What happened on March 3, 1918. What is the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and what is its significance?

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk*

Since Russia, on the one hand, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, on the other, agreed to end the state of war and complete peace negotiations as soon as possible, they were appointed plenipotentiary representatives:

From the Russian Federative Soviet Republic:

Grigory Yakovlevich Sokolnikov, member of the Center. Exec. Committee of Soviets Workers, Soldiers. and Cross. Deputies,

Lev Mikhailovich Karakhan, member of the Center. Exec. Committee of Soviets Workers, Soldiers. and Cross. Deputies,

Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin, Assistant to the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and

Grigory Ivanovich Petrovsky, People's Commissar for Internal Affairs.

From the Imperial German Government: State Secretary of the Foreign Office, Imperial Privy Councillor, Richard von Kühlmann,

Imperial Envoy and Minister Plenipotentiary, Dr. von Rosenberg,

Royal Prussian Major General Hoffmann, Chief of the General Staff of the Supreme Commander on the Eastern Front and

captain 1st rank Gorn.

From the Imperial and Royal General Austro-Hungarian Government:

Minister of the Imperial and Royal Household and Foreign Affairs, His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty Privy Councilor Ottokar Count Czernin von and zu-Chudenitz, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty Privy Councilor Cajetan Merey von-Kapos Mere, General from Infantry, His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty Privy Councilor Maximilian Chicherich von Bachani.

From the Royal Bulgarian Government:

Royal Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Vienna, Andrey Toshev, Colonel of the General Staff, Royal Bulgarian Military Plenipotentiary to His Majesty the German Emperor and Aide-de-Camp to His Majesty the King of Bulgaria, Peter Ganchev, Royal Bulgarian First Secretary of the Mission, Dr. Theodor Anastasov.

From the Imperial Ottoman Government:

His Highness Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, former Grand Vizier, Member of the Ottoman Senate, Plenipotentiary Ambassador of His Majesty the Sultan in Berlin, His Excellency General of the Cavalry, Adjutant General of His Majesty the Sultan and Military Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Sultan to His Majesty the German Emperor, Zeki- Pasha.

The Commissioners met at Brest-Litovsk for peace negotiations and, after presenting their powers, which were found to be in correct and proper form, came to an agreement regarding the following resolutions:

Russia, on the one hand, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, on the other, declare that the state of war between them has ended; They decided to henceforth live among themselves in peace and friendship.

The contracting parties will refrain from any agitation or propaganda against the government or state or military institutions of the other party. So far as this obligation concerns Russia, it extends also to the areas occupied by the powers of the Quadruple Alliance.

The areas lying to the west of the line established by the contracting parties and previously belonging to Russia will no longer be under its supreme authority; the established line is indicated on the attached map (Appendix 1)**, which is an essential part of this peace treaty. The exact definition of this line will be worked out by a Russian-German commission.

For the designated regions, no obligations towards Russia will arise from their former affiliation with Russia.

Russia refuses any interference in the internal affairs of these regions. Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these areas upon demolition of their population.

Germany is ready, as soon as general peace is concluded and Russian demobilization is completely carried out, to clear the territory lying east of that indicated in paragraph 1 of Art. 3 lines, since Article 6 does not provide otherwise. Russia will do everything in its power to ensure the speedy cleansing of the provinces of Eastern Anatolia and their orderly return to Turkey.

The districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum are also immediately cleared of Russian troops. Russia will not interfere in the new organization of state-legal and international legal relations of these districts, but will allow the population of these districts to establish a new system in agreement with neighboring states, especially Turkey.

Russia will immediately carry out the complete demobilization of its army, including military units newly formed by the current government.

In addition, Russia will either transfer its military ships to Russian ports and leave them there until a general peace is concluded, or immediately disarm them. Military vessels of states that continue to be at war with the powers of the Quadruple Alliance, since these vessels are within the sphere of Russian power, are equated to Russian military courts.

The exclusion zone in the Arctic Ocean remains in force until global peace is concluded. In the Baltic Sea and in Russian-controlled parts of the Black Sea, the removal of minefields must begin immediately. Merchant shipping in these maritime areas is free and immediately resumed. Mixed commissions will be created to develop more precise regulations, especially for publishing safe routes for merchant ships. Navigation routes must be kept free of floating mines at all times.

Russia undertakes to immediately make peace with the Ukrainian People's Republic and recognize the peace treaty between this state and the powers of the Quadruple Alliance. The territory of Ukraine is immediately cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard. Russia ceases all agitation or propaganda against the government or public institutions of the Ukrainian People's Republic.

Estland and Livonia are also immediately cleared of Russian troops and Russian Red Guards. The eastern border of Estonia runs, in general, along the river. Narov. The eastern border of Livonia runs, in general, through Lake Peipus and Lake Pskov to its southwestern corner, then through Lake Lyubanskoye in the direction of Livenhof on the Western Dvina. Estland and Livonia will be occupied by the German police power until public safety is ensured there by the country's own institutions and until public order is established there. Russia will immediately release all arrested or deported residents of Estonia and Livonia and ensure the safe return of all deported Estonians and Livonia residents.

Finland and the Åland Islands will also be immediately cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard, and Finnish ports will be cleared of the Russian fleet and Russian naval forces. While ice makes it impossible to transfer military ships to Russian ports, only minor crews should be left on them. Russia ceases all agitation or propaganda against the government or public institutions of Finland.

The fortifications erected on the Åland Islands must be demolished as soon as possible. As for the prohibition from future erecting fortifications on these islands, as well as their general position in relation to military and navigation technology, a special agreement must be concluded regarding them between Germany, Finland, Russia and Sweden; The parties agree that other states adjacent to the Baltic Sea can be involved in this agreement at Germany's request.

Based on the fact that Persia and Afghanistan are free and independent states, the contracting parties undertake to respect the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of Persia and Afghanistan.

Prisoners of war from both sides will be released to their homeland. The settlement of related issues will be the subject of special agreements provided for in Art. 12.

The contracting parties mutually refuse to reimburse their military expenses, i.e. government costs of waging war, as well as from compensation for military losses, i.e. from those losses that were caused to them and their citizens in the war zone by military measures, including all requisitions carried out in the enemy country.

Article 10

Diplomatic and consular relations between the contracting parties will resume immediately after the ratification of the peace treaty. Regarding the admission of consuls, both parties reserve the right to enter into special agreements.

Article 11

Economic relations between Russia and the powers of the Quadruple Alliance are determined by the regulations contained in Annexes 2 - 5, with Appendix 2 defining the relationship between Russia and Germany, Appendix 3 between Russia and Austria-Hungary, Appendix 4 between Russia and Bulgaria, Appendix 5 - between Russia and Turkey.

Article 12

The restoration of public law and private law relations, the exchange of prisoners of war and civilian prisoners, the issue of amnesty, as well as the issue of treatment of merchant ships that have fallen into the power of the enemy, is the subject of separate agreements with Russia, which form an essential part of this peace treaty and , so far as possible, come into force simultaneously with it.

Article 13

When interpreting this treaty, the authentic texts for relations between Russia and Germany are Russian and German, between Russia and Austria-Hungary - Russian, German and Hungarian, between Russia and Bulgaria - Russian and Bulgarian, between Russia and Turkey - Russian and Turkish.

Article 14

This peace treaty will be ratified. The exchange of instruments of ratification should take place in Berlin as soon as possible. The Russian government undertakes to exchange instruments of ratification at the request of one of the powers of the Quadruple Alliance within a two-week period.

A peace treaty comes into force from the moment of its ratification, unless otherwise follows from its articles, appendices or additional treaties.

In witness of this, the authorized persons have personally signed this agreement.

Original in five copies.

Appendix 2

Peace terms proposed by Germany on February 21, 1918 in response to the Soviet government's message of agreement to sign peace

“Germany is ready to resume negotiations and make peace with Russia on the following terms:

1. Germany and Russia declare an end to the state of war. Both peoples are ready to henceforth live in peace and friendship.

2. The areas lying west of the line communicated by the Russian commissioner in Brest-Litovsk and which were previously part of the Russian Empire are no longer subject to the territorial sovereignty of Russia. In the Dvinsk region this line extends to the eastern border of Courland. The fact that these regions formerly belonged to the Russian Empire does not result in any obligations for them towards Russia. Russia refuses any interference in the internal life of these regions. Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these areas in accordance with their populations. Germany is ready immediately, upon the conclusion of a general peace and the complete completion of Russian demobilization, to clear the area lying east of the indicated line, since from Art. 3 does not imply anything else.

3. Livonia and Estland are immediately cleared of Russian troops and the Red Guard and are occupied by German police forces until the local authorities are able to guarantee calm and order is restored. All political arrested local citizens are immediately released.

4. Russia immediately makes peace with the Ukrainian People's Republic. Ukraine and Finland are promptly cleared of Russian troops and Red Guards.

5. Russia, by all means at its disposal, will promote the speediest and systematic return of Turkey to its Anatolian provinces and recognize the abolition of Turkish capitulations.

6a). The complete demobilization of the Russian armies, including those newly formed by the current government, must be carried out immediately.

6b). Russian military vessels in the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Arctic Ocean must either be transferred to Russian ports, where they must be interned until a general peace is concluded, or must be immediately disarmed. Entente military vessels located in Russia's sphere of influence are considered Russian.

6c). Merchant shipping in the Black and Baltic Seas is immediately restored, as provided for in the armistice agreement. The necessary mine clearance begins immediately. The blockade in the Arctic Ocean remains until universal peace is concluded.

7. The German-Russian trade treaty of 1904 comes into force again, as provided for in Article 7 (clause 2) of the peace treaty with Ukraine, and the special favored treatment provided for in Article 11 (clause 3, paragraph 1) of the trade treaty is excluded in relation to eastern countries; further, the entire first part of the final protocol is restored. Added to this are: guarantees of free export and the right to duty-free export of ore; early start of negotiations on concluding a new trade agreement; a guarantee of most favored nation status at least until the end of 1925, even in the event of a declaration of termination of the temporary treaty, and, finally, conditions corresponding to Article 7, paragraphs 3 and 4 (paragraph 1) and paragraph 5 of the peace treaty with Ukraine.

8. Issues of a legal nature are regulated in accordance with the decisions of the Russian-German legal commission adopted in the first reading; since no decisions were made, the proposals from the German side regarding compensation for losses of private individuals come into force, and the Russian proposal regarding compensation for the maintenance of prisoners of war comes into force. Russia will allow and will, to the best of its ability, support the activities of German commissions in the sense of caring for German prisoners of war, civilian prisoners and settlers.

9. Russia undertakes to cease all official or official-sponsored agitation or propaganda against the Allied governments and their state and military institutions, also in areas occupied by the Central Powers.

10. The above conditions must be accepted within 48 hours. The Russian plenipotentiaries must immediately go to Brest-Litovsk and there sign a peace treaty within three days, which is subject to ratification no later than two weeks.

The people of Russia were exhausted by a long bloody war.
During the Great October Socialist Revolution, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace on November 8, 1917, according to which the Soviet government invited all warring countries to immediately conclude a truce and begin peace negotiations. But the Entente allies did not support Russia.

In December 1917, in Brest, negotiations were held on a truce at the front between the delegations of Soviet Russia on the one hand, and Germany and its allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) on the other.

On December 15, 1917, a temporary agreement was signed to cease hostilities, and an armistice agreement was also concluded with Germany for 28 days - until January 14, 1918.

Negotiations took place in three stages and lasted until March 1918.

On December 22, 1917, a peace conference began in Brest-Litovsk. The Russian delegation was headed by
A.A. Ioffe. The composition of the delegation was constantly changing, negotiations dragged on, and the parties did not come to a definite agreement.

On January 9, 1918, the second stage of negotiations began. People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs L.D. Trotsky was appointed chairman of the delegation of Soviet Russia. Germany and its allies presented harsh conditions to Russia in the form of an ultimatum. On February 10, L.D. Trotsky rejected the ultimatum, proclaiming the famous thesis: “No war, no peace.”

In response, Austro-German troops launched an offensive along the entire Eastern Front. In connection with these events, the formation of the Red Army began in February 1918. Ultimately, the Soviet side was forced to agree to the conditions put forward by Germany and its allies.

On March 3, 1918, the Brest Peace Treaty was concluded in the building of the White Palace of the fortress. The agreement was signed by: from Soviet Russia - G.Ya. Sokolnikov (chairman of the delegation), G.V. Chicherin, G.I. Petrovsky, L.M. Karakhan; Germany - R. Kühlmann and M. Hoffmann; Austria-Hungary - O. Chernin; Bulgaria - A. Toshev; Turkey - Khaki Pasha.

The agreement consisted of 14 articles. According to its terms, Russia left the war, losing 780 thousand square meters. km of territory with a population of 56 million people.

The revolution that began in Germany made it possible for the Soviet government to annul the Brest-Litovsk Treaty on November 13, 1918.

On June 28, 1919, in Versailles (France), the victorious powers - the USA, the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, etc. (27 states in total) on the one hand, and defeated Germany on the other hand, signed a peace treaty the treaty that ended the First World War.

In official Soviet history, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is described as an urgently needed move at the end of 1917, giving the young Soviet Republic a breathing space, allowing it to fulfill the promises set out in the first decrees and given to the people at the time of the seizure of power. The audience’s attention was not focused on the fact that the signing of the agreement was not only a necessary, but also a forced measure.

The disintegration of the army

The army is part of the state apparatus. It is not an independent force. With the help of this tool, the government of any country ensures the implementation of its own decisions when nothing else works. Nowadays, the expression “security department” is widely used; it succinctly and succinctly describes the role of the armed forces in the overall state mechanism. Before the February Revolution, the Bolshevik Party actively pursued the disintegration of the Russian army. The goal was the defeat of the tsarist government in the World War. The task was not easy, and it was not possible to complete it completely until the October coup. Moreover, as the course of subsequent events showed, it continued to exist for four long years while the Civil War was going on. But what was done was enough for the troops to begin to leave their positions and desert en masse. The process of demoralization of the army reached its apogee when, by the first order of the Petrograd Soviet, an elective procedure for the appointment of commanders was introduced. The power mechanism stopped working. The conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty in such conditions was truly an inevitable and forced measure.

Position of the Central Powers

In the central countries opposing the Entente, things were catastrophic. The mobilization potential was completely exhausted in mid-1917, there was not enough food, and famine began in Austria-Hungary and Germany. About seven hundred thousand citizens of these states died from malnutrition. The industry, which switched to producing exclusively military products, could not cope with orders. Pacifist and defeatist sentiments began to arise among the troops. Actually, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was needed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey no less than by the Soviets. Ultimately, even Russia's withdrawal from the war on the most favorable terms for its opponents could not prevent the defeat of the Central countries in the war.

Negotiation process

The signing of the Brest Peace Treaty was difficult and long. The negotiation process began at the end of 1917 and continued until March 3, 1918, going through three stages. The Soviet side proposed ending the war on the original terms without presenting demands for annexations and indemnities. Representatives of the Central Powers put forward their own conditions, which the Russian delegation could not fulfill with all its desire, including the signing of the treaty by all Entente countries. Then Leon Trotsky arrived in Brest-Litovsk, whom Lenin appointed as the main “drag-out” of the negotiations. His task was to ensure that peace was signed, but as late as possible. Time worked against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The head of the Soviet delegation behaved defiantly and used the negotiating table as a platform for Marxist propaganda, without even thinking about what kind of audience was in front of him. Ultimately, the Bolshevik delegation, having received a German ultimatum, left the hall, declaring that there would be no peace, no war, and the army would be demobilized. Such an unexpected move caused a completely natural reaction. German troops rushed forward without encountering resistance. Their movement could not even be called an offensive, it was simple movement by trains, cars and on foot. Vast territories were captured in Belarus, Ukraine and the Baltic states. The Germans did not occupy Petrograd for a banal reason - they simply did not have enough human resources. Having removed the government of the Central Rada, they immediately began the usual robbery, sending Ukrainian agricultural products to hungry Germany.

Results of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty

In these difficult conditions, with growing internal party struggle, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded. Its terms turned out to be so shameful that the delegates spent a long time deciding who exactly would sign this document. The gigantic size of the indemnities, the withdrawal of vast territories of Ukraine and the Caucasus to the Central Powers, the rejection of Finland and the Baltic states in the face of the catastrophic military and economic situation of the enemy seemed something fantastic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk became a catalyst for the transition of the nature of the Civil War from focal to total. Russia automatically ceased to be a victorious country, despite the defeat of the Central countries. In addition, the peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk was absolutely useless. After the signing of the act of surrender in Compiegne, it was denounced already in November 1918.

The conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty took place on March 3, 1918. The parties to the agreement were: Russia - the first party, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey - the second. This peace treaty was short-lived. it lasted just over nine months.

It all started with the first negotiations in Brest, where representatives from the Russian Bolsheviks were L.B. Kamenev and A.A. Ioffe, as well as S.D. Mstislavsky, L.M. Karakhan. At the last minute before leaving for this border town, it was decided that the participation of representatives of the people was necessary. These were the soldiers, workers, sailors and peasants who were lured by large business trips. Of course, the opinion of this group was not taken into account during the negotiations and was simply not heard.

During the negotiations, it was revealed that the German side, in addition to signing peace, wants to conclude it without indemnities and annexations, and also wants to achieve from Russia the right of nations to self-determination, thus planning to gain control of Ukraine and the Russian Baltic states. It became obvious that Russia could lose Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, as well as the territory of Transcaucasia.

The signing of the Brest Peace Treaty was only a temporary truce in hostilities. Lenin, Sverdlov and Trotsky were worried that if the conditions of the German side were met, they would be overthrown for treason, since the bulk of the Bolsheviks did not agree with the policies of Vladimir Ulyanov.

In January 1918, the second stage of negotiations took place in Brest. The delegation was headed by Trotsky without the presence of representatives of the people. The main role during this round belonged to the Ukrainian delegation, whose main demand was the annexation of the lands of Bukovina and Galicia from Austria-Hungary. At the same time, the Ukrainian side did not want to know the Russian delegation. Thus, Russia has lost an ally in Ukraine. For Germany, the latter was beneficial by placing on its territory a significant number of warehouses with weapons and military uniforms. The Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, due to the impossibility of reaching common points of contact, ended in nothing and was not signed.

The third stage of negotiations began, during which the representative from the Russian delegation Trotsky L.D. refused to recognize representatives from Ukraine.

On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. The result of this agreement was the separation from Russia of Poland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Crimea, Ukraine and Transcaucasia. Among other things, the fleet was disarmed and handed over to Germany, an indemnity of six billion marks in gold was imposed, as well as one billion marks to compensate for the damage to German citizens that they suffered during the revolution. Austria-Hungary and Germany received warehouses with weapons and ammunition. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also imposed on Russia the obligation to withdraw troops from these territories. Their place was taken by the German armed forces. The peace treaty stipulated the economic situation of Germany in Russia. Thus, German citizens were given the right to engage in entrepreneurial activities on the territory of Russia, despite the nationalization process taking place there.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk restored customs tariffs with Germany established in 1904. Due to the Bolsheviks’ non-recognition of the Tsarist treaties, according to this treaty, they were forced to confirm them to countries such as Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Germany and begin making payments on these debts.

The countries that were part of the Entente bloc did not approve of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and in mid-March 1918 announced their non-recognition.

In November 1918, Germany abandoned the terms of the peace agreement. Two days later it was annulled by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. A little later, German troops began to leave the former

On March 3, 1918, 95 years ago, a peace treaty was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey.

The conclusion of the agreement was preceded by a number of events.
On November 19 (December 2), the delegation of the Soviet government, headed by A. A. Ioffe, arrived in the neutral zone and proceeded to Brest-Litovsk, where the Headquarters of the German command on the Eastern Front was located, where it met with the delegation of the Austro-German bloc, which included also included representatives from Bulgaria and Turkey.

Peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk. Arrival of Russian delegates. In the middle is A. A. Ioffe, next to him is secretary L. Karakhan, A. A. Bitsenko, on the right is L. B. Kamenev

Arrival of the German delegation in Brest-Litovsk

On November 21 (December 4), the Soviet delegation outlined its conditions:
the truce is concluded for 6 months;
military operations are suspended on all fronts;
German troops are withdrawn from Riga and the Moonsund Islands;
any transfer of German troops to the Western Front is prohibited.

An unpleasant surprise awaited Soviet diplomats in Brest. They hoped that Germany and its allies would eagerly seize any opportunity for reconciliation. But it was not there. It turned out that the Germans and Austrians were not going to leave the occupied territories, and by the right of nations to self-determination, Russia would lose Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Transcaucasia. A dispute began over this right. The Bolsheviks argued that the expression of the will of peoples under occupation would be undemocratic, and the Germans objected that under Bolshevik terror it would be even less democratic.

As a result of the negotiations, a temporary agreement was reached:
the truce is concluded for the period from November 24 (December 7) to December 4 (17);
troops remain in their positions;
All troop transfers are stopped, except those that have already begun.

Hindenburg headquarters officers meet the arriving delegation of the RSFSR on the Brest platform in early 1918

Based on the general principles of the Peace Decree, the Soviet delegation, already at one of the first meetings, proposed adopting the following program as the basis for negotiations:
No forcible annexation of territories captured during the war is allowed; the troops occupying these territories are withdrawn as soon as possible.
The full political independence of peoples who were deprived of this independence during the war is being restored.

National groups that did not have political independence before the war are guaranteed the opportunity to freely resolve the issue of belonging to any state or their state independence through a free referendum.

Having noted the adherence of the German bloc to the Soviet peace formula “without annexations and indemnities,” the Soviet delegation proposed declaring a ten-day break, during which they could try to bring the Entente countries to the negotiating table.

Trotsky L.D., Ioffe A. and Rear Admiral V. Altfater are going to the meeting. Brest-Litovsk.

During the break, however, it became clear that Germany understands a world without annexations differently than the Soviet delegation - for Germany we are not talking at all about the withdrawal of troops to the borders of 1914 and the withdrawal of German troops from the occupied territories of the former Russian Empire, especially since, according to the statement Germany, Poland, Lithuania and Courland have already spoken out in favor of secession from Russia, so if these three countries now enter into negotiations with Germany about their future fate, this will by no means be considered annexation by Germany.

On December 14 (27), the Soviet delegation at the second meeting of the political commission made a proposal: “In full agreement with the open statement of both contracting parties about their lack of aggressive plans and their desire to make peace without annexations. Russia is withdrawing its troops from the parts of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Persia it occupies, and the powers of the Quadruple Alliance are withdrawing from Poland, Lithuania, Courland and other regions of Russia.” Soviet Russia promised, in accordance with the principle of self-determination of nations, to provide the population of these regions with the opportunity to decide for themselves the issue of their state existence - in the absence of any troops other than national or local police.

The German and Austro-Hungarian delegations, however, made a counter-proposal - the Russian state was invited to “take into account the statements expressing the will of the peoples inhabiting Poland, Lithuania, Courland and parts of Estonia and Livonia, about their desire for full state independence and the separation from the Russian Federation" and recognize that "these statements under present conditions should be considered as an expression of the people's will." R. von Kühlmann asked if the Soviet government would agree to withdraw its troops from all of Livonia and from Estland in order to give the local population the opportunity to unite with their fellow tribesmen living in the areas occupied by the Germans. The Soviet delegation was also informed that the Ukrainian Central Rada was sending its own delegation to Brest-Litovsk.

On December 15 (28), the Soviet delegation left for Petrograd. The current state of affairs was discussed at a meeting of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b), where by a majority vote it was decided to delay peace negotiations as long as possible, in the hope of a quick revolution in Germany itself. Subsequently, the formula is refined and takes the following form: “We hold on until the German ultimatum, then we surrender.” Lenin also invites People's Minister Trotsky to go to Brest-Litovsk and personally lead the Soviet delegation. According to Trotsky’s memoirs, “the very prospect of negotiations with Baron Kühlmann and General Hoffmann was not very attractive, but “to delay negotiations, you need a delayer,” as Lenin put it.”

Further negotiations with the Germans were up in the air. The Soviet government could not accept the German conditions, fearing that it would be immediately overthrown. Not only the Left Social Revolutionaries, but also the majority of communists stood for the “revolutionary war.” But there was no one to fight! The army has already fled to their homes. The Bolsheviks proposed moving the negotiations to Stockholm. But the Germans and their allies refused this. Although they were desperately afraid - what if the Bolsheviks interrupted the negotiations? It would be a disaster for them. They were already beginning to famine, and food could only be obtained in the East.

At the union meeting it was said in panic: “Germany and Hungary are not giving anything more. Without supplies from outside, a general pestilence will begin in Austria in a few weeks.”

The head of the Austrian delegation, Ottokar von Czernin, wrote when the Bolsheviks returned to Brest: “It was interesting to see what joy gripped the Germans, and this unexpected and so violently manifested gaiety proved how difficult the thought was for them that the Russians might not come.”

The impressions of the head of the German delegation, State Secretary of the German Foreign Ministry Richard von Kühlmann, about Trotsky, who led the Soviet delegation, have been preserved: “not very large, sharp and thoroughly piercing eyes behind sharp glasses looked at his counterpart with a drilling and critical gaze. The expression on his face clearly indicated that he [Trotsky] would have been better off ending the unsympathetic negotiations with a couple of grenades, throwing them across the green table, if this had been somehow agreed upon with the general political line... sometimes I asked myself whether I had arrived he generally intended to make peace, or he needed a platform from which he could propagate Bolshevik views.”

A member of the German delegation, General Max Hoffmann, ironically described the composition of the Soviet delegation: “I will never forget my first dinner with the Russians. I sat between Ioffe and Sokolnikov, the then Commissioner of Finance. Opposite me sat a worker, to whom, apparently, the multitude of cutlery and dishes caused great inconvenience. He grabbed one thing or another, but used the fork exclusively to clean his teeth. Sitting diagonally from me next to Prince Hohenlohe was the terrorist Bizenko [as in the text], on the other side of her was a peasant, a real Russian phenomenon with long gray locks and a beard overgrown like a forest. He brought a certain smile to the staff when, when asked whether he preferred red or white wine for dinner, he answered: “The stronger one.”

On December 22, 1917 (January 4, 1918), German Chancellor G. von Hertling announced in his speech in the Reichstag that a delegation of the Ukrainian Central Rada had arrived in Brest-Litovsk. Germany agreed to negotiate with the Ukrainian delegation, hoping to use this as leverage against both Soviet Russia and its ally, Austria-Hungary.

Ukrainian delegation in Brest-Litovsk, from left to right: Nikolay Lyubinsky, Vsevolod Golubovich, Nikolay Levitsky, Lussenti, Mikhail Polozov and Alexander Sevryuk.

The Central Rada did not want to know Trotsky. This was very beneficial for the Germans. They hovered around the independents this way and that. Other factors also came into play. A strike broke out in Vienna due to hunger, followed by a strike in Berlin. 500 thousand workers went on strike. Ukrainians demanded ever greater concessions for their bread. And Trotsky perked up. It seemed that a revolution was about to begin among the Germans and Austrians, and they just had to wait for it.

Ukrainian delegates communicate with German officers in Brest-Litovsk

At the next meeting, held on December 28, 1917 (January 10, 1918), the Germans invited the Ukrainian delegation. Its chairman V. A. Golubovich announced the declaration of the Central Rada that the power of the Council of People's Commissars of Soviet Russia does not extend to Ukraine, and therefore the Central Rada intends to independently conduct peace negotiations. R. von Kühlmann turned to L. D. Trotsky with the question of whether he and his delegation intend to continue to be the only diplomatic representatives of all of Russia in Brest-Litovsk, and also whether the Ukrainian delegation should be considered part of the Russian delegation or whether it represents an independent state. Trotsky knew that the Rada was actually in a state of war with the RSFSR. Therefore, by agreeing to consider the delegation of the Ukrainian Central Rada as independent, he actually played into the hands of the representatives of the Central Powers and provided Germany and Austria-Hungary with the opportunity to continue contacts with the Ukrainian Central Rada, while negotiations with Soviet Russia were marking time for two more days.

Signing of the truce documents in Brest-Litovsk

The January uprising in Kyiv put Germany in a difficult position, and now the German delegation demanded a break in the meetings of the peace conference. On January 21 (February 3), von Kühlmann and Chernin went to Berlin for a meeting with General Ludendorff, where the possibility of signing peace with the government of the Central Rada, which does not control the situation in Ukraine, was discussed. The decisive role was played by the dire food situation in Austria-Hungary, which, without Ukrainian grain, was threatened with famine.

In Brest, at the third round of negotiations, the situation changed again. In Ukraine, the Reds smashed the Rada. Now Trotsky refused to recognize the Ukrainians as an independent delegation and called Ukraine an integral part of Russia. The Bolsheviks clearly relied on the imminent revolution in Germany and Austria-Hungary and tried to gain time. One fine day in Berlin, a radio message from Petrograd to German soldiers was intercepted, where they were called upon to kill the emperor, generals, and fraternize. Kaiser Wilhelm II became furious and ordered the negotiations to be interrupted.

Signing a peace treaty with Ukraine. Seated in the middle, from left to right: Count Ottokar Czernin von und zu Hudenitz, General Max von Hoffmann, Richard von Kühlmann, Prime Minister V. Rodoslavov, Grand Vizier Mehmet Talaat Pasha

On January 27 (February 9), at a meeting of the political commission, Chernin informed the Russian delegation about the signing of peace with Ukraine represented by the delegation of the Central Rada government.

Now the situation of the Bolsheviks has become desperate. The Germans spoke to them in the language of ultimatums. The Reds were “asked” to leave Ukraine as if they were leaving the territory of a state friendly to Germany. And new demands were added to the previous ones - to give up the unoccupied parts of Latvia and Estonia, to pay a huge indemnity.

At the insistence of General Ludendorff (even at a meeting in Berlin, he demanded that the head of the German delegation interrupt negotiations with the Russian delegation within 24 hours after the signing of peace with Ukraine) and on the direct orders of Emperor Wilhelm II, von Kühlmann presented Soviet Russia in the form of an ultimatum demanding to accept German conditions of the world.

On January 28, 1918 (February 10, 1918), in response to a request from the Soviet delegation on how to resolve the issue, Lenin confirmed his previous instructions. Nevertheless, Trotsky, violating these instructions, rejected the German peace conditions, putting forward the slogan “Neither peace, nor war: we will not sign peace, we will stop the war, and we will demobilize the army.” The German side stated in response that Russia’s failure to sign a peace treaty would automatically entail the termination of the truce.

In general, the Germans and Austrians received extremely clear advice. Take what you want, but yourself, without my signature or consent. After this statement, the Soviet delegation demonstratively left the negotiations. On the same day, Trotsky gives an order to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief Krylenko demanding that he immediately issue an order to the army to end the state of war with Germany and on general demobilization(although he had no right to do so, since he was not yet the People's Commissar for Military Affairs, but for Foreign Affairs). Lenin canceled this order after 6 hours. Nevertheless, the order was received by all fronts on February 11 andfor some reason it was accepted for execution. The last units still in position flowed to the rear...

On February 13, 1918, at a meeting in Homburg with the participation of Wilhelm II, Imperial Chancellor Hertling, head of the German Foreign Office von Kühlmann, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chief of Naval Staff and the Vice-Chancellor, it was decided to break the truce and launch an offensive on the Eastern Front.

On the morning of February 19, the offensive of German troops rapidly unfolded along the entire Northern Front. The troops of the 8th German Army (6 divisions), a separate Northern Corps stationed on the Moonsund Islands, as well as a special army unit operating from the south, from Dvinsk, moved through Livonia and Estland to Revel, Pskov and Narva (the final goal is Petrograd). . In 5 days, German and Austrian troops advanced 200-300 km deep into Russian territory. “I have never seen such a ridiculous war,” Hoffmann wrote. - We drove it practically on trains and cars. You put a handful of infantry with machine guns and one cannon on the train and go to the next station. You take the station, arrest the Bolsheviks, put more soldiers on the train and move on.” Zinoviev was forced to admit that “there is information that in some cases unarmed German soldiers dispersed hundreds of our soldiers.” “The army rushed to run, abandoning everything, sweeping away everything in its path,” the first Soviet commander-in-chief of the Russian front army, N.V. Krylenko, wrote about these events in the same year of 1918.

On February 21, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree “The Socialist Fatherland is in Danger,” but at the same time notified Germany that it was ready to resume negotiations. And the Germans decided to slam their fists on the table in order to discourage the Bolsheviks from being stubborn in the future. On February 22, an ultimatum was dictated with a response period of 48 hours, and the conditions were even more severe than before. Since the Red Guard showed absolute inability to fight, on February 23 a decree was adopted on the creation of a regular Workers' and Peasants' Red Army. But on the same day a stormy meeting of the Central Committee took place. Lenin persuaded his comrades to peace, threatening his resignation. This did not stop many. Lomov stated: “If Lenin threatens resignation, then they are afraid in vain. We must take power without Lenin.” Nevertheless, some were embarrassed by Vladimir Ilyich’s demarche, others were sobered by the easy march of the Germans to Petrograd. 7 members of the Central Committee voted for peace, 4 were against and 4 abstained.

But the Central Committee was only a party body. The decision had to be made by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets. It was still multi-party, and the factions of the left Socialist Revolutionaries, right Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, anarchists, and a significant part of the Bolsheviks were in favor of the war. The acceptance of peace was ensured by Yakov Sverdlov. He knew how to chair meetings like no one else. I very clearly used, for example, such a tool as regulations. The unwanted speaker was cut off - the regulations came out (and who is watching to see if there is still a minute left?). He knew how to play on casuistry, procedural subtleties, and manipulated who to give the floor and who to “ignore.”

At a meeting of the Bolshevik faction, Sverdlov emphasized “party discipline.” He pointed out that the Central Committee had already made a decision, the entire faction must implement it, and if someone thinks differently, he is obliged to submit to the “majority.” At 3 o'clock in the morning, the factions of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee came together. If we counted all the opponents of peace - the Socialist Revolutionaries, the Mensheviks, the “left communists”, they would have a clear majority. Knowing this, the Left Socialist Revolutionary leaders demanded a roll call vote. But... the “left communists” were already bound by the decision of their faction. Vote only for peace. By 116 votes against 85 with 26 abstentions, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee accepted the German ultimatum.

After the decision to accept peace on German terms was made by the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b), and then passed through the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the question arose about the new composition of the delegation. As Richard Pipes notes, none of the Bolshevik leaders were eager to go down in history by putting their signature on a treaty that was shameful for Russia. Trotsky by this time had already resigned from the post of People's Commissariat, G. Ya. Sokolnikov proposed the candidacy of G. E. Zinoviev. However, Zinoviev refused such an “honor”, ​​proposing the candidacy of Sokolnikov himself in response; Sokolnikov also refuses, promising to resign from the Central Committee if such an appointment occurs. Ioffe A.A. also flatly refused. After long negotiations, Sokolnikov nevertheless agreed to head the Soviet delegation, the new composition of which took the following form: Sokolnikov G. Ya., Petrovsky L. M., Chicherin G. V., Karakhan G. I. and a group of 8 consultants (among them the former chairman of the delegation A. A. Ioffe). The delegation arrived in Brest-Litovsk on March 1, and two days later they signed the agreement without any discussion.

The German-Austrian offensive, which began in February 1918, continued even when the Soviet delegation arrived in Brest-Litovsk: on February 28, the Austrians occupied Berdichev, on March 1, the Germans occupied Gomel, Chernigov and Mogilev, and on March 2, Petrograd was bombed. On March 4, after the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed, German troops occupied Narva and stopped only on the Narova River and the western shore of Lake Peipsi, 170 km from Petrograd.

Photocopy of the first two pages of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty between Soviet Russia and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, March 1918

The annex to the treaty guaranteed the special economic status of Germany in Soviet Russia. Citizens and corporations of the Central Powers were removed from the Bolshevik nationalization decrees, and persons who had already lost property were restored to their rights. Thus, German citizens were allowed to engage in private entrepreneurship in Russia against the backdrop of the general nationalization of the economy that was taking place at that time. This state of affairs for some time created the opportunity for Russian owners of enterprises or securities to escape nationalization by selling their assets to the Germans. F. E. Dzerzhinsky’s fears that “By signing the terms, we do not guarantee ourselves against new ultimatums,” are partially confirmed: the advance of the German army was not limited to the boundaries of the occupation zone defined by the peace treaty.

The struggle for ratification of the peace treaty began. At the VII Congress of the Bolshevik Party on March 6-8, the positions of Lenin and Bukharin clashed. The outcome of the congress was decided by Lenin's authority - his resolution was adopted by 30 votes against 12 with 4 abstentions. Trotsky's compromise proposals to make peace with the countries of the Quadruple Alliance the last concession and to prohibit the Central Committee from making peace with the Central Rada of Ukraine were rejected. The controversy continued at the Fourth Congress of Soviets, where the left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists opposed ratification, and the left communists abstained. But thanks to the existing system of representation, the Bolsheviks had a clear majority at the Congress of Soviets. If the left communists had split the party, the peace treaty would have failed, but Bukharin did not dare to do so. On the night of March 16, peace was ratified.

Austro-Hungarian troops enter the city of Kamenets-Podolsky after the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty

German troops under the command of General Eichhorn occupied Kyiv. March 1918.

Germans in Kyiv

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While the German General Staff came to the conclusion that the defeat of the Second Reich was inevitable, Germany managed to impose additional agreements to the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty on the Soviet government, in the context of the growing civil war and the beginning of the Entente intervention. On August 27, 1918, in Berlin, in the strictest secrecy, the Russian-German additional treaty to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the Russian-German financial agreement were concluded, which were signed by plenipotentiary A. A. Ioffe on behalf of the government of the RSFSR, and by von P. Hinze and on behalf of Germany. I. Krige. Under this agreement, Soviet Russia was obliged to pay Germany, as compensation for damage and expenses for maintaining Russian prisoners of war, a huge indemnity - 6 billion marks - in the form of “pure gold” and loan obligations. In September 1918, two “gold trains” were sent to Germany, which contained 93.5 tons of “pure gold” worth over 120 million gold rubles. It didn't get to the next shipment.

Extracts

Article I

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey on the one hand and Russia on the other declare that the state of war between them has ended; they decided to live from now on. among themselves in peace and harmony.

Article II

The contracting parties will refrain from any agitation or propaganda against the governments or state and military institutions of the other party. Since this obligation concerns Russia, it also applies to the areas occupied by the powers of the Quadruple Alliance.

Article III

The areas lying to the west of the line established by the contracting parties and previously belonging to Russia will no longer be under its supreme authority...

For the designated regions, no obligations towards Russia will arise from their former affiliation with Russia. Russia refuses any interference in the internal affairs of these regions. Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these areas in accordance with their populations.

Article IV

Germany is ready, as soon as general peace is concluded and Russian demobilization is completely carried out, to clear the areas lying east of the line indicated in paragraph 1 of Article III, since Article IV does not stipulate otherwise. Russia will do everything for the provinces of Eastern Anatolia and their lawful return to Turkey. The districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum will also be immediately cleared of Russian troops. Russia will not interfere in the new organization of state-legal and international legal relations of these districts, but will allow their population to establish a new system in agreement with neighboring states, especially Turkey.

Article V

Russia will immediately carry out the complete demobilization of its army, including the military units newly formed by its current government. In addition, Russia will either transfer its military ships to Russian ports and leave them there until a general peace is concluded, or immediately disarm them. Military vessels of states that continue to be at war with the powers of the Quadruple Alliance, since these vessels are within the sphere of Russian power, are equated to Russian military courts. ...In the Baltic Sea and in the Russian-controlled parts of the Black Sea, the removal of minefields must begin immediately. Merchant shipping in these maritime areas is freely and immediately resumed...

Article VI

Russia undertakes to immediately make peace with the Ukrainian People's Republic and recognize the peace treaty between this state and the powers of the Quadruple Alliance. The territory of Ukraine is immediately cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard. Russia ceases all agitation or propaganda against the government or public institutions of the Ukrainian People's Republic.

Estland and Livonia are also immediately cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard. The eastern border of Estonia generally runs along the Narva River. The eastern border of Livonia runs generally through Lake Peipus and Lake Pskov to its southwestern corner, then through Lake Lyubanskoye in the direction of Livenhof on the Western Dvina. Estland and Livonia will be occupied by the German police power until public safety is ensured there by the country's own institutions and until public order is restored there. Russia will immediately release all arrested or deported residents of Estonia and Livonia and ensure the safe return of all deported Estonians and Livonia residents.

Finland and the Åland Islands will also be immediately cleared of Russian troops and Russian Red Guards, and Finnish ports of the Russian fleet and Russian naval forces... the government or public institutions of Finland. The fortifications erected on the Åland Islands must be demolished as soon as possible.

Article VII

Based on the fact that Persia and Afghanistan are free and independent states, the contracting parties undertake to respect the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of Persia and Afghanistan.

Article VIII

Prisoners of war from both sides will be released to their homeland

Article IX

The contracting parties mutually renounce compensation for their military expenses, that is, government costs of waging war, as well as compensation for military losses, that is, those losses that were caused to them and their citizens in the war zone by military measures, including and all the requisitions made in the enemy country...