Theory and practice of Russian classicism brief summary. Literary theory and practice

Binary code- this is the representation of information in a combination of 2 characters 1 or 0, as they say in programming, is it or is it not, true or false, true or false. It is difficult for an ordinary person to understand how information can be represented in the form of zeros and ones. I will try to clarify this situation a little.

In fact, binary code is easy! For example, any letter of the alphabet can be represented as a set of zeros and ones. For example, the letter H the Latin alphabet will look like this in the binary system - 01001000, letter E– 01000101, beech L has the following binary representation - 01001100, P – 01010000.

Now it’s not difficult to guess what to write English word HELP in machine language you need to use the following binary code:

01001000 01000101 01001100 01010000

This is exactly the code that our home computer uses to operate. To an ordinary person It is very difficult to read such code, but for computers it is the most understandable.

Binary code (machine code) Nowadays it is used in programming, because the computer works thanks to binary code. But don’t think that the programming process comes down to a set of ones and zeros. Programming languages ​​(C++, BASIC, etc.) were invented specifically to simplify understanding between a person and a computer. A programmer writes a program in a language he understands, and then, using a special compiler program, translates his creation into machine code, which runs the computer.

Converting a natural number from the decimal number system to binary

We take the required number, for me it will be 5, divide the number by 2:
5: 2 = 2,5 there is a remainder, which means the first number of the binary code will be 1 (if not - 0 ). We discard the remainder and again divide the number by 2 :
2: 2 = 1 the answer is without a remainder, which means the second number of the binary code will be 0. Again, divide the result by 2:
1: 2 = 0.5 the number comes out with a remainder, so we write it down 1 .
Well, since the result is equal 0 can no longer be divided, the binary code is ready and in the end we have a binary code number 101 . I think we have learned how to convert from decimal to binary, now we will learn to do the opposite.

Converting a number from binary to decimal

Here, too, it’s quite simple, let’s number our binary number, we need to start from zero from the end of the number.

101 is 1^2 0^1 1^0.

What came of it? We have given degrees to numbers! now according to the formula:

(x * 2^y) + (x * 2^y) + (x * 2^y)

Where x- ordinal number of binary code
y- the power of this number.
The formula will stretch depending on the size of your number.
We get:

(1 * 2^2) + (0 * 2^1) + (1 * 2^0) = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5.

History of the binary number system

Leibitz was the first to propose the binary system; he believed that this system will help in complex mathematical calculations, and in general will benefit science. But according to some reports, before Leibitz proposed a binary number system in China, an inscription appeared on the wall that could be deciphered using a binary code. On this inscription, long and short sticks were drawn, and if we assume that the long one is 1 and the short one 0, it is quite possible that the idea of ​​binary code was circulating in China many years before its invention. Although deciphering the code found on the wall revealed a simple natural number, but still the fact remains a fact.

the concept of classicism as creative method presupposes in its content a historically determined way aesthetic perception and modeling reality in artistic images: the picture of the world and the concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, find their embodiment in ideas about the essence verbal art, his relationship with reality, his own internal laws.

Rules of classicism

1) The division of literature into strictly defined genres of works

a) high - ode, heroic poem, tragedy

b) low genres - comedy, satire, fables, the world of poetry, novel.

2) The characters were divided into positive and negative.

3) In dramatic works (comedy, tragedy) the requirement of 3 unities prevailed.

a) time (day)

b) places (must be the same place)

c) actions (one main plot, 5 acts)

3 unities were supposed to give the play special clarity, harmony, and clarity.

The doctrine of verisimilitude is an essential part of the classicist theory of imitation. Lomonosov understands the requirement of verisimilitude as an internally determined correlation of individual aspects of the work. Reality is cognized by the poet's mind in the aspect of the possible and probable, because the world of the possible is more reasonable and ideal than the everyday world with its unforeseen contingencies. Fiction is the most appropriate means of elevating the actual as separate to the possible and the probable as general.

The principle of verisimilitude is a consequence of the Aristotelian and Renaissance understanding of the differences between history and poetry: the first refers to the truth of a single fact, and the second to its appearance, to its reliable similarity to it.

8.Genre theory of classicism. System of genres of Russian classicism.

In the development of the Russian genre theory of classicism, two periods can rightly be seen. The first period, associated with the names of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, is the time of the creation of a clear and organized system of genres, taking into account both the achievements of French genre theory and the state of national Russian literature. The second period is associated with the activities of Derzhavin, Kheraskov, Lukin and Plavilshchikov. It was marked by the beginning of the destruction of strict genre-typological characteristics, the formation of genres born at the junction of traditional ones, which created the preconditions for entering another literary era. a system of genres based on opposition: tragedy and comedy, ode to satire

Poem and fable, etc. Each genre was assigned a certain circle of phenomena from which it was impossible to escape: “high” and “low” were never combined in one work.

Classicism was preferred poetic genres compared to prosaic ones, because prose speech is practically oriented speech, in which much depends on the accidental, not foreseen by reason. Prose occupied a limited and subordinate place: considered a means of journalism and scientific speech, it, in fact, fell out of the literary series. Only literature that was “minor” and “low” in the views of the classicists—the novel—could exist in the form of prose.

Classicists are characterized by the desire to create monumental works, with problems of great social resonance, to depict active heroes, full of vital energy and capable, thanks to their will and ability to mercilessly analyze the passions boiling in the soul, to rise to the resolution of complex, tragic conflicts. Hence the preference given by the theory of classicism to monumental genres in literature - epic, tragedy

The genre division is hierarchical for one more reason. Epic has the greatest value, because, turning to the distant past, a poet in this type of creativity will be able to recreate the most abstract situations, which will allow the fiction to be given the most plausible form. IN epic form compared with tragedy more opportunities to achieve the perfect ideal - heroic character. Because at the core epic poem lies, as a rule, a legendary truth that has the most high degree poetic truth, then to achieve verisimilitude, only the internal consistency of the actions of the heroes and the events depicted is sufficient. Region tragedy – historical era, possessing to a lesser extent truth, because it may contain an unintentional, random event that violates the harmony of poetic fiction and the requirement of verisimilitude. That is why truth tragedy turns out to be less thorough than in epic poem. Comedy turns out to be even lower epics And tragedy, because it is even more difficult to achieve verisimilitude. Simple public experience good knowledge modern morals can reveal the unreasonableness of the comedy plot from the standpoint of plausibility.

The choice of means of emotional influence on a person depended on the genre. IN tragedy- it's a pleasant horror and living compassion, V comedy- laughter, in satire- anger, in ode- delight. Each feeling had its own “language,” and its style must also correspond to the content and purpose of the work.

In medieval art there were no rules. They were replaced etiquette(unwritten rules enshrined in the authority of tradition). In the 18th century, literary theory was imported into Russia. But the paradox was that the rules were not used to create texts. Real texts were constructed by analogy with other texts.

Theory - or a system of structures inherent in a group of texts and identified by the researcher, or a concept created in the same era as the texts being studied, known to writers era and influenced their work.

As mentioned above, the 18th century was a century of theories, and theory gravitated towards utopia. In literary practice, as in practice state life, ideals and reality often did not coincide. How life treated literary work, So literary texts treated literary theory (as the norm). In theory, correctness was valued. The discrepancy with practice did not discredit her. Theory does not cognize, but prescribes. She is active and normative. In Russian literature of the 18th century, many artistic and aesthetic worlds coexist, and, from the point of view of each of them, literature itself, its boundaries, tasks and achievements look different. All this motley art world does not stand still: over the course of one generation, the artistic map of literature changes radically.

There are three types of theoretical ideas (1730-1770):

· theories that strive to accommodate the maximum range of concepts and justify the assimilation of a wide range of texts;

· theories that highlight one direction and reject all others as incorrect;

· the desire for a zero theory.

Baroque reinforces the first type artistic thinking. Baroque requires the presence of its opposite cultural context– previous and subsequent links that would constitute themselves as normal and against the background of which the world of the Baroque would be perceived as an inverted or perverse type of culture. The feeling of one's own anomalousness enters into the meta-consciousness of baroque culture, and it must inevitably be nourished by memory and ideal normal text, normal culture, normal world. Connected with this is the masquerade, inversion and parody of Baroque culture and its attention to the problems of lies, the relative nature of truth and the diverse aspects of the theme of “perverted light”.

In the theoretical periodization of culture, Baroque occupies a place between the Renaissance and classicism. Like anything literary direction, Baroque has its own artistic system and implements its inherent poetic means. But as an ideal type, baroque exists only in poetic abstraction. Baroque originated in the depths of the Counter-Reformation, but went beyond its boundaries. Baroque came into East Slavic literature from Polish literature. School theory and practice contributed to its assimilation.

Baroque aesthetics synthesized the traditions of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Russia passed the Renaissance stage and continued to maintain its medieval appearance until the 17th century. The medieval beginning in the Baroque ensured its perception on Russian soil, and also enriched the national heritage based on the Greco-Slavic Orthodox traditions, knowledge of the Latin Catholic Middle Ages. Baroque entered Russia with the work of Simeon of Polotsk and his students.

Baroque is related to the Middle Ages in its symbolic and allegorical vision of the world. The enduring symbol of Baroque poetry is the wheel of Fortune, which is the wheel of time. For visual arts Baroque is characterized by the symbol “clock”. A theme related to the theme of the transience of life near death(thanatos). Among Russian baroque authors, reflections on fast-moving life coexist with the preaching of piety.

Baroque poets were guided by a certain ideal text, seeing their task as creating an invariant of this text. The Baroque worldview is based on the idea of ​​God as the greatest and all-good creative power who created the world. Hence the numerous translations of the Psalter (see the creation of the “Rhyming Psalter” by S. Polotsky). Baroque principles of understanding the world - rhetorical rationalism, a combination of pagan and Christian motives, “pathetic word”, ability to wit (acumen), emblematic thinking (Baroque revived the fashion for hieroglyphs and emblems), tendency to synthesize within one work different types creativity. The theory of wit provided for the pairing of incommensurable and far apart things and concepts. This theory became the leading literary doctrine of the Baroque era. A significant role in Baroque poetry is played by text graphics, the use of colored writing and font varieties. The poet turns the reader into a spectator and cultivates the image of the word as a graphic sign. Heraldic poetry flourishes.

Baroque texts contain elements of play and ingenuity; they are dominated by the principle of parabola and paraphrase, paradox as the ability to combine heterogeneous things. Baroque authors assert the meaning of the word and the ambiguity of the text.

A favorite theme of Baroque literature is the theme of the martyrdom of Christ.

A favorite symbolic metaphor, along with pipes, a sword, dinner, a key, a mirror, an alphabet, and a theater, is the garden. This is the garden of love (antique), and the garden of pleasures (Renaissance), and the “convict garden” (the center of spiritual and moral values Christianity). The garden is a church, scripture, paradise, the Mother of God, the place of the Easter mystery, the soul of the righteous. Garden – arts and sciences (secular meanings). Various plant metaphors (tree, flower, fruit) are associated with the image of the garden.

Baroque man is a microcosm, repeating in its structure the macrocosm of the Universe.

Baroque work is oriented towards the point of view of the perceiver.

The Baroque contributed to the flourishing of panegyric (servile) poetry. Such poetry is characterized by the removal of boundaries between art and reality, the violation of artistic conventions.

The opposite type of aesthetic consciousness to baroque is built on the desire to present the entire sphere of poetry as a single state governed by the same laws. This aesthetic absolutism viewed each text and the entire empire of poetry as a whole in the light of the unity of artistic norms. This did not exclude a variety of forms and genres, but implied the presence of a general hierarchy. This type of aesthetic consciousness is usually defined as classicism.

What is the theory of classicism? It is based on the idea of ​​normality, “purity” and “correctness” (“regularity”). A norm is a certain ideal, order, a reasonable plan that exists only in a speculative perspective. Connected with this contradiction between the speculative and the real is the confrontation between critical and practical attitudes in the literary process of this period. In the concept of the era of classicism, man is bifurcated into an ethical and historical man. An ethical person is something abstract, non-existent in reality. An ethical person cannot be shown, he can only be formulated. Therefore, the main contradiction new literature there was a contradiction between moral teaching, direct presentation a certain system ideas and their artistic and figurative expression.

One of the problems of classic literature is the problem of the positive hero: it makes sense to consider it in the context of the broader problem of the relationship between norm and reality, literature and life, theory and practice. The literature of Russian classicism emerges as a literature of direct influence on society and authorities. This impact is the introduction into the public consciousness of a certain system of ethical and political ideas, the formation of the nation’s self-awareness. Actually literary expression of this self-awareness is the constant, emphasized presence of the author and author's attitude to what is happening. The personal principle was designated precisely as the author’s stated attitude towards the depicted. The author openly stated his position behind the text (in the prefaces to the plays) and in the texts themselves (monologues of characters, fable summaries, titles of Cantemir’s satires and plays of the “prepositional direction”). If the negative characters were taken from real life and recognizable by everyone (often these were not just collective vices, but specific people, as, for example, in the pamphlet comedies of Sumarokov, in the satires of Kantemir or in Lomonosov’s “Hymn to the Beard”), then the positive characters were distinguished by their abstract and speculative appearance and were only “spirits ”, which were yet to become reality.

Classicism is an example of a rule-oriented system: theoretical models were thought of as eternal and prior to real creativity. Only “correct” texts (corresponding to the rules) were considered significant. The creator of rules occupies a hierarchically higher place in the system of classicism than the creator of texts (a critic is more honorable than a writer).

In France, classicism acts as a transformation of an already existing literary and linguistic tradition, which is critically viewed, but not denied. Classicist theories in France are one way or another focused on the “defects” of previous literature; the prescriptions of classicism are corrections of previous shortcomings. But correcting shortcomings is always a continuation literary process, suggesting continuity. The literary past exists for the French in full; it serves as the material from which Boileau and Vogela develop a new literature and a new literary language.

In Russia the situation is fundamentally different. Classicism is formed as part new culture, which denies the old culture, the literary past practically does not exist for him. The forces of Russian authors are directed not at criticizing their predecessors, but at creating new literature (new literary language and new literary genres). Programmatic works of Russian classicists - “Epistole from Russian Poetry to Apolline” by Trediakovsky, epistole “On Poetry” by Sumarokov. It is characteristic that Russian authors are practically not mentioned in these works, but ancient and Western European writers are mentioned, who embody the literary past. New Russian literature is perceived not as a continuation of old Russian literature, but as a continuation of European literature.

The first Russian classicists declared a rejection of the past, but in practice this rejection could not be complete and consistent.

Theoretical postulates are implemented primarily in the criticism of other people's texts and do not extend to their own literary production, which freely deviates from the rigoristic European model. This leads to the fact that authors constantly accuse each other of the same errors. Sumarokov accuses Trediakovsky of being partial to tautologies (“pleasant pleasure,” “decent disorder”), but he himself is guilty of such phrases. Sumarokov reproaches Lomonosov for “meaningless” metaphors that contradict the norms of classicist poetics, but in Sumarokov’s odes there are also baroque elements: he repeatedly uses in solemn odes the very expressions with which he parodies Lomonosov.

Critical and practical attitudes cannot be identified. In developing literary theory, it was impossible to get by only with criticism of rivals. It was necessary, as positive aspects, to introduce into the literary and linguistic doctrine such provisions that would at least partially legalize the peculiarities of Russian literary practice and above all, the hidden continuity in relation to Church Slavonic literary tradition. This task determines the search in European theories such postulates that would make such legitimation possible. An example is Trediakovsky’s “Discourse on the Ode in General”: as a model for the first Russian ode, Trediakovsky chooses the ode to the capture of Namur Boileau, where the author, in turn, defends the value literary heritage ancient authors (in particular Pindar and the Psalter). As if developing the views of Boileau, Trediakovsky legitimizes the connection of the Russian ode with the Slavic Psalter, and, consequently, with the traditions of syllabic panegyric. At the beginning of his ode, Trediakovsky, translating Boileau, uses the oxymoronic expression “sober pianism,” taken from the dictionary of spiritual literature and unacceptable from the point of view of classicist purism. The same Trediakovsky insists on naturalness and simplicity as necessary qualities odic language, scolds Sumarokov for “poetic highs,” calling this manner of “blowing inflated bubbles” or “grabbing clouds with your mouth.”

The pressure of literary tradition encouraged Russian classicists to deviate from the system of rules that they learned from their French teachers. The justification for these deviations was the doctrine of poetic delight, which allows the poet to violate laws at will. Pindarization (delight) becomes a complete destruction of the norms of classicist poetics, legitimizing the baroque poetics of the Russian ode. It is poetic delight (“sober pianism”) that determines the very language of God, in which the violation of logical connections reveals a truth that lies beyond simple understanding. Thus, the poetic gift is something irrational, which clearly contradicts the aesthetics of classicism. In “A Brief Guide to Eloquence,” Lomonosov also touches on the figure of delight, again referring to Boileau. In Lomonosov's ode there is an oxymoronic combination of “vigorous doze” and “manifest dream”.

Trediakovsky’s “sober pianism” was parodied by Sumarokov as “drunken enthusiasm” and “a chaotic confusion, where the round and the quadrangular are mixed.” He parodied Lomonosov’s oxymorons in the First Nonsense Ode. But Sumarokov himself from time to time refers to Pindar as an example of inspired poetics. No matter how incongruous the features of high poetics and stylistics may seem, delight becomes a constant feature of the odic genre and the “trademark” of high style. “Pindarization” is a deviation from the linguistic-stylistic norms of classicist purism, elevated into a system, in which the genre model is the Psalter (in France, the Psalter remained Latin, while the ode was written in French; in Russia, the language of the ode and the Psalter was common). Thus, the criteria for evaluating a poetic work are no longer derived from the rational principles put forward by classicism, and turn out to be completely dependent on the recognition or non-recognition of the poet’s prophetic gift. In clear contradiction with the aesthetics of classicism, the same formal characteristics can accompany both true and false poetry. The providence of a true poet is opposed by the blindness of a false one, in whom the lack of logical connections turns into “confusion”, and in the place of “sober drunkenness” there appears “drunken enthusiasm”.

"Subsequent literary development pushed panegyric genres to the periphery of the literary process, and this new perspective caused the reader’s insensitivity to the “odic theme of the inseparability of poetry and the state”, to the poetry of service days that inspired European classicism from Malherbes to Kheraskov. Classicism and enlightened absolutism proceeded from the general ideas of regulation and progress, which were supposed to transform the world, ridding it of fear, superstition and fratricidal strife. The state was the subject of poetic delight and philosophical meditation precisely because it seemed to act as the manager of cosmic harmony on earth. Therefore, the victories of the monarch, his prosperity, the conclusion of alliances and peace treaties were not only image material, but also a topic of philosophical and artistic reflection. The progress of the state was perceived at the same time as the progress of reason and the progress of enlightenment, and not as the private progress of a given society, but as the universal development of a principle that constitutes the common property. Such was the literature of the times of Louis 14th in France, German literature the first half of the 18th century and Russian literature - from Feofan Prokopovich to Derzhavin. That is why “state” poetry - so tiresome for the later reader of the Henriad and Petrida, as well as countless odes to the coronation, namesake or capture of another fortress - being identified with philosophical poetry, turned out to be the only worthy field of a thinking poet, or in any case the pinnacle of his creativity."

Time of occurrence.

In Europe- XVII - beginning 19th century

The end of the 17th century was a period of decline.

Classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the Great french revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism declines, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

In Russia- in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century.

Place of origin.

France. (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc.)

Representatives of Russian literature, works.

A. D. Kantemir (satire “On those who blaspheme the teaching”, fables)

V.K. Trediakovsky (novel “Riding to the Island of Love”, poems)

M. V. Lomonosov (poem “Conversation with Anacreon”, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”

A. P. Sumarokov, (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”)

Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”)

G. R. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”)

Representatives of world literature.

P. Corneille (tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”.

J. Racine (tragedies of Phaedrus, Mithridates)

Voltaire (tragedies "Brutus", "Tancred")

J. B. Moliere (comedies “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”)

N. Boileau (treatise in verse “Poetic Art”)

J. Lafontaine (fables).

Classicism from fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary.

Features of classicism.

• The purpose of art- moral influence on the education of noble feelings.
• Reliance on antique art (hence the name of the style), which was based on the principle of “imitation of nature.”
• IN based on principle rationalism((from Latin “ratio” - mind), a look at piece of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
• Cult of the mind(belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a rational basis).
• Headship state interests over personal, predominance of civil, patriotic motives, cult moral duty. Affirmation of positive values ​​and the state ideal.
• Main conflict classic works- this is the hero's fight between reason and feeling. Positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, when choosing between love and the need to completely devote himself to serving the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feeling.
• Personality is the highest value of existence.
• Harmony content and form.
• Compliance in dramatic work rules "three unities": unity of place, time, action.
• Dividing heroes into positive and negative. The hero had to embody one character trait: stinginess, hypocrisy, kindness, hypocrisy, etc.
• Strict hierarchy of genres, mixing of genres was not allowed:

"high" — epic poem, tragedy, ode;

“middle” - didactic poetry, epistles, satire, love poem;

"low"- fable, comedy, farce.

• Purity of language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - colloquial);
• Simplicity, harmony, logic of presentation.
• Interest in the eternal, unchanging, the desire to find typological features. Therefore the images are devoid individual traits, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring characteristics over time
• Social and educational function of literature. Education of a harmonious personality.

Features of Russian classicism.

Russian literature has mastered stylistic and genre forms classicism, but also had its own characteristics, distinguished by its originality.

• The state (not the person) was declared highest value) combined with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, requiring everyone to serve for the good of society.
• General patriotic pathos Russian classicism. Patriotism of Russian writers, their interest in the history of their homeland. They all study Russian history, write works on national and historical topics.
• Humanity, since the direction was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
• Human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.
• Affirmation of the natural equality of all people.
• Main conflict- between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
• The works are centered not only on the personal experiences of the characters, but also on social problems.
• Satirical focus- an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, which satirically depict specific phenomena of Russian life;
• The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones. In Russia, “antiquity” was domestic history.
• High level of development of the genre odes(from M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin);
• The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
• At the end classic comedy Vice is always punished, and goodness triumphs.

Three periods of classicism in Russian literature.

1. 30-50s of the 18th century (the birth of classicism, the creation of literature, national language, the flowering of the ode genre - M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarkov, etc.)
2. 60s- late XVIII century (the main task literature - education human citizen, human service for the benefit of societies, exposing the vices of people, the flourishing of satire - N.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonviin).
3. End XVIII -early XIX century (the gradual crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies, national motives, the image of an ideal nobleman - N.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.)

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna.