.

And if you fall into poverty, be strong and proud,

Let your face turn yellow in hopeless melancholy.

The age is short, our every breath may be our last,

Don’t worry about the world with fruitless worries,

Death plays backgammon tirelessly: we are checkers

Literary criticism in a literature lesson is one of the most difficult teaching problems. How to talk to schoolchildren about terms and concepts so as not to scare them off with scientific ideas? How to turn theory towards them with its natural, organic side? Moscow teacher Oksana Smirnova shares her methodological findings with us. We publish a fragment from textbook, which is being developed at the Traditional Gymnasium under the guidance of the author of the article. It is addressed directly to students and can be used as an alternative (or support) to textbook materials.

Epic, lyric, drama

Literary works are usually divided into three main genera (or, in other words, types): epic, lyrics And drama. This division goes back to the times Ancient Greece and was first outlined by the philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Art of Poetry” (IV century BC).

Each of you has some idea of ​​the three main types of literature, but those who have never thought about the meaning of this division often have a simplified, not entirely correct concept of it. It seems to many that lyrics are necessarily poetry, with rhythm and rhyme, drama is what is played on stage, and epic is any artistic prose text. However, a slightly more sophisticated reader knows that dramas are also in verse, and ancient poems - for example, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are called “epic”. But sometimes in prose there are short stories in which there are almost no events, and main role plays the mood. In a series of his stories written in this way, the Russian writer I.S. Turgenev called it “Poems in Prose”.

Task epic(in Greek “epic” means narrative) - to describe events. In an epic work, the author's view is an outside view. For a very long time, the epic was unable and did not undertake to describe the events of a person’s inner life, but even when such descriptions appear, the author, in order to talk about his experiences, must take a step to the side and look at his inner state through someone else’s, detached eyes.

Epic is co-reflection the narrator and his listeners (and later readers) about the meaning of the events that took place. Reflection requires a calm, sober view of things. It is often said: “Told with epic calm.” In fact, Homer, for example, with equal thoroughness, “without lowering his eyes,” talks about how the Cyclops milks his herd and how he kills and eats Odysseus’s companions. Or rather, Odysseus himself talks about this in the poem, but he does not bring his feelings into the story: fear, pity, despair. He is separated from these events by the path traveled and the years lived - an epic distance that gives his gaze a detachment.

But with such an impartial, objective story, the connection between causes and effects that make up the events of human life becomes clearer. Behind the chaos of everyday accidents, laws are revealed that govern the movement of life.

Lyrics, on the contrary, is most occupied with depicting a person’s feelings, his internal state. Even if a lyrical work describes some objects and events, the description is always colored by a personal, subjective attitude. This attitude is the main subject of the image. When we read in Pushkin's poems:

The whole room has an amber shine
Illuminated. Cheerful crackling
The flooded stove crackles, -

we are interested not so much in the description of the room and the stove (which, generally speaking, is not here), but in the impression of comfort, joy, warmth and light that emerges from these lines.

Lyrics are empathy reader to the author of the poem. Lyrics do not require detachment, but, on the contrary, immersion of the reader (listener) in feelings and moods - both the author’s and our own, because if we do not guess behind the author’s words something already familiar to us from inner experience, the poems will remain for us as if writing in an unknown language. When we do not understand poetry, we simply do not notice, we do not hear in them the main thing that is being discussed.

Lyrics require the reader to be able to enter into the emotional world of another person. It turns out that it is much easier for us to do this if the lyrical text is combined with music. The word “lyric” in Greek means “pronounced to the sounds of the lyre,” a stringed musical instrument that the ancient Greeks believed was once invented by the god Hermes and given to Apollo, the patron of the arts. The very name of the lyrics shows that in its deepest essence it is akin to music - an art that can express human feelings without naming them.

This relationship explains to us why lyrics are characterized by rhythm and measure. Rhythm, melodiousness, and musicality help lyrical works express what words cannot always contain. Or we can say it another way: the music of a verse makes words express more than they can express in ordinary speech. The rhythm of the verse itself puts us in the right mood. Compare, for example, two descriptions of the lunar winter night in Pushkin's poems:

Through the wavy mists
The moon is creeping...
(“Winter Road”) - calm, bright, sad;

The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling,
Invisible moon
The flying snow illuminates...
(“Demons”) - tense, alarming, like strong heartbeats.

Reading poetry, like singing songs - if we are not talking about fakes, but about real art - is both pleasure and labor of the soul.

Due to the fact that the form of poetry is quite complex, and their perception requires a certain culture, one may get the impression that poetry is some kind of late and artificial invention in literature. This is wrong. Poems are older and in some ways more natural than prose. Rhythm amazingly inherent in human speech. Russian poet N.S. Gumilyov once said that this “is known to anyone who, carefully honing a piece of prose, made efforts to restrain the emerging rhythm.” That's why the ancients epic tales composed in verse, like lyrical songs. Both of them, according to scientists, arose from ancient choral poetry.

Drama in Greek it means “action.” It does not tell about past events, but shows events as if they were happening before our eyes. The famous definition that Aristotle gave to drama begins with the words: “Drama is the imitation of action...”

The author of the drama does not have the opportunity to speak “on his own”: everything he wants to say must be clear to the viewer from the events taking place on stage and the conversations of the characters. At the same time, the viewer delves into the events of someone else's life and begins to experience them as if they closely concern him. In the theater (especially in children's theater) it often happens that the audience forgets that this is a play written by a playwright. It happens that they get worried, scream, try to change the course of action: to warn someone, to interfere with someone...

If epic is co-reflection, and lyricism is empathy, then drama makes the viewer literally a “participant” in events.

For a long time, drama was not thought of or existed outside the theater, and this explains many of its features. The action in the drama is limited to strict limits. It must have a logical beginning ( the beginning), development of action and end ( denouement). The anticipation of the outcome keeps the viewer in tension, which at some moments of the action increases and becomes breathtakingly acute. Such moments are called climaxes- points of highest tension of action.

The viewer's interest in the action does not necessarily rest on the desire to find out “how it ended.” Moreover, in Ancient Greece, where European drama was born, it was based dramatic stories Usually they included myths that were well known to everyone. Intense attention was focused on something else. At the core dramatic action lies conflict- clash of life positions of the heroes. Drama is always a dialogue, a dispute between two sides, two “truths”, and the audience waits for a decision (or, rather, makes a decision): what really is the “truth” in a given situation, who is right, who will win the argument . Ancient plots were interpreted anew, they highlighted acute conflicts that in one way or another affected every viewer, and the main thing was to find the right solution, and not to find out the end of some long-standing story.

For example, in the tragedy of Aeschylus, the first of the great tragic poets of Ancient Greece (c. 525–456 BC), which is called “The Pleaders,” two parties argue: the Danaid maidens, daughters of King Danaus, fleeing from a huge the pursuing army, and the small Greek city of Argos, from which the Danaids ask for protection.

The city was faced with a difficult choice: on the one hand, it was not at all obliged to defend the Danaids, especially since the army of the pursuers was large and powerful and the city was unlikely to be able to repel it. On the other hand, by handing over Danaid to the persecutors, the city will renounce its principles: law, justice, respect for freedom - and silently agree that brute force can create any arbitrariness in the world.

Almost no events take place on the stage, only conversations: the Danaids beg, the messenger of the enemy army threatens, representatives of the city decide what to do. And gradually it becomes clear to everyone that free man, having submitted to brute force, will cease to be free. Defending Danaids, Argos will not defend walls, not wealth, but the essence of its city - its freedom and independence. And the gates open before the Danaids. The tragedy ends with the words of the messenger that the enemy army has approached the walls of the city.

Spectators will not see how the battle ends. For the drama itself, this is not important: a solution has been found, the conflict has been resolved, the denouement has been accomplished. Although, however, everyone for whom Aeschylus wrote and staged his tragedy knew perfectly well that the city would perish in battle. This choice of truth at the cost of life is the basis for the amazing effect of any tragedy, which Aristotle called “ catharsis” - purification through suffering, or purification of suffering itself; a bright uplift of spirit that is felt by all participants and witnesses of the tragic but righteous denouement. There is a story about how, in an hour of danger, the Athenians staged a tragedy to raise their spirit, after which they went into battle and won.

In past centuries, drama was considered the highest of the types of literature, combining the merits of epic and lyric poetry. What the drama has in common with the epic is interest in the event, the plot, and with the lyrics - emotional intensity, the complete immersion of the viewer into the world of the work of art. But in its origin, drama differs significantly from epic and lyric poetry. It goes back to ancient ritual actions, which actually affected all members of the clan, both spectators and participants.

The following genres belong to the epic: fairy tale, fable, epic, ancient epic poems, novel, story and short story.

In antiquity and the Middle Ages, many lyrical genres were distinguished: hymn, epistle, ode, elegy, sonnet, rondo, song, romance, etc. But in the 19th–20th centuries, lyrical works were most often called simply “poems,” without dividing them into genres.

Drama includes tragedy, comedy and the middle genre - just a serious play, not as deep and sublime as tragedy; such “average” plays, like the whole genus, are called dramas.

There are works that combine features of two types at once. In particular, there are quite a few big circle lyric-epic works in which lyrics (transmission of feelings) are combined with epic (description of events). For example, “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov is a lyric-epic work.