Rock and fate in ancient tragedy. Ancient drama

With goat beards and horns, depicting the companions of Dionysus - satyrs (hence the name - satyr drama). Ritual performances took place during the Dionysia (festivals in honor of Dionysus), in spring and autumn. There were “great” Dionysias - in the city, very magnificent, and “small” - rural, more modest. These ritual performances are the origins of Greek theater.

The Greek theater was an open building of enormous size. The stage consisted of a long narrow platform and was surrounded on three sides by walls, of which the back one (with a canopy) was called skene, the side ones were called paraskenions, and what we call the stage was called proskenion.

The semicircle of seats for spectators, rising in ledges, was called an amphitheater, the place between the stage and the amphitheater - an orchestra; a choir was located here, which was controlled by a coryphaeus (choir leader). With the development of dramatic action, a tent (skene) was added to the orchestra, where the actors dressed and changed clothes (each of the actors played several roles).

From mimic praises telling about the sufferings of Dionysus, they gradually moved on to showing them in action. Thespis (a contemporary of Peisistratus) and Phrynichus are considered the first playwrights. They introduced an actor (the second and third were then introduced by Aeschylus and Sophocles). Dramatic works were usually given by authors as competitions. The authors played the main roles (both Aeschylus and Sophocles were major actors), wrote the music for the tragedies themselves, and directed the dances.

The organizer of theatrical competitions was the state. In the person of a member of the Areopagus specially allocated for this purpose - the archon - it rejected or allowed certain tragedies to be presented. Here the class approach usually affected the evaluation of dramatic works. The latter had to be in tune with the sentiments and interests of the upper class. For this purpose, the right to provide a choir to the playwright was reserved for the so-called choregs, large landowners, special patrons of theatrical art. They tried to use the theater as a tool for agitation and propaganda of their ideology. And in order to exert their influence on all free citizens (slaves were prohibited from visiting the theater), they established a special theatrical cash distribution for the poor (theorik - under Pericles).

These views expressed the protective tendencies of the ruling class - the aristocracy, whose ideology was determined by the consciousness of the need for unquestioning submission to a given social order. The tragedies of Sophocles reflect the era of the victorious war between the Greeks and the Persians, which opened up great opportunities for trading capital.

In this regard, the authority of the aristocracy in the country fluctuates, and this accordingly affects the works of Sophocles. At the center of his tragedies is the conflict between tribal tradition and state authority. Sophocles considered it possible to reconcile social contradictions - a compromise between the trade elite and the aristocracy.

And finally, Euripides - a supporter of the victory of the trading stratum over the landowning aristocracy - already denies religion. His Bellerophon depicts a fighter who rebelled against the gods for patronizing treacherous aristocratic rulers. “They (the gods) are not there (in heaven),” he says, “unless people want to madly believe old fairy tales.” In the works of the atheistically inclined Euripides, the characters in the drama are exclusively people. If he introduces the gods, it is only in those cases when it is necessary to resolve some complex intrigue. His dramatic action is motivated by the real properties of the human psyche. The majestic but spiritually simplified heroes of Aeschylus and Sophocles are replaced in the works of the younger tragedian by, if more prosaic, then complicated characters. Sophocles spoke of Euripides this way: “I portrayed people as they should be; Euripides depicts them as they really are.”

Ancient Greek comedy

What did the very concept of rock mean to the ancient Greeks? Fate or fate (moira, aisa, tyche, ananke) - has a double meaning in ancient Greek literature: the original, common noun, passive - the fate predetermined for each mortal and partly to the deity, and the derivative, personal, active - of a personal being, assigning, uttering to each his fate, especially the time and type of death.

Anthropomorphic gods and goddesses turned out to be insufficient to explain in each given case the cause of the disaster that befalls one or another of the mortals, often completely unexpectedly and undeservedly. Many events in the lives of individuals and entire nations take place contrary to all human calculations and considerations, all concepts about the participation of humanoid deities in human affairs. This forced the ancient Greek to admit the existence and intervention of a special being, whose will and actions are often inscrutable and which, therefore, in the minds of the Greeks never received a clearly defined, definite appearance.

But the concept of fate or fate contains far more than one feature of chance. Immutability and necessity constitute the most characteristic feature of this concept. The most urgent, irresistible need to imagine fate or fate occurs when a person stands face to face with a mysterious fact that has already happened and amazes the mind and imagination with its inconsistency with familiar concepts and ordinary conditions.

However, the mind of the ancient Greek was rarely satisfied with the answer that “if something happened contrary to his expectations, then it should have happened that way.” A sense of justice, understood in the sense of rewarding everyone according to his deeds, encouraged him to look for the causes of the amazing catastrophe, and he usually found them either in some exceptional circumstances in the personal life of the victim, or, much more often and more readily, in the sins of his ancestors. In this latter case, the close mutual connection of all members of the clan, and not just the family, comes out with particular clarity. Brought up in ancestral relations, the Greek was deeply convinced of the need for descendants to atone for the guilt of their ancestors. Greek tragedy diligently developed this motif, embedded in folk tales and myths. A striking example of this is “Oresteia” by Aeschylus.

For the history of the concept of fate, the greatest interest and the most abundant material are represented by the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, poets who believed in domestic gods; Their tragedies were intended for the people and therefore, much more accurately than philosophical or ethical writings of the same time, responded to the level of understanding and moral needs of the masses. The plots of the tragedies belonged to myths and ancient legends about gods and heroes, sanctified by faith and long ago, and if in relation to them the poet allowed himself to deviate from established concepts, then his justification was changes in popular views on deity. The merger of fate with Zeus, with the advantage going to the latter’s side, is clearly expressed in the tragedies of Aeschylus. According to the law of ancient times, Zeus directs the fate of the world: “everything happens as destined by fate, and one cannot bypass the eternal, inviolable determination of Zeus” (“The Petitioners”). “Great Moirai, may the will of Zeus accomplish what the truth demands” (“Libation Bearers,” 298). Particularly instructive is the change in the image of Zeus, weighing and determining human lot: in Homer (VIII and XXII), Zeus asks in this way the will of fate, unknown to him; in Aeschylus, in a similar scene, Zeus is the lord of the scales, and, according to the chorus, a person is unable to do anything without Zeus (“The Petitioner,” 809). This idea of ​​the poet about Zeus is contradicted by the position he occupies in “Prometheus”: here the image of Zeus bears all the features of a mythological deity, with his limitations and subordination to fate, unknown to him, like people, in his decisions; he tries in vain to wrest the secret of fate from Prometheus by violence; the helm of necessity is ruled by the three Moirai and Erinyes, and Zeus himself cannot escape the fate destined for him (Prometheus, 511 et seq.).

Although the efforts of Aeschylus are undoubted to unite the actions of supernatural beings in relation to people and elevate them to the will of Zeus, as the supreme deity, nevertheless, in the speeches of individual characters and choirs, he leaves room for belief in an immutable Rock or fate, ruling invisibly over the gods, why in the tragedies of Aeschylus are expressions denoting the dictates of Fate or fate so frequent. In the same way, Aeschylus does not deny the culpability of the crime; punishment befalls not only the perpetrator, but also his offspring.

But knowledge of his fate does not constrain the hero in his actions; the hero’s entire behavior is determined by his personal qualities, relationships with other persons and external accidents. Nevertheless, every time at the end of the tragedy it turns out, according to the conviction of the hero and witnesses from the people, that the catastrophe that befell him is the work of Fate or fate; in the speeches of the characters and especially the choirs, the idea is often expressed that Fate or fate pursues a mortal on his heels, guiding his every step; on the contrary, the actions of these persons reveal their character, the natural chain of events and the natural inevitability of the outcome. As Barthelemy rightly notes, the characters in tragedy reason as if they can do nothing, but act as if they can do everything. Belief in fate, therefore, did not deprive the heroes of freedom of choice and action.

In his work “Twelve Theses on Ancient Culture,” the Russian thinker A.F. Losev wrote: “Necessity is fate, and one cannot go beyond its limits. Antiquity cannot do without fate.

But here's the thing. The new European man draws very strange conclusions from fatalism. Many people think this way. Yeah, since everything depends on fate, then I don’t need to do anything. All the same, fate will do everything as it wants. Ancient man was not capable of such dementia. He thinks differently. Is everything determined by fate? Wonderful. So, fate is above me? Higher. And I don't know what she will do? If I knew how fate would treat me, I would act according to its laws. But this is unknown. So I can still do as I please. I am a hero.

Antiquity is based on a combination of fatalism and heroism. Achilles knows that it is predicted that he must die at the walls of Troy. When he goes into a dangerous battle, his own horses say to him: “Where are you going? You will die...” But what does Achilles do? Doesn't pay any attention to warnings. Why? He is a hero. He came here for a specific purpose and will strive for it. Whether he dies or not is a matter of fate, and his meaning is to be a hero. This dialectic of fatalism and heroism is rare. It doesn’t always happen, but in antiquity it exists.”

What does the tragic hero fight against? He struggles with various obstacles that stand in the way of human activity and hinder the free development of his personality. He fights so that injustice does not occur, so that the crime is punished, so that the decision of a legal court triumphs over arbitrary reprisals, so that the mystery of the gods ceases to be it and becomes justice. The tragic hero fights to make the world a better place, and if it must remain as it is, so that people have more courage and clarity of spirit to help them live.

And besides: the tragic hero fights, filled with the paradoxical feeling that the obstacles standing in his way are both insurmountable and at the same time must be overcome at all costs if he wants to achieve the fullness of his “I” and not change it associated with great dangers, the desire for greatness, which he carries within himself, without offending everything that still remains in the world of the gods, and without making a mistake.

The famous Swiss Hellenistic philologist A. Bonnard in his book “Ancient Civilization” writes: “A tragic conflict is a fight against the fatal: the task of the hero who started the fight with it is to prove in practice that it is not fatal or not will always remain him. The obstacle that must be overcome is erected on his path by an unknown force against which he is helpless and which he has since called divine. The most terrible name with which he gives this force is Rock."

Tragedy does not use the language of myth in a symbolic sense. The entire era of the first two tragic poets - Aeschylus and Sophocles - is deeply imbued with religiosity. Back then they believed in the truth of myths. They believed that in the world of the gods, revealed to the people, there were oppressive forces, as if seeking to destroy human life. These forces are called Fate or Fate. But in other myths it is Zeus himself, represented as a brutal tyrant, a despot, hostile to humanity and intent on destroying the human race.

The poet’s task is to give an interpretation of myths that are far removed from the time of the birth of the tragedy, and to explain them within the framework of human morality. This is the social function of the poet, who addresses the Athenian people at the festival of Dionysus. Aristophanes, in his own way, confirms this in the conversation between the two great tragic poets, Euripides and Aeschylus, whom he brings to the stage. Whatever rivals they may be presented in comedy, they both agree at least on the definition of a tragic poet and the goal that he should pursue. What should we admire in a poet?.. The fact that we make people better in our cities. (The word “better” of course: stronger, more adapted to the battle of life.) In these words, tragedy affirms its educational mission.

If poetic creativity and literature are nothing more than a reflection of social reality, then the struggle of the tragic hero against fate, expressed in the language of myths, is nothing more than the struggle of the people in the 7th-5th centuries BC. e. for liberation from social restrictions that constrained his freedom in the era of the emergence of tragedy, at the moment when Aeschylus became its second and true founder.

It was in the midst of this eternal struggle of the Athenian people for political equality and social justice that ideas about a different struggle began to take root during the most popular holiday in Athens - the struggle of the hero with Fate, which constitutes the content of the tragic performance.

In the first struggle, there is, on the one hand, the strength of the rich and noble class, possessing land and money, dooming small peasants, artisans and laborers to poverty; this class threatened the very existence of the entire community. It is opposed by the enormous vitality of the people, demanding their rights to life, equal justice for all; these people want law to become the new link that would ensure the life of every person and the existence of the polis.

The second struggle - the prototype of the first - takes place between Rock, rude, deadly and autocratic, and the hero, who fights for there to be more justice and humanity between people, and seeks glory for himself. Thus, tragedy strengthens in every person the determination not to reconcile with injustice and his will to fight against it.

The high, heroic character of Aeschylus' tragedy was determined by the very harsh era of resistance to the Persian invasion and the struggle for the unity of the Greek city-states. In his dramas, Aeschylus defended the ideas of a democratic state, civilized forms of conflict resolution, the idea of ​​military and civic duty, personal responsibility of a person for his actions, etc. The pathos of Aeschylus's dramas turned out to be extremely important for the era of the ascending development of the democratic Athenian polis, however, subsequent eras kept a grateful memory of him as the first “singer of democracy” in European literature.

In Aeschylus, elements of the traditional worldview are closely intertwined with attitudes generated by democratic statehood. He believes in the real existence of divine forces that influence man and often insidiously lay snares for him. Aeschylus even adheres to the ancient idea of ​​​​hereditary clan responsibility: the guilt of the ancestor falls on the descendants, entangles them with its fatal consequences and leads to inevitable death. On the other hand, the gods of Aeschylus become guardians of the legal foundations of the new state system, and he strenuously puts forward the point of a person’s personal responsibility for his freely chosen behavior. In this regard, traditional religious ideas are being modernized.

A well-known expert on ancient literature, I. M. Tronsky writes: “The relationship between divine influence and the conscious behavior of people, the meaning of the paths and goals of this influence, the question of its justice and goodness constitute the main problematic of Aeschylus, which he develops in the depiction of human fate and human suffering .

Heroic tales serve as material for Aeschylus. He himself called his tragedies “crumbs from the great feasts of Homer,” meaning, of course, not only the Iliad and the Odyssey, but the entire set of epic poems attributed to “Homer,” i.e., the “cyclus.” Aeschylus most often depicts the fate of a hero or heroic family in three successive tragedies that make up a plot-wise and ideologically integral trilogy; it is followed by a satyr drama based on a plot from the same mythological cycle to which the trilogy belonged. However, borrowing plots from the epic, Aeschylus not only dramatizes the legends, but also rethinks them and imbues them with his own problems.”

In the tragedies of Aeschylus, mythological heroes act, majestic and monumental, conflicts of powerful passions are captured. This is one of the famous works of the playwright, the tragedy "Prometheus Bound".

The second great tragic poet of Athens in the 5th century. - Sophocles (born around 496, died in 406).

The middle place that Sophocles occupied in the three-star Attic tragedians is marked by an ancient story comparing the three poets by correlating their biographies with the Battle of Salamis (480): forty-five-year-old Aeschylus took personal part in the decisive battle with the Persians, which established the naval power of Athens, Sophocles celebrated this victory in the boys' choir, and Euripides was born this year. The age ratio reflects the ratio of eras. If Aeschylus is the poet of the birth of Athenian democracy, then Euripides is the poet of its crisis, and Sophocles continued to be the poet of the heyday of Athens, the “age of Pericles.”

Sophocles' birthplace was Colon, a suburb of Athens. By origin he belonged to wealthy circles. His works enjoyed exceptional success: he received first prize in competitions 24 times and never came in last place. Sophocles completed the work begun by Aeschylus of transforming tragedy from a lyrical cantata into a drama. The center of gravity of the tragedy finally shifted to the depiction of people, their decisions, actions, and struggles. For the most part, Sophocles' heroes act completely independently and determine their own behavior in relation to other people. Sophocles rarely brings the gods onto the stage; the “hereditary curse” no longer plays the role that was attributed to it by Aeschylus.

The problems that concern Sophocles are related to the fate of the individual, and not to the fate of the family. rejection of the principle of a plot-related trilogy that dominated Aeschylus. Speaking with three tragedies, he makes each of them an independent artistic whole, containing all its problems.

Not a single work of ancient drama left such significant traces in the history of European drama as Oedipus the King. Sophocles emphasizes not so much the inevitability of fate as the variability of happiness and the inadequacy of human wisdom. It is interesting that Sophocles pays great attention to female images. For him, a woman is, on an equal basis with a man, a representative of noble humanity.

Sophocles' tragedies are distinguished by their clarity of dramatic composition. They usually begin with expository scenes in which the starting position is explained and a plan is developed; .behavior of the heroes. In the process of executing this plan, which encounters various obstacles, the dramatic action either increases or slows down until it reaches a turning point, after which, after a slight slowdown, a catastrophe occurs, rapidly leading to the final denouement. In the natural course of events, strictly motivated and resulting from the character of the characters, Sophocles sees the hidden action of the divine forces that govern the world. Horus plays only an auxiliary role in Sophocles. His songs are like lyrical accompaniment to the action of the drama, in which he himself no longer takes a significant part.

Sophocles was convinced that the world is governed by intelligent divine forces, against the background of which tragic suffering acquires a moral meaning. Deities took an obvious or hidden part in the course of the drama.

In the tragedy “Oedipus the King” a truly human drama unfolds, full of psychological and socio-political conflicts. Recognizing divine predestination, against which man is powerless, Sophocles shows a man striving to avoid what was destined. The most terrible and unexpected turn occurs in the fate of his hero: a man who enjoyed universal respect, famous for his wisdom and exploits, turns out to be a terrible criminal, a source of misfortune for his city and people. It is important here to note the primary role of the motive of moral responsibility, which pushes the theme into the background rock, borrowed by the poet from an ancient myth. Sophocles emphasizes that Oedipus is not a victim, passively waiting and accepting the blows of fate. This is an energetic and active person who fights in the name of reason and justice. He emerges victorious in this struggle, assigning punishment to himself, carrying out the punishment himself and thereby overcoming his suffering. The meaning is that there are no negative characters - a person does not make mistakes consciously. This tragedy is united and closed in itself. This is an analytical drama, because... the entire action is based on the analysis of events related to the hero’s past and directly related to his present and future.

The tragedy opens with a solemn procession. Theban youths and elders pray to Oedipus, glorified by his victory over the Sphinx, to save the city a second time, to save it from the raging pestilence. The wise king, it turns out, had already sent his brother-in-law Creon to Delphi with a question to the oracle. The gods say that the killer of the former king lives in this city. Oedipus energetically takes up the search for the unknown murderer and betrays him to a solemn curse. Oedipus (the current king) summons the blind old soothsayer Tiressius. However, Tiressius does not want to reveal the secret to Oedipus, he insists, and T. says “you are the murderer.” Oedipus does not believe it and blames Creon (his wife’s brother) for the death of Laius and sending him the old man. Creon calls his sister Jocasta (Oedipus’s wife) for help. In order to calm Oedipus, she talks about the unfulfilled oracle given to Laius, in her opinion, but it is this story that instills anxiety in Oedipus. (long ago Lai went to the oracle, and he predicted that the son born to him would kill him and marry his mother; Lai ordered his slave to take the child to the mountains and kill him). Oedipus is worried and asks about Laius. But he doesn’t realize that it was he who killed Laius, then a messenger comes from Corinth and talks about the death of Oedipus’s dad, Polybus. He says that they want to put Oedipus on the throne. Oedipus triumphs: the prophecy of parricide did not come true. Oedipus is afraid of the story that the oracle once predicted for him, that he would marry his mother. But the messenger tells him that he is not the son of Polybus and tells him where he found him. Jocasta, for whom everything has become clear, leaves the stage with a sorrowful exclamation. Oedipus begins to look for the second shepherd who gave him as an infant to this messenger. The shepherd (the second) comes and does not want to tell the truth, but E and the messenger forces him. The witness to the murder of Laius turns out to be the same shepherd who once gave the baby Oedipus to the Corinthian. The shepherd confesses that the baby is the son of Laius, Oedipus curses himself.

In an excode full of deep sympathy for the former savior of Thebes, the chorus sums up the fate of Oedipus, reflecting on the fragility of human happiness and the judgment of all-seeing time.

In the final part of the tragedy, after the messenger reports the suicide of Jocasta and the self-blinding of Oedipus (he removes the brooch from Jocasta’s shoulder and gouges out his eyes. Oedipus HIMSELF executes himself for an unwittingly committed offense, Oedipus appears again, curses his ill-fated life, demands exile for himself, says goodbye to his daughters. However, Creon, into whose hands power passes, detains Oedipus, awaiting instructions from the oracle. The further fate of Oedipus remains unclear to the viewer.

Meaning– there are no negative characters – a person makes mistakes not consciously. This tragedy is united and closed in itself. Sophocles emphasizes not so much the inevitability of fate as the variability of happiness and the inadequacy of human wisdom

However, never and nowhere in world drama has the story of a man haunted by misfortune been depicted so heartfeltly as in Oedipus the King. The exact time when this tragedy was staged is unknown. It dates approximately from 428-425. Already ancient critics, starting with Aristotle, considered “Oedipus the King” to be the pinnacle of Sophocles’ tragic mastery. The entire action of the tragedy is centered around the main character, Oedipus; he defines every scene, being its center. But in tragedy there are no episodic characters; every character in this drama has its own clear place. For example, the slave Laius, who once threw out the baby on his orders, subsequently accompanies Laius on his last fatal trip, and the shepherd, who once took pity on the child and took him with him to Corinth, now arrives in Thebes as an ambassador from the Corinthians to ask Oedipus to reign as king. Corinth.

In the tragedy "Oedipus the King" Sophocles makes an important discovery that will allow him to subsequently deepen the heroic image. It shows that a person draws strength from himself that helps him live, fight and win. In the tragedies "Electra" and "Philoctetes" the gods recede into the background, as if giving up first place to man. "Electra" is close in plot to "Choephora" by Aeschylus. But Sophocles created a vitally truthful image of a courageous and honest girl who, without sparing herself, fights with her criminal mother and her despicable lover - suffers, hopes and wins. Even in comparison with Antigone, Sophocles expands and deepens the world of Electra's feelings.

the choir sings. And conscious actions of people, performed with a specific purpose, lead in “King Aedile” to results that are diametrically opposed to the intention of the actor. Sophocles contrasts the limitations of human knowledge with divine omniscience. The glorification of the Delphic oracle, running through the entire tragedy, is directed against the growing free-thinking. The second stasim of the choir directly testifies to this tendency: the choir mourns the death of ancient piety and the decline of faith in oracles.

In his dying work, Oedipus at Colonus, Sophocles tried to soften the gloomy picture of human fate that was painted in Oedipus the King. In Oedipus the King, a man famous for his wisdom and exploits, who enjoyed universal respect, turned out to be a terrible villain against his will, a source of “filth” for his fellow citizens. “Oedipus at Colonus” depicts the opposite: a blind exile, whose name shudders everyone who meets him, dies a miraculous death as the chosen one of the gods and becomes a source of grace for the country where he finds his final refuge. The question of the hero’s guilt, which was not posed directly in Oedipus the King, receives a clearly formulated negative answer here. The plot is based on the legend about the death of Oedipus in the suburbs of Athens, Colon, i.e. in the homeland of Sophocles. In this regard, the philanthropy and justice of the Athenian polis and its mythological representative, King Theseus, who showed hospitality to the wanderer, are praised. Returning to the plot of Oedipus, Sophocles brings onto the stage the heroes of his previous Theban tragedies. Again a vivid image of Antigone is given; this time she is presented as a loving daughter, a faithful companion to her blind father. Next to her is Ismene, who is less bright but also devoted to her father, and Creon, who is dry and prone to violent actions. In terms of the strength of the lyrical parts, the tragedy of the ninety-year-old poet is not inferior to his previous works; The beautiful hymn in honor of Colon and the choir's reflections on the hardships of old age are interesting.

In the tragedy "Electra" the theme of "Choephorus" of Aeschylus, the death of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus at the hands of Orestes, is developed. Sophocles departed far from the concept of his predecessor. While in Aeschylus's trilogy paternal right collided with maternal law, Sophocles stands entirely on the basis of paternal right, and the correctness of Orestes does not raise doubts in him. Orestes acts without the slightest hesitation, feels no remorse, and is not pursued by the Erinyes. He is a simple executor of Apollo's orders, and the interest of the drama is concentrated not on him, but on the experiences of Electra. Electra, who was a minor character in Aeschylus, becomes a central figure in Sophocles. In her greatness she resembles Antigone. This is a heroic girl who deliberately chooses suffering as her destiny. For a number of years, she remains a lonely bearer of protest against the dominance of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus, being subjected to all kinds of humiliation because of her rebellion. The content of her life is a dream of future retribution for the murder of her father, of the arrival of Orestes, who was once saved by her and sent to a safe place. As in Antigone, the heroic image of Electra is shaded by the fact that she is contrasted with her more meek sister Chrysothemis. However, Sophocles does not paint his heroine only in harsh colors; he gives her features of tenderness, muted suffering

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History of foreign literature of the 17th century: Textbook for universities / Ed. N.T. Pakhsaryan. – M.: Higher. school, 2002.

History of foreign literature of the 17th century: Textbook for universities / Ed. M.V. Razumovsky. – 2nd ed., rev. and additional – M.: Higher. school; Ed. Center "Academy", 2001.

History of foreign literature of the 18th century: European countries and the USA: Textbook for universities / Under. ed. V.P. Neustroeva. – 2nd ed., rev. and additional – M.: Higher. school; Ed. Center "Academy", 1999.

History of foreign literature of the 18th century: Textbook for universities / Ed. L.V. Sidorchenko. – 2nd ed., rev. – M.: Higher. school, 2001.

Lyrics

Cornel P. Sid. Racine J. Phaedra. – 1 tragedy of your choice.

Moliere J.B. A tradesman among the nobility. Tartuffe. – 1 comedy of your choice.

Lope de Vega Dog in the manger.

Walter F. Candide.

Diderot D. Nun.

Defoe D. Robinson Crusoe.

Swift J. Gulliver's Travels.

Fielding G. The story of Tom Jones, a foundling.

Stern L. A sentimental journey. Stern L. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman. Rousseau J.J. New Eloise. Goethe I.V.. The sufferings of young Werther. – 1 novel of your choice.

Beaumarchais P. The Barber of Seville. Marriage of Figaro. – 1 piece of your choice.

Sheridan R. School of slander.

Schiller F. Robbers. Deceit and love. Lessing G. Emilia Galotti – 1 piece of your choice.

Goethe I.V. Faust.

Burns R. Poetry.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. Epic as a cultural phenomenon. Heroic epic of Homer. Gods and people in poems, the epic hero of Homer, style and language of poems.

2. The originality of ancient Greek lyric poetry (using the example of the works of Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon - optional).

3. Aeschylus - “father of tragedy,” poet and ideologist of the period of formation of Athenian democracy.

4. Sophocles is a tragedian of the period of the dawn of Athenian democracy and the beginning of its crisis. His heroes are “people as they should be.”

5. Euripides – philosopher on stage. His heroes are “people as they are.”

6. Artistic originality of Aristophanes' comedy.

7. “Comedy of the Pot” by Plautus. The artistic mastery of Terence. (optionally)

8. Roman lyrics of the Augustan era. The place of Horace in ancient Roman literature (The works of Virgil. The works of Ovid. (optional)).

9. The genre of the ancient novel.

10. Artistic originality of the heroic epic of the era of feudalism (“Song of Roland”, “Song of Sid”, “Poem of the Nibelungs” - optional).

11. Knightly literature and urban literature of the Middle Ages.

12. Humanism of Renaissance literature.

13. The originality of the national versions of the Renaissance (Italian, French, English, Spanish - based on the example of the works read).

14. The evolution of the tragedy genre in the works of Shakespeare.

15. Classicism and Baroque: aesthetics and practice.

16. The originality of the genre of classic tragedy (using the example of the works of Corneille or Racine).

17. The originality of the genre of classic comedy.

18. Enlightenment - ideological movement of the 18th century. Main literary trends and leading genres.

19. National versions of the literature of the Enlightenment.

20. English novel of the Enlightenment. (The image of Robinson Crusoe as a positive hero of the era. An English social and everyday novel (based on the work of G. Fielding). Political and social satire in the novel by J. Swift “Gulliver’s Travels”) - optional.

21. The originality of the genre of philosophical story.

22. Sentimentalism as an artistic movement in literature of the 18th century. Sentimental novel (Rousseau’s “The New Heloise”, Goethe’s “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, Stern “A Sentimental Journey”, “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman” - optional).

23. Goethe’s tragedy “Faust” is the pinnacle of the German Enlightenment. The problem of searching for truth and the meaning of life in Goethe’s tragedy “Faust”. Images of Faust and Mephistopheles in Goethe's tragedy "Faust".

24. Reflection of the features of the late French Enlightenment in the works of D. Diderot.

25. Lope de Vega - playwright.

26. Reflection of the era in the comedies of J.-B. Moliere and P. Beaumarchais, compare their heroes.

27. Reflection of the ideals of “storm and stress” in the dramaturgy of Schiller and Lessing.

As well as questions from the preparation plans for the seminars.

TOPICS OF CONTROL WORKS

1. Epic as a cultural phenomenon (using the example of Homer’s poems “Iliad” or “Odyssey”).

2. Ancient Greek lyrics (using the example of the works of Sappho, Alcaeus, Anacreon).

3. The artistic originality of the political comedy of Aristophanes (using the example of 2-3 comedies).

4. Iranian-Tajik poetry of the Middle Ages (using the example of the rubai genre).

5. Japanese classical poetry (using the example of the tanka or haiku genres).

6. The originality of the genre of the ancient novel (using the example of Long’s novels “Daphnis and Chloe”, Achilles Tatius’s “Leucippe and Clitophon”, Apuleius’s “The Golden Ass”, Petronius’s “Satyricon” - optional).

7. The world of Irish sagas (artistic features and analysis of several sagas).

8. Icelandic epic (artistic features and text analysis).

9. Artistic originality of the heroic epic of the era of feudalism (“Song of Roland”, “Song of Sid”, “Poem of the Nibelungs” - optional).

10. Poetry of Francois Villon.

11. The world and man in the poetry of the Vagants.

12. Innovation in the lyrics of the Provençal troubadours.

13. “The Divine Comedy” by Dante is a philosophical and artistic synthesis of medieval culture and the humanistic culture of the Renaissance.

14. The originality of national versions of the Renaissance (Italian, French, English, Spanish - optional).

15. Renaissance humanism in Boccaccio’s “Decameron”.

16. Shakespeare is a comedian (using the example of 2 comedies).

17. Artistic innovation of W. Shakespeare’s sonnets.

18. English drama from the era of Shakespeare.

19. Classicism: aesthetics and practice (Racine, Corneille, Moliere - optional).

20. Enlightenment - ideological movement of the 18th century. Main literary trends and leading genres.

21. National versions of the Enlightenment (English, French, German - optional).

22. English novel of the Enlightenment (Defoe, Swift, Fielding, etc. - optional).

23. The educational nature of R. Sheridan’s comedy “School of Scandal.”

25. Schiller’s dramas “Cunning and Love” and “The Robbers”: anti-feudal character, the image of a rebel.

26. The embodiment of Lessing’s aesthetic views in the drama “Emilia Galotti”.

WORKSHOP PLANS

Seminar No. 1

Man and Rock in Ancient Tragedy

Preparation plan for the seminar

1. The place of theater in the life of Athens.

2. Sophocles’ heroes are “people as they should be.” Sophocles' innovation in creating characters.
- Does Oedipus fight Fate? What does trying to resist fate lead to?
- Is Oedipus personally to blame for the misfortunes that happen to him?
- What moral lesson did Aeschylus want to teach his fellow citizens?

3. Euripides’ heroes are “people as they really are” (interests, attitude to life, characters, attitude of the author and embodiment on stage).
- Why is Euripides called the “philosopher from the stage”?
- How does the author motivate Medea’s behavior?
- Why does Euripides change the outline of the myth?
- Is Medea punished for her actions? If so, what is this punishment?

Sophocles Oedipus the King.

Euripides. Medea.

Aristotle. On the art of poetry // Ancient literature. Greece. Anthology. – Part 2. – M., 1989. – P. 347 – 364.

Boyadzhiev, G. N. From Sophocles to Brecht in forty theatrical evenings / G. N. Boyadzhiev. – M., 1981.

Kallistov, D. P. Ancient theater / D. P. Kallistov. – L., 1970.

Losev A.F. Ancient literature / A.F. Losev. – M., 2001.

Nikola, M.I. Sophocles // Foreign writers. Biobibliographical dictionary. Part 2. - M., 1997. - P. 265-269 (available on the website www.philology.ru)

Nicolas, M.I. Euripides // Foreign writers. Biobibliographical dictionary. Part 1. - M., 1997. - P. 310-313)

Yarkho, V.N. Dramaturgy of Euripides and the end of ancient heroic tragedy / V.N. Yarho. - Access mode http://philology.ru/literature3/yarkho-99.htm

Yarkho, V. N. Dramaturgy of Aeschylus and some problems of ancient Greek tragedy / V. N. Yarkho. – M., 1978.

Yarkho, V. N. The tragedy of Sophocles “Antigone” / V. N. Yarkho. – M., 1986.

Seminar No. 2