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§ 37. Literature and fine arts
Literature.
Leading area of spiritual life Russia second half of the 19th century literature continued to remain. In conditions of growing literacy of the population and the lack of opportunity for a broad discussion of pressing life problems, Russian literature was not only a significant cultural phenomenon, but also fulfilled social tasks. “Literature for a people who do not have political freedom,” wrote A. I. Herzen, “is the only platform from the height of which they make them hear the cry of their indignation and their conscience.”
The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century. became critical realism. He was different increased attention to reflect real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of denunciation, a keen interest in the life of the common man, and the desire to find ways and means to combat the vices of society. The most striking example of accusatory literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible, in the works of the great satirist (“Provincial Sketches”, “The History of a City”, “The Golovlevs”, “Pompadours and Pompadours”). Artistic technique, which the writer uses, is grotesque. In his works he takes to the extreme all existing human vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, or for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.
The works of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, “The Idiot”, “The Humiliated and the Insulted”) reveal the world of human suffering, the tragedy of a powerless and humiliated individual. The writer showed how suppression of a person’s dignity destroys his soul, splits his consciousness; on the one hand, a feeling of one’s insignificance appears, on the other, the need for protest, the desire to assert oneself as a free person, is maturing. Often such self-affirmation leads Dostoevsky's heroes to self-will - crime. But the writer’s sympathies are not with these rebellious people, but with those of his heroes who have infinite human kindness and are endowed with subtle spiritual intuition. Dostoevsky saw moral support for man in the idea God.
By the second half of the 19th century. refers to the flourishing of Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy’s creativity. His brilliant novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, novellas, short stories, dramatic works with stunning artistic power They reveal the most complex movements of the human soul, pronounce a merciless verdict on morality, customs, and principles that reigned in high society, often contrasting them with folk moral values and traditions.
Since the late 70s. begins literary activity Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. Chekhov's heroes are petty officials, bankrupt nobles, provincial intelligentsia, students, crushed by life's problems, deeply suffering from the indifference and misunderstanding of others. A.P. Chekhov strives to show a person as he is, without embellishment, without resorting to attempts to pity and touch the reader: “Then a person will become better when you show him what he is.”
Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. tried to give a generalized portrait of the hero of his time, a man of action who did not want to put up with the existing reality. New heroes have appeared in literature - intellectuals, nihilists, professional revolutionaries. Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev was one of the first to offer his vision of such a hero. In 1860, his novel “On the Eve” was published. In it, the writer, in the image of the Bulgarian commoner Insarov, brought out a man with an integral character, all of whose forces are concentrated on the desire to liberate his homeland. I. S. Turgenev continued his artistic study of the “new man” in the book “Fathers and Sons” (1862). The novel shows the cruel and complex process of breaking the previous foundations of social life, contradictions and clashes of interests in all spheres of life - between landowners and peasants, between nobles and commoners, within the noble class. All this appears in the novel as a destructive element, exploding class barriers, changing the usual course of life. The personification of this element is the main character - the nihilist Bazarov. Despite Turgenev's ambivalent attitude towards his hero, he presents him as a courageous person, consistent in his convictions. At the same time, the writer watches with alarm how the destruction of the old society becomes similar people an end in itself.
This topic sounded most alarmingly from the pages of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Demons,” written in the wake of the Nechaev case. Dostoevsky saw in “Nechaevism” signs of a most dangerous social disease. Reverence educated part of society before revolutionary romanticism leads to the emergence of people for whom the main slogan is the statement that “the end justifies the means.” Moral concepts are being eroded in their minds. To achieve their goal, they commit the most terrible crimes. They place themselves above God, arrogating to themselves the right to control the life and death of a person. Such people will never be able to build on earth just society, for politics without morality brings only destruction.
One of the consistent supporters of critical realism, whom young people of all ranks considered their ideological leader, was N. A. Nekrasov (1821-1878). The leading place in his work was occupied by the theme of people's life, its hopelessness and sorrows. At the same time, in his works (the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, etc.) the idea of popular revolt against the oppressors is clearly visible.
Painting.
Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century. solved the same social issues as literature. The leading direction in it was critical realism.
One of the largest artists of this direction is Vasily Grigorievich Perov. He managed to show with accusatory pathos many unsightly aspects of his modern life. In 1861, Perov painted the painting “Rural procession at Easter." The success of the film grew into a public scandal. It depicts a drunken priest with a dim look, a sexton collapsing on the porch in mortal intoxication with a censer in his hands, an old man carrying an icon turned upside down, the mistress of a hut casting off a dead drunk, etc. The picture was perceived as an exposure of the clergy and dark ignorance, a people overwhelmed by need. The paintings of V. G. Perov are a detailed story about the situation of the Russian classes (“Tea drinking in Mytishchi”, “The arrival of a governess at a merchant’s house”, “The last tavern at the outpost”). Particularly impressive are the paintings depicting the difficult life of children (“Troika”).
In 1863 in artistic life An extraordinary event occurred in Russia. 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to paint the subject paintings required for graduation Scandinavian mythology. They justified this by the fact that in modern Russian life there are more worthy topics to paint. Not receiving permission to make a free choice, the rebels left the Academy and founded the St. Petersburg Artel of Artists, which in 1870 was transformed into the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. These exhibitions were called traveling because they were organized not only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also throughout Russia. This was a kind of “going to the people” of Russian artists. The main criterion for selecting paintings for exhibitions, which became outstanding events in the life of the Russian province, was the requirement to reflect life with all its acute problems, in all its relevance.
The leader and theoretician of the Wanderers was Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoy. Kramskoy entered the history of Russian painting primarily as an outstanding portrait painter. He created a whole series of images of the largest figures of Russian culture - portraits of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy. Many of Kramskoy’s works stand on the verge of portrait and thematic picture(“Unknown”, “Inconsolable Grief”).
Among the artists who signed the first charter of the Association of Itinerants were also N. N. Ge, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, brothers K. E. and V. E. Makovsky, V. G. Perov. Somewhat later they were joined by I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, brothers V. M. and A. M. Vasnetsov, N. A. Yaroshenko, K. A. Savitsky and others. Since the mid-80s. V. A. Serov, I. I. Levitan, V. D. Polenov take part in the exhibitions.
The pinnacle of realism in Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century. the work of Ilya Efimovich Repin and Vasily Ivanovich Surikov, whose canvases were created, is rightly considered collective image Russian people. Repin’s works “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Expect”, “Refusal of Confession”, “Arrest of the Propagandist” had the loudest public resonance. In the 70-80s. the artist got carried away historical topics- “Princess Sophia”, “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan November 16, 1581”, “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan.” Repin also had an undoubted gift as a portrait painter. He also left us images of writers, composers, and actors.
Surikov's canvases are an artistically recreated story, the main character of which is the Russian people. “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Menshikov in Berezovo”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “The Conquest of Siberia by Ermak” - these paintings were included in the golden fund of Russian artistic culture.
To the Russian genre folk tales Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov addressed (“Alyonushka”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”, “Bogatyrs”, “After the Battle of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsians”). His paintings are imbued with the spirit folk tales, religious quests and reflections on the fate of the heroic people.
The main object of attention of many artists was the Central Russian landscape, the harsh nature of the Russian North. The paintings of Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin create the impression of power, strength, the greatness of Russian nature, which should be inherent in the heroic people (“Rye”, “Cutting Wood”, “Pine Forest. Mast Forest in the Vyatka Province”). Alexey Kondratievich Savrasov is closer to the lyrical landscape, permeated with aching love for native land("The Rooks Have Arrived").
A special place in the landscape of the second half of the 19th century. occupied by Arkhip Ivanovich Kuindzhi, who was a master of amazing lighting effects (“Ukrainian Night”, “ Birch Grove", "Night on the Dnieper"). Amazingly beautiful Russian landscapes are depicted in the paintings of Isaac Ilyich Levitan. The paintings of Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky, who most of all loved to depict the sea, were very popular.
Sculpture.
The most famous sculptor of the second half of the 19th century. was Mark Matveevich Antokolsky. In his views, he aligned himself with the Wanderers. M. M. Antokolsky created a series of historical portraits: “Ivan the Terrible”, “Peter I”, “Yaroslav the Wise”, “Ermak”.
An outstanding event in cultural life the country was the opening in Moscow in June 1880 of the monument to A.S. Pushkin, which was created with public donations. The author of the monument was the famous sculptor Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin.
Mikhail Osipovich Mikeshin in his monument “Millennium of Russia” in Novgorod (1862) depicted 129 sculptural figures. He used similar techniques when creating the monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg (1873).
? Questions and tasks
1. What problems that worried Russian society were raised by the literature of the first half of the 19th century?
2. What phenomena of Russian reality in the second half of the 19th century. reflected in Russian literature?
3. What tasks did literature perform in the second half of the 19th century?
4. What new did the Peredvizhniki introduce into Russian art?
Document
About the artistic life of Moscow (from the memoirs of the writer N. D. Teleshov “Moscow before”)
During the same period of time it grew into the largest social phenomenon art Gallery private individuals - the Tretyakov brothers... Its founder, Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov, modest and deeply believed in the significance of Russian art, usually visited artists' studios and, even before exhibitions, acquired the most outstanding paintings for the gallery, and at exhibitions with these paintings, later famous, there were caption: “Acquired for the Tretyakov Gallery,” which all the artists, not excluding the most prominent ones, were very proud of. His enormous collections, for which he built a special house, were always available to everyone who wanted to see and even copy the paintings. In 1892 he transferred his famous gallery together with the house as a gift to the city, enriching Moscow with the most valuable works of art...
The Peredvizhniki artists also did a lot of public work: their exhibitions were literally a holiday for Moscow. I remember spending whole days at these exhibitions, where it was impossible to remain cool or calm. The viewer was always captivated and excited by both the skill itself and the plot, content, and idea of the picture...
From these “Traveling” as well as “Periodic” exhibitions, most of the best paintings later went to the Tretyakov Gallery. Such works as “Ivan the Terrible” and “We Didn’t Expect” by Repin, like “Boyaryna Morozova” or “Morning of the Streltsy Execution” by Surikov, like the canvases of Viktor Vasnetsov, Polenov, like “Marina” by Aivazovsky, like the landscapes of Shishkin, Levitan, the genres of Pryanishnikov and Makovsky, like Serov’s portraits, generated a whole literature around them, and newspapers were filled with praise or debates for and against, depending on the direction of the publication. Vereshchagin’s battle paintings, Savitsky’s paintings “To War” and “Hookman”, or Yaroshenko’s “Life Everywhere” and “Stoker”, or Kasatkin’s “Miner” and “Coalbreakers” forced many to think about issues not only artistic.
Moving from city to city, exhibitions were subject to censorship control, and paintings that were missed in one city turned out to be inconvenient in another due to the subjective opinion of one person or another.
Questions for the document:
1. What phenomena in Moscow artistic life are discussed in Teleshov’s memoirs?
2. What was the response of the population and authorities to the exhibitions of paintings by the Itinerant artists?
3. Try to find reproductions of the paintings discussed in the document. Why were these paintings not only an artistic, but also a social phenomenon?
Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. 8th grade: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Education, 2009. - 287 p., l. ill., map.
Collection of history lesson notes download, calendar and thematic planning, textbooks in all subjects
Literature And art at the end XIX – beginning XX centuries
1. Literature . Diversity currents , are common and specific features national literature
The second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were marked by the strengthening of industrial civilization. It was a time not only of rapid development of science and production, but also of a redistribution of social roles, the formation of new values and ethical standards. At the same time, This time became a turning point in the development of artistic culture. IN in art there is an intense search for other artistic forms, methods, techniques capable of capturing with utmost completeness and expressiveness new picture peace.
Disappear with changes in society humanistic ideas era of the Enlightenment, romantic feelings fade into the background, and romanticism gives way critical realism.
Critical realism - a direction in literature and art, the main goal of which was a truthful, objective reflection of reality from a critical point of view.
The measure of a person’s dignity is increasingly becoming his financial situation and ability to achieve success in life. Industrial civilization aroused the rejection of romantics, A realists tried to understand their contemporary society, to reveal the reasons for the ugliness of life, to reflect the environment in all its ugliness and the severity of conflicts.
In conditions of aggravation of social contradictions and the growth of the democratic movement, realists consider their heroes as creatures of society. A person is unthinkable outside the social environment, even if he hates it and fights against it. In works of art, accusatory motives are increasingly heard, and the entire social system comes under the fire of criticism from realists.
A significant place in new directions in the development of artistic culture is occupied by naturalism, which raises topics previously considered indecent and forbidden: the ugly and sometimes immoral sides of life, the life of “people of the bottom.”
Naturalism - direction in European and American literature and art of the last third XIX century, reflecting the repulsive aspects of life and manifestations of human nature in all their completeness.
Paying attention to the little things of everyday life, insignificant facts, details surrounding the heroes, naturalists expose the unsightly underside of life to everyone.
However, despite all the diversity of directions and styles, best works world culture is imbued with humanism and faith in the unlimited possibilities of man.
Outstanding French writer Emile Zola (1840-1902) gained wide popularity in his country and abroad. Like Balzac, Zola dreamed of painting a comprehensive panorama of French history. At the end of 1868, the writer began work on a series of novels about the Second Empire. In the series “Rougon-Macquart. Natural and social history of one family in the era of the Second Empire" (1871-1893) included 20 novels, united by the idea of revealing the dynamics of the development of the individual, family, social groups in society and society itself in history. Zola shows the life of representatives of all strata of society: the highest clergy of the empire, large financial speculators, shopkeepers, artisans, workers. Having adopted the “naturalistic method”, the author rises to the heights of artistic analysis of the era in all its inconsistency and complexity.
Emile Zola always took an active life position. In 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair, a citizen writer raised his voice in defense of democracy, denouncing clerical and military reaction. Letter from E. Zola to the President of the Republic "I I accuse” is one of the most significant acts in defense of human rights. The work of writers from different countries developed under the direct influence of E. Zola. “Based on the novels of Emile Zola,” Gorky said, “you can study an entire era.”
Guy de Maupassant (full name - Henri Rene Albert gi) born in 1850 near Tourville-sur-Arc. His father came from impoverished nobles, his mother from a family of intellectuals. After graduating from the Rouen Lyceum, Maupassant took part in the Franco-Prussian War, then served as an official in various ministries. He mastered literary skills under the guidance of G. Flaubert. Maupassant entered literature in 1880 with a book of poems and a short story “Pyshka”, which was distinguished by its acute social orientation, which became characteristic of further creativity writer.
Maupassant is one of the last great French realists of the 19th century. At the heart of his work is a sober, without illusions, understanding of the essence of relations in society, the falsehood and politicking of the era of the Third Republic, the abomination of militarism and colonial adventures. Acutely aware of the squalor, vulgarity, and selfishness of his contemporaries, the writer sought to contrast these morals with closeness to nature, the truth of human natural feelings. Maupassant's novels La Vie (1883), Bel Ami (1885), Mont-Ariol (1886) and others are very famous. In 1893, the writer’s life was tragically cut short due to a sudden illness.
Famous English playwright George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
Irish by birth. He spent his early years in Dublin and after leaving school served as a clerk. In 1876 he moved to London, where he took up literature and journalism. The novels “An Unreasonable Marriage”, “The Love of an Artist”, “The Quarrelsome Socialist” were rejected
nuts from official publishing houses and were published in leftist newspapers. B. Shaw was fond of socialist ideas, published special treatises, brochures, and books.
English writer Oscar Wilde (1854- 1900) , great master words, gave priority to the form of a work of art over the content. The purpose of art, according to Wilde, is to give people aesthetic enjoyment. But the writer could not isolate himself from the realities of life. His best works are “The Picture of Dorian Gray”, fantasy tales(collections “The Happy Prince”, “House of Pomegranates” and others) are imbued with humanism, condemnation of cruelty and arrogance. Wilde recognized philanthropy, selflessness, and compassion as the highest moral values. He contrasted external beauty with the beauty of active good. The plight of the poor worried the writer, and for some time he even became interested in socialist ideas. Wilde also wrote several comedies in which he wittily ridiculed the depravity of the aristocracy (“A Woman Not Worth Noticing,” “An Ideal Husband”). Wilde's last work was The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898). This is a tragic and gloomy poem that tells about the experiences of prisoners condemned to painful suffering by cruel English laws.
The Norwegian playwright made a significant contribution to the development of drama. Henryk Ibsen (1828-1906) . He was born into the family of a wealthy businessman. In 1850, G. Ibsen’s first play, “The Heroic Mound,” was staged in Christiania. In 1852-1857. Ibsen directed the first Norwegian national theater. In his works, the playwright turned to satire and the grotesque; he contrasted the world of patriarchal society with the vices of his contemporary society. peasant life, the heroic past of his country. In the drama “The Struggle for the Throne”, the dramatic poem “Brand”, the focus is on an integral person who does not stop at any sacrifice to achieve his ideal. Since the 80s, the name of Ibsen has served throughout the world as the banner of the struggle for realistic art, for the integrity and inner freedom of man, for the renewal of spiritual life. At the beginning of the 20th century, Ibsen became one of the rulers of the thoughts of the intelligentsia; his plays were performed in many theaters around the world. On the modern stage, “A Doll’s House”, “Ghosts” and in concert performance “Peer Gynt” with music by E. Grieg are most often staged.
In the midst of an economic boom in American literature a whole school was formed that believed real life unworthy of the gaze of a true artist. Its representatives preferred the world of dreams and fiction. Against this background, the voice sounded especially sharp young writer Brand Twain (1835-1910).
Most of Mark Twain's works are associated with the traditions of American folk humor, which gives his numerous stories a special charm and a bright national coloring. In the most insignificant phenomena Twain notices the funny and about the most everyday things tells in an inventive and witty manner. It shows the merchant spirit of the bourgeoisie, the thirst for profit and the unscrupulousness of politicking.
Mark Twain (real name - Samuel Langhorne Clemens) was a very observant writer, an excellent expert on psychology and everyday life ordinary people America. On your own life path he met people from a wide variety of professions. The son of a provincial judge, he began working at the age of 12: as an apprentice in a printing house, as a typesetter, as a steamship pilot and, finally, as a journalist. From the memories of the steamboat on which he sailed along the Mississippi, the writer’s pseudonym arose: “Mark Twain” is a term used when measuring the depth of a river.
Memories of his childhood years provided Twain with material for two world-famous books - “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (1876) and “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” (1884). Tom and his friends are looking for romantic adventures and freedom away from the bourgeois order, from the boredom of religious Sunday schools, from the tedious instructions of school teachers. With Twain's characteristic observation and subtle humor, the customs of the American province of the first half of the 19th century are outlined. Twain is not only a cheerful humorist, but also a brilliant satirist. His book A Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889) exposes the feudal-monarchical remnants that still persisted in some European countries. One of the favorite works of teenagers around the world was Mark Twain’s book “The Prince and the Pauper” (1882). Only recently have the writer’s letters and diaries, his unfinished autobiography, and pamphlets seen the light of day. They say that an honest artist, who passionately loved his people, experienced painful disappointments, seeing how democratic ideals were trampled underfoot in his country.
Wonderful writer of the beginning century Jack London(his real name John Griffith) wrote about the fate of ordinary people of his country. The writer's love for working people, the desire for social justice, hatred of selfishness and greed are close and understandable to readers all over the world.
Born into the family of an impoverished farmer, London began working as a newspaper seller, a cannery worker, and traveled many roads in search of income. In 1897, Jack London traveled to Alaska, where gold had recently been discovered. He did not manage to get rich, but the impressions he received in Alaska served him as material for his first fascinating stories about the struggle of man with the harsh northern nature (“Love of Life”, “White Silence”, etc.) The writer has many works (“ White Fang", "The Call of the Wild", "Mikey, Jerry's Brother"), where he portrays animals with deep knowledge and warmth.
One of Jack London's most profound novels, Martin Eden (1909), is dedicated to the fate of the writer in society. The hero of the work, Martin Eden, is a man of the people. At the cost of enormous efforts and sacrifices, he managed to fulfill his dream and become famous writer. But fame brought him only a feeling of deep disappointment and spiritual emptiness. Eden saw how selfish and insignificant the people who seemed to him to be carriers of culture were. All over the world the work of the great American writer is appreciated, in which his love of freedom, respect for creative energy, courage, human strength are revealed, where passionate love to the majestic and inexhaustible beauty of nature.
Russian literature developed in an atmosphere of social upsurge and intense ideological struggle. Realist writers who gained worldwide fame created an unprecedented number of outstanding works of art: “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina” Tolstoy,"Crime and Punishment"
Dostoevsky,"Fathers and Sons" Turgeneva,“Who lives well in Rus'” Nekrasova,"Storm" Ostrovsky,"Past and Thoughts" Herzen,“The History of a City” and “Lord Golovlevs” Saltykov-Shchedrin. In these works, in in every sense classical words, the characteristic features of Russian literature were most clearly embodied: high civic feelings, the breadth of the depiction of life, the deep disclosure of its main contradictions.
In the 60-70s, a new group of talented realist writers came to literature: N.S. Leskov (1831-1895), N.G. Pomyalovsky (1835-1863), G.I. Uspensky (1843-1902). Talented romantic poets also performed during these years: A.A.Fet, A.N.Maikov, Ya.P.Polonsky, but they were supporters of “pure art”, and their work attracted less public attention.
Russian realism retained its dominant position in Russia in the 80-90s - a difficult, transitional era, when the foundations of feudal Russia were crumbling under the pressure of the development of market relations. Literary activity continued during this time. L.N. Tolstoy, who created one of his largest works - the novel “Sunday”, G.I. Uspensky, M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin. IN last decades In the 19th century, new bright talents emerged: V.M.Garshin, V.G.Korolenko and above all, A.P. Chekhov. These artists were able to see and show that dissatisfaction with life has become universal in Russia, that protest is brewing even in the souls of “small”, previously humiliated, downtrodden people. And the feeling that “you can’t live like this anymore” (Chekhov) gave rise to sublime, romantic premonitions of a better future in the works of writers of the 80s and 90s.
A special place among Russian writers of this period is occupied by L.N. Tolstoy And F.M.Dostoevsky, who, starting from everyday reality, managed to rise to “ eternal questions"about God, the soul, the meaning of life.
Crisis phenomena in society are noticeably manifested in Russian literature. Masters realistic direction - I.A.Bunin, A.I.Kuprin, L.N.Andreev - create works of magnificent form, in which, however, the life-affirming pathos of the classics is not felt - their plots become more and more gloomy and disturbing, the ideals that inspire them become more and more unclear. These features were also inherent in a number of works by A.M. Gorky, who with amazing power showed the dark sides of Russian life.
At the end of the 19th century. appear in Russian literature modernist movements, fundamentally different from realism - symbolism, acmeism and others. Poets and prose writers of these movements sought either to create in their works generalized symbols of human feelings and life phenomena, divorced from the hustle and bustle of everyday life, or to captivate the reader with the exoticism of distant countries or long-past eras, to take him into the depths of the subconscious or to superstellar worlds, to amaze the unprecedented passion, etc. At the same time the poems V.Ya.Bryusov, K.D.Balmont, N.S. Gumileva amazed with their sonority and exquisite rhymes. The brightest and deepest representatives of these movements A.A.Blok And Andrey Bely (B.N. Bugaev) - in their own way they still responded to the problems of Russian life, creating in their works a unique atmosphere of emotional anguish, disappointment, and the inevitable collapse of the old, familiar world.
2. Fine arts
Traditions realistic art developed most fully in France. The beginning of the realistic direction was laid by landscape painting by artists of the so-called "Barbizon School" They wrote rural landscapes. “Ordinary nature was an inexhaustible material for art,” stated the head of the Barbizon School, Theodore Rousseau. Realism has become the defining method in creativity Jules Dupre, Diaz de la Peña, C. Troyon, Charles Daubigny, Camille Corot, Jean François Millet. Leader of the realistic movement in French painting middle XIX V. was Guschave Courbet. Democratic art Courbet caused a lot of attacks from official circles, to the point that one day Napoleon III I almost hit one of the artist’s paintings with a whip. Courbet’s best paintings “Masons” and “Funeral in Orleans” earned the artist worldwide fame.
In Germany the most important realist artist was Adolf Menzel. In the film “Iron Rolling Plant” he was one of the first to address the topic of the labor of industrial workers. His work was distinguished by the expressiveness of his images, acute feeling modernity.
Among the painters of the second half of the 19th century, he stands out for his brilliant talent. Edward Manet. He was a real singer of light, its exquisite and unique combinations and shades. Manet is the first of French painters conveyed the richness of sunlight in the picture. Friends called Mane " solar artist"and they said that his paintings are a real feast for the eyes. All his life the artist fought against the attacks of official criticism, which stubbornly refused to accept his innovative art.
A group of young artists seeking new paths in art unites around Manet. In the spring of 1874, little-known painters who called themselves “independent” presented their works to the public. But their painting was met only with mocking laughter from visitors, and the newspapers were full of headlines: “Comic Exhibition”, “Mockery”, “Mauling”. The artists were given a name given in mockery by a clever journalist - impressionists. The reason was the title of C. Monet’s painting “Impression. Sunrise" (impression in French - impression).
Impressionism - direction in the art of the last third XIX -beginning XX century, whose representatives sought to most naturally and impartially capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions.
The Impressionists made the sharpness of the visual impression the main criterion of their art. They noticed that the same landscape appears completely different in different lighting - on a sunny day and in cloudy weather, in morning and evening light, and set themselves the task of preserving the freshness of the immediate impression in the picture. Therefore, the Impressionists painted their works in the open air, and not in the studio, like the “Barbizons.” Studying the effect of light in landscapes, they discovered that black and dull tones occur in nature only when objects are not sufficiently illuminated, and they banished black paint from their palette. Trying to convey the quivering movement of air in the landscape, the Impressionists painted pictures with small, moving strokes.
Just like the “Barbizons,” the Impressionists glorified their native nature, but, realizing the increased role of large cities, they were the first to depict scenes of bustling and dynamic city life. Having concentrated all their attention on the pictorial recording of impressions, representatives of impressionism inevitably came to a certain limitation and one-dimensionality of their art. Nevertheless, the art of the Impressionists always retained the highly poetic and life-affirming nature of the images, and the professional achievements of these artists were so significant that they creative heritage has firmly entered the treasury of world art.
The entire path of development of impressionism is connected with the work of the landscape painter Claude Monet (1840-1926). No one before him and except his closest like-minded people Renoir, Sisleya, Pizarro I did not see such radiant transparency and sonority of color in nature, such a subtle interaction of colorful tones, I was not able to convey so vividly
feeling of light and air. Monet often painted the same view in different time days. These are his series “Haystacks” and “Rouen Cathedral”. With fluent, seemingly careless strokes, Monet created the impression of a field swaying in the breeze or a Parisian street full of movement. He could capture both the sultry haze of a summer day and the wet snow of a mild French winter.
The cheerful and clear perception of the world, inherent in all impressionism in general, was clearly manifested in the work of one of the main masters of this movement Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), who was nicknamed "the singer of happiness." His art is joyful and radiant. Landscape painting Renoir was of little interest; man was the center of the painter’s attention. The artist left us many portraits, mainly of women. There is no psychological depth in them, but the external similarity is always subtly captured. In one of his best works, “Ball in the Garden of the Moulin de la Galette,” Renoir gave a wide panorama of a moving, crowded mass, illuminated by uneven glare of light, further enhancing the impression of the constant movement of people. The genre scenes created by Renoir and still lifes depicting flowers are noted for their high skill
The image of the person attracted attention Edgard Degas (1834-1917). He was also a member of the Impressionist group. But, unlike Renoir’s heroes, the people in Degas’s paintings are familiar with the severity of back-breaking labor, they are aware of the devastating prose of city life. Degas chooses movement as the main means of characterizing his characters. An excellent draftsman, he accurately captures the professional gesture of an ironer or laundress, the pose of a ballerina, or the position of a jockey at a horse race. His works seem like pictures snatched from life at random, but their compositions are always strictly thought out. Degas was a subtle colorist who brilliantly mastered both oil painting and delicate pastel techniques.
One of the best paintings by an outstanding representative of impressionism Pizarro cough (1830-1903) - "Boulevard Montmartre in Paris." It depicts one of the central sections of the Grands Boulevards of the French capital - Boulevard Montmartre. It is known that this landscape was painted by the artist from the upper windows of the Rossiya Hotel, located on the corner of Drouot Street. The viewer sees a long street, so characteristic of Paris, on an early spring day. The trees are still without leaves; it has just rained. The feeling of moist air is wonderfully conveyed by the artist. The sun is hidden behind the clouds, and at first everything seems silvery-gray. Looking more closely, you can distinguish many colorful shades and subtle color transitions. Thanks to free and quick strokes, the artist managed to maintain fidelity to visual observation: to convey the living sensation of a street filled with pedestrians and a stream of rolling carriages - and this was decisive in the creative aspirations of Pizarro and other impressionists.
More complex and contradictory than the Impressionists, were the creative searches in the art of such famous artists end XIX centuries like Wang Gog, Gauguin And Cezanne. They are sometimes called post-impressionists. But this term is conditional, because these artists worked not after, but in parallel with the Impressionists. Unlike the Impressionists, they did not form a single group and each of them went his own way. in my own way.
Vincent Wang Gog (1853-1890) - Dutch by nationality, he is inextricably linked with the French school of painting. Observing the surrounding reality, full of contradictions, the artist in his paintings expressed the deep tragedy with which he perceived life. His works were full of agitated, disturbing images. Any portrait, landscape or still life by Van Gogh is full of hidden dramatic power. The feeling of depression and anxiety is expressed in the sharp sound of the colors, in the dynamism and trepidation of the strokes.
Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), equally deeply disappointed in new civilization, like Van Gogh, leaves Europe and spends many years in
Polynesian islands. The nature and life of the native tribes, which seemed to him full of pristine purity, became a source of his creative inspiration. His creative style is characterized by a generalized outline drawing, the conventional simplicity of the image and the bright sonority of individual colorful spots.
Paul Cézanne (1839-1906), who began his creative journey back in the 60s, became close to the impressionists and often exhibited his works with them. Having learned the lessons of impressionism, Cezanne subsequently entered into a struggle with it. Instead of the eternal variability of random impressions among the Impressionists, Cézanne sought to show in his works the unchanging foundations of the visible world. He found them in the three-dimensional forms of objects. Cezanne wanted to return to art the definiteness of forms lost by the impressionists, the strict thoughtfulness of the compositional structure of the picture.
For Russian painting the second half of the 19th century also became a time of prosperity. The main event in its history was the organization in 1870 “Associations of Traveling Art Exhibitions”, uniting realist artists who sought to make art accessible to the widest masses. This desire was expressed both in the creative manner of the “Itinerants”, in the themes of their paintings, and in the constant organization of their exhibitions in different cities of Russia. Many “Wanderers” were worried about topical topics ( V.E. Makovsky -“Convict”, “Prisoner”, “Party”; N.A. Yaroshenko - “Student”, “Student”; G.G. Myasoedov -“Zemstvo is having lunch”, etc.); attracted images of working people - peasants and workers (Meat eaters- “Mowers”, Yaroshenko - "Stoker" V.M. Maksimov- “In your own lane”). They did not shy away from “eternal” themes, including gospel themes. (I.N. Kramskoy - "Christ in the Desert" N.N.Ge - "What is truth" V.D. Polenov -"Christ and the Sinner"). There were some wonderful masters among them. historical painting (V.I.Surikov - “Morning of the Streltsy Execution”), magnificent masters of landscape (A.K. Savrasov - "The Rooks Have Arrived", I.I.Shishkin - "Wilderness", "Rye", " Oak Grove», A.I.Kuindzhi - “Ukrainian Night”), outstanding portrait painters (Perov, Kramskoy, Yaroshenko). Even in this extraordinarily talented environment he stood out I.E.Repin, who worked with equal brilliance in all genres (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “Princess Sophia”, “We Didn’t Expect”, etc.).
WITH late XIX century, the influence of modernism is noticeably manifested in Russian painting - in impressionist paintings V.A. Serova And K.A.Korovina, in symbolic paintings M.A.Vrubel(“Demon”, “Pan”, etc.). The movement of the “Itinerants” at that time was experiencing a deep crisis, and it was quite natural for it to appear in 1898 new artistic association "World of Art", whose members resolutely rejected ideological and aesthetic principles their predecessors. "MirIskusniki", refusing the realistic reproduction of reality, called for "pure beauty" - perfection of form, elegant convention, high timeless ideals. Later, some of the Miriskusniks left the organization and, uniting with former Peredvizhniki, founded 1901 G. "Union of Russian Artists" (I.E. Grabar, K.F. Yuon, A.A. Rypov), in which there was an organic fusion of traditional and innovative trends in Russian painting.
3. Modernism V architecture , music , painting
With a vague awareness of the transitional nature of the coming era and an anxious expectation of change, the spread of mysticism, occultism, and the popularity of exotic, including eastern, religions was associated.
Such mindsets are reflected in the works of many artists and writers, in the search for new paths in art, in ideological quests. So, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. a direction emerged neo-romanticism, which sought to synthesize and rethink the past of European and world culture.
In the era of neo-romanticism, of which the composer became the herald R. Wagner, literary symbolism developed. Originating in France in the 60-70s of the 19th century (C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé And etc.), symbolism captured other forms of art - theater, painting, music. The main means artistic knowledge was considered a symbol. The combination of the real and the mysterious, the public and the individual, the appeal to myths, the search for mystical revelation and novelty, and allegory determined the aesthetics of symbolism.
In the fine arts, symbolism was embodied by plastic means of style modern(new, modern). The desire to create perfect synthetic models was most clearly manifested in architecture. The creative architect acted as a generalist. He created his work from start to finish - from drafting to architectural decoration and arrangement of interior items. This is how unity of style was achieved. An example of such a synthetic work is the Ryabushinsky mansion in Moscow, created by the architect F.O. Shekhtel.
IN musical culture of neo-romanticism leading place occupied R. Wagner. Later, he was engaged in searches in the field of synthetic art A.N. Scriabin (experiments in light music, dreams of creating Mystery - a new form of synthesis of arts).
At the turn of the century, new artistic movements, whose representatives refused to simply reproduce the visible surface of real objects, sought to penetrate into the essence of phenomena, to express inner world, person's character. Since representatives of these movements proclaimed themselves supporters of new, avant-garde art, they received a unifying name - avant-garde.
Had a great influence on the development of avant-garde painting cubism. The founders of this direction are considered French artists P. Picasso And J. Marriage. Refusing the transmission of color and light characteristic of impressionism, the Cubists created new forms of multidimensional perspective: decomposing the object into geometric shapes, artists depicted it from a variety of sides, including usually invisible ones.
Further development cubism became created K. Malevich Suprematism(from Latin - highest). The world of his paintings is beyond the earthly dimension. On a white background - a symbol of pure light - they seem to float geometric figures, devoid of any meaningful elements and flying into boundless space.
Abstractionism and non-objectivity - this is the final, peak achievement of the avant-garde during this period.
Bibliography
1. Ya. M. Berdichevsky, S.A. Osmolovsky " The World History"2001 pp. 111-128.
2. S. L. Bramin “History of Europe”. 1998 pp. 100-109
3. L.A. Livanov "World History" tutorial. 2002 pp. 150-164.
4. Zagladin N.V. World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: textbook for grade 10. Ї 6th ed. Ї M.: LLC "TID "Russian Word Ї RS", 2006 (§ 41).
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. Russian literature retained its leading position. Critical realism became the main artistic direction. It manifested itself especially strongly in the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. In his works, all human vices are brought to the limit. The works of F.M. Dostoevsky show humiliation, lack of rights and tragedy of the “small personality”. Literature (r.t.1) V. Perov. Portrait of F.M. Dostoevsky.
Literature 1. What is critical realism? Artistic styles that combine the acuteness of the formulation of fundamental social problems, the breadth of historical coverage with a picturesque depiction of specific life phenomena. 2. The writers were absorbed in the historical drama taking place before their eyes, caused by the change from one way of life to another.
The writer, using psychological analysis, shows how the suppression of an individual leads her to crime, but his sympathies are endlessly on the side good people, not rebels. In the works of Leo Tolstoy, a merciless verdict is passed on the morality, values and foundations of the existing society, and the most complex psychological nuances of the human soul are revealed. This line was developed by A.P. Chekhov in his plays. Literature. I.Repin. Leo Tolstoy on vacation in the forest.
In the novels of I.S. Turgenev, an attempt was made to show a generalized portrait of the “hero of our time.” While the author sympathizes with the revolutionaries, he fears that the destruction of the old society becomes an end in itself for them. This same topic was explored with particular poignancy in F. Dostoevsky’s novel “Demons.” N.A. Nekrasov, who became one of the spiritual leaders of youth, revealed the theme of folk life in his work. Literature (r.t.1) I.S. Turgenev. Pencil drawing by Pauline Viardot.
The main direction of Russian painting was the 2nd half. In the 19th century critical realism began. The canvases of V.G. Perov show the unsightly sides of Russian reality - the degradation of the clergy, the arrogance and emptiness of the upper classes, the ignorance of the masses overwhelmed by poverty. In 1863, a group of graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to paint pictures on the themes of the Scandinavian epic, declaring that in Russian reality there are more worthy topics. In 1870 they created the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. Painting. V. Perov. Tea drinking in Mytishchi.
The theoretician of the “Itinerants” was I.N. Kramskoy, who created a whole gallery of portraits of Russian cultural figures. The partnership included N. Ge, A. Savrasov, I. Shishkin, brothers Makovsky, V. Perov, I. Repin, V. Surikov, V. Vasnetsov and others. The pinnacle of realism was the work of I. Repin and V. Surikov. Their works are permeated with social protest and create a generalized image of the Russian people. In paintings with historical themes, the authors chose turning points Russian history and most bright personalities. Painting. I. Kramskoy Unknown.
Painting 1. Who are the Wanderers? Who was there? () 2. Who was the leader and theoretician of the Wanderers? (r.t.4). 3. Whose work is considered the pinnacle of realism in Russian painting? (р.т.3) 4. Which Wanderers artists worked in historical genre? 5. Which Peredvizhniki artists worked in the landscape genre? Give examples of their creativity.
V. Vasnetsov turned to the genre of Russian folklore. His paintings are imbued with the spirit of folk tales, religious quests and philosophical reflections on historical fate Russian people. In the works of I. Shishkin, A. Kuindzhi, A. Savrasov, I. Levitan, the Russian landscape, the beauty and power of native nature become the object of attention. Painting. I. Shishkin. Morning in a pine forest.
In the mid-19th century, bright sculptural monuments were created. M. Antokolsky, who belonged to the Wanderers, showed great interest in Russian history. The decoration of his work was sculptural portraits I. the Terrible, Peter I, Yaroslav the Wise, Ermak. M. Mikeshin created in Novgorod majestic monument - “Millennium of Russia”. Sculpture. M. Mikeshin. Millennium of Russia.
It was created with public money and opened in 1862. The experience of signing up for the construction of monuments was considered successful, and in 1880 a monument to A.S. was unveiled in Moscow. Pushkin, cast according to the project famous sculptor A.Ope Kushina. Sculpture. A. Opekushin. Monument to A.S. Pushkin.
In architecture, classicism was replaced by eclecticism. Architects were looking for new forms in a combination of elements of Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and other styles. The so-called “neo-Russian style” is widespread - buildings are decorated with tents, turrets, “patterns”, etc. Architecture. A. Semenov. V. Sherwood. The building of the Historical Museum.
The buildings of the Historical Museum (Semyonov, Sherwood), the City Duma (Chichagov), and the Upper Trading Rows were built in this style. new Construction Materials led to the fact that the ideas of rational architecture - technical and functional feasibility - came to the fore. Architecture. A. Pomerantsev. Upper shopping arcades (GUM building).
Architecture. 1. What 2 new styles replaced classicism in the architecture of the 2/2 19th century? 1) eclecticism (“eclegain” in French - to choose, to elect), combining elements of Baroque, Gothic, Renaissance and other styles. 2) Russian-Byzantine style (“neo-Russian” or “pseudo-Russian” style) 2. Name the characteristic features of the so-called pseudo-Russian style? (r.t.2) 1) small windows on the 3rd floor 2) turret roofs, a decorated ridge reminiscent of boyar mansions, “brick embroidery, marble towels”, Upper Trading Rows (GUM) – A.N. Pomerantsev, Building of the Moscow City Duma (D.N. Chichagov), building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (Semyonov, Sherwood)
