What folklore works are close. Social value of folklore
Balda, poor fellow, white-handed, beast, chatterbox, tramp, beech, big man, bigwig, liar, know-it-all, squeezed, drank, upstart, bouncer, wretched, thug, dirty, goofy, reveler, hard worker, good-natured, dear, goner, cudgel, fool, fool, big guy, fidget, greedy, victim, bully, ringleader, bully, arrogant, stutterer, dirty, runny, splinter, bore, sang, boss, big man, crammed, cripple, capricious, scoundrel, crook, bloodsucker, biter, reveler, gourmand, liar, lazybones, scrapper, muff, baby, good fellow, ignorant, ignoramus, klutz, touchy, half-educated, fidget, slob, rip off, glutton, good girl, scribbler, crybaby, beggar, suck-up, beggar, fastidious, sticky, pestered, burnt-out, scoundrel, simpleton, scoundrel, windbag, drunkard, hard worker, ragged, confused, disheveled, weakling, self-taught, holy man, handsome, orphan, curmudgeon, sweet tooth, sweet tooth, sleepyhead, daredevil, dude, scary, chattering, namesake, grouse, quiet, hasty, stupid, smart, ugly, prude, grabber, cunning, swindler, scoundrel, sneak.
Gender of indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns reveal their gender syntactically, in combination with words that explain them: military attache, short interview.
In modern literary language, indeclinable nouns make up about 350 common nouns, excluding a large group of indeclinable proper names, geographical names and compound words.
The gender of indeclinable nouns is related to the semantics of the word. First of all, there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. For animate nouns, gender is determined by the biological sex of the named persons or animals. Words that name male persons by profession, social status, character traits, etc. are masculine nouns: attaché, bourgeois, impresario, caballero, entertainer, croupier, curé, effendi, Yankee.
The names of female persons are feminine: ingénue, lady, madame, mademoiselle, milady, miss, missus, lady, frau, emancipe.
Some nouns that have a generic meaning can be used to refer to both a man and a woman: counterpart, incognito, protégé, ultra and etc.
Words denoting animals are classified as masculine in dictionaries: dingo, zebu, kiwi-kiwi, hummingbird, kangaroo, cockatoo, marabou, pony, flamingo, chimpanzee. The exception is the names of the African fly - tsetse(f.o.) and commercial fish Ivasi(f.r.).
In a text or in oral speech, when a female animal is named, all nouns that are recommended as masculine words can also agree on the feminine gender: kangaroo feeding baby, The little chimpanzee was named Betsy.
The names of inanimate objects most often refer to neuter nouns. Deviations from this general rule and fluctuations in generic form are observed primarily in cases where indeclinable words are closely related to semantically similar generalizing words. Sometimes in these cases the gender of the generalizing word wins, although in general throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. There is a tendency to eliminate hesitations in favor of neuter options.
The following fluctuations and deviations from the norm have been recorded in modern literary language: Avenue(female birth and middle age), auto(s.r. and m.r.), whiskey(wed and female, rarely - m.r.), Jersey(s.r. and m.r.).
List of nouns whose gender varies:
Bolero (m.b. and w.r.), wildebeest (m.b. and f.b.), dingo (m.b. and f.r.), Jersey (m.b. and w.r. ), incognito (m.r. and m.r. more often), coffee (m.r. and m.r. – colloquial), mango “tropical tree” (m.r. and m.r.), mezzo -soprano (middle-born and female-born – colloquial), pas de deux “view” pair dance"(m.r. and m.r.), pas de trois "a type of ballet dance for three" (m.r. and m.r.), rally (m.r. and m.r.), salami (f.), soprano (m.r. and m.r.).
General nouns in Russian form a special group. Its definition is based on the grammatical uniqueness of words, which is based on a change in gender depending on the gender of the specified person.
Gender of nouns
There are a total of 4 genders for nouns in Russian: neuter, masculine and feminine. The last three are easy to determine by the ending or semantic context. But what to do if the word can mean both male and female? This problem occurs with the words “bully”, “cunning”, “rogue”, “wretch”, “touchy”, “sleepy”, “mediocre”, “inhuman”, “hurry”, “piggy”, “bully”, etc. which may change.
It is traditionally believed that there are only three genders in the Russian language, they include masculine, feminine and neuter. To determine the gender of some common words it was customary to refer to the context. The names of professions, for example, are divided into parallel names: saleswoman-saleswoman, teacher-teacher, schoolboy-schoolgirl, pilot-pilot, cook-cook, writer-writer, athlete-athlete, leader-leader. At the same time, in official documents the masculine gender of these words is more often used to refer to women. And there are also examples of general nouns designated exclusively by the masculine gender: gynecologist, lawyer, linguist, philologist, correspondent, ambassador, academician, judge, toastmaster, surgeon, doctor, therapist, paramedic, master, courier, curator, appraiser, insurer, diplomat, politician, employee, specialist, worker. Now there is a tendency to classify such words as general gender, since they can be applied to both men and women.
Ambiguity of opinions
Disputes about recognizing the existence of a common genus have been going on since the 17th century. Then similar words were mentioned in the grammars of Zizaniy and Smotrytsky. Lomonosov singled out such nouns, pointing out their formal characteristics. Later, researchers began to doubt their existence, defining such nouns as words with alternating gender, depending on what was implied.
So to this day, opinions are divided; some scientists consider common nouns in the Russian language to be separate homonym words of different genders, while others recognize them in a separate group.
Surnames
Some indeclinable surnames of foreign origin and Russian surnames with -о and -ы/х can be classified as words of general gender. Sagan, Depardieu, Reno, Rabelais, Dumas, Verdi, Maurois, Hugo, Defieux, Michon, Tussaud, Picasso and others. All this among foreign names. Among Slavic surnames of the general kind are often found: Tkachenko, Yurchenko, Nesterenko, Prokhorenko, Chernykh, Makarenko, Ravenskikh, Kucherenko, Dolgikh, Savchenko, Sedykh, Kutsykh and others.
Nationalities
The names of some nationalities are defined as words of a general gender. These include: Khanty, Mansi, Quechua, Komi, Gujarati, Hezhe, Mari, Sami. The fact is that “Mari” and “Mari” already exist, but the word “Mari” will be common to the entire nation or nationality.
According to the same principle, the names of breeds (Sivka, Okapi, Bulanka), as well as representatives of groups (vis-a-vis), are also included in the general genus.
Informal proper names
In addition to surnames, there is an interesting separate category of proper names that relate to the topic of the article. These are abbreviations for official names, which often cause confusion during gender determination.
The name "Sasha" can belong to both Alexandra and Alexander, and the name "Valya" is used to call both the girl Valentina and the boy Valentin. Other such names include “Zhenya” from Evgeniy and Evgeniya, “Slava” from Yaroslav and Yaroslava, Vladislav and Vladislava, “Vasya” from Vasily and Vasilisa.
Evaluative, characterizing words
However, for the first time the question of the existence of common nouns was raised due to evaluative words affecting the character or traits of a person. In direct speech, when using them, it can be more difficult to track the gender of the recipient of the remark, for example: “You are a bully!” Here the word "bully" can be addressed to both the female and male genders. These also include words of the general kind “bully”, “rogue”, “clever”, “well done”, “tramp”, “egoza”, “cripple”, “stinker”, “big”, “little fellow”, “ disheveled."
In fact, there are a lot of similar evaluative words. They can be both positive and negative meaning. However, such words should not be confused with an assessment as a result of metaphorical transfer, due to which they retain the original gender: crow, fox, rag, ulcer, beluga, goat, cow, deer, woodpecker, seal.
Words of a general kind with negative and positive meanings include: idiot, bigot, reptile, thug, baby, child, baby, quiet, invisible, poor thing, lazybones, dirty, big guy, sweet tooth, clean, greedy, miser, chatter, beast, star , idle talker, mumbler, arrogant, scoundrel, klutz, weasel, asked, hard worker, hard worker, ignorant, onlooker, drunkard, honey, cudgel, imagined, hillbilly, slob, sleepyhead, sneak, whim, liar, hoarder, fidget, toastmaster, swashbuckler , rake.
An example of use is clearly shown in fiction: “A little son came to his father” (Mayakovsky), “There lived an artist Tube, a musician Guslya and other kids: Toropyzhka, Grumpy, Silent, Donut, Rasteryayka, two brothers - Avoska and Neboska. And the most famous among them was a kid named Dunno " (Nosov). Perhaps, it is the works of Nikolai Nosov that will become a real collection of words with a common gender.
The fewest words in this group are occupied by neutrally expressed ones, such as: right-handed, left-handed, colleague, namesake, orphan. The gender of such words is also common.
How to determine gender in common gender?
The general gender of nouns in the Russian language is determined by the impossibility of confidently indicating gender in the absence of pronouns and generic endings adjectives. Words that can be classified as either masculine or feminine will be included in this group.
In order to determine the gender of a noun, the accompanying demonstrative pronouns “this, this, that, that” and the endings of adjectives -aya, -y/iy are most often used. But if the name of a profession, position or rank is determined with a consonant ending “sergeant, doctor, doctor, director” and others, then the adjective can only be masculine, but the predicate is expressed feminine. “The doctor prescribed the drug” and “An attractive doctor came out of hospital", "The sergeant gave the order" and "The strict sergeant allowed me to rest", "This Marina Nikolaevna is an exemplary teacher!" and "An exemplary teacher conducted public lesson", "The cheerful puppeteer performed a performance" and " Old Master sat down on the porch." The predicate does not have to show gender, then the task of determining gender becomes more complicated: "The teacher is conducting a lesson," "The specialist is making a decision."
Variety of examples
Thanks to the examples, it becomes clear that a wide variety of words can be found among common nouns, such as “daredevil”, “bully”, “bred”, “forester”, “old-timer”, “tail”, “six”, “ignorant”, “boring”, “white-handed”, “slut”, “weeper”, “dirty”, “little one”. And other words. But they are all united by ambiguity in the definition of gender. Orphan, stylist, marketer, comrade, coordinator, curator, Russian specialist, linguist, shirt, foreman, kid, judge, kolobrodina, feisty, razin, protégé, roar, singer, muffin, bombard, dunce, stupid, suck-up, upstart, youngster, fearful, poor thing, lame, charming, first-grader, high school student, eleven-year-old - all these nouns can be used in relation to both genders.
The wide cultural distribution of common nouns in the Russian language is also interesting. For example, they were widely used in proverbs and sayings:
- A healthy man in food, but a cripple in work.
- For every simpleton there is a deceiver.
- A reveler in his youth is modest in his old age.
- A drunkard is like a chicken, where he steps, he will peck.
And in literature:
- “So a strange deal took place, after which the tramp and the millionaire parted, quite satisfied with each other” (Green).
- “Good girl, one orphan” (Bazhenov).
- “Your cleanliness, as doctors say, is sterile” (Dubov).
- “Hillbilly! - What? - She recoiled” (Shargunov).
There are many such examples in the literature. Determining the general gender of the words listed in the exercise is one of the tasks in the Russian language lesson that is easy to cope with.
Folk art is original, multifaceted and by its nature is closely connected with musical beginning. Hence the incredible diversity and diversity of forms in which the genres of musical folklore are expressed.
What is folklore?
Folklore is called folk art. This is music, poetry, theater, dance, which were created by the people and are closely related to traditions, religious beliefs, and history.
The word “folklore” itself has English roots and is translated as “folk wisdom”. By its nature, folklore is diverse and includes fairy tales, traditions, legends, myths, proverbs, sayings, conspiracies, omens, various methods of fortune telling, all kinds of rituals, dances and much more. Surprisingly, folklore also includes poems, counting rhymes and jokes. And the genres of musical folklore are only one part folk art.
Is it a genre?
We have already mentioned several times (in connection with the concept of folklore) the word “genre”, but what is meant by it? A genre is a type of work characterized by certain features of form and content. Each genre has its own purpose, way of existence (for example, oral or written) and performance (singing, recitation, theatrical performance etc.). As an example, we can cite the following genres: symphony, song, ballad, story, short story, novel, etc.
What is called musical folklore?
Ditties
A chastushka is a small rhyming song consisting of 4-6 lines. It is usually performed at a fast pace and describes one event in a person’s life. Chastushkas were popular among both rural residents and the working class. The roots of this genre go back to the 18th century, but it achieved its greatest popularity in the 20th century.
The theme of the ditties is a reflection of life itself, the most pressing and topical problems and bright events. The main focus of these short songs is social, everyday or love.
Studying folklore at school
All school general education programs are designed to enable children to study genres of musical folklore. 5th grade begins acquaintance with genre diversity folk art, but students begin to study its samples in elementary school.
The main emphasis in the secondary school level is on the connection between literature and history, so epic melodies are mainly studied. In addition, students are introduced to the main song genres. At the same time, the teacher talks about the parallels and connections between folk art and literature, about the main traditions and continuity.
Conclusion
Thus, the genres of musical folklore, the list of which we tried to compile, are inextricably linked with the life of the people. Any change in the life of ordinary people or the entire country was immediately reflected in song creativity. Therefore, it is impossible to list all the genres of folklore created throughout the existence of mankind. Moreover, today folk art continues its development, evolves, adapts to new conditions and lives. And it will live as long as humanity exists.
Folklore – artistic origin
Mythological beginning
Folkloristics
folk literature
Main features of folklore:
Epic storytellers (they were sung)
3) Variability
· Student folklore
· Army folklore
· Blatnoy folklore
· Soldier's folklore
· Burlatsky
· Political prisoners
Lamentations (text lamented)
9) Functionality
10) Inclusiveness
Ticket 2. System of genres of Russian folklore from antiquity to modernity.
The genre composition of Russian folk poetry is rich and varied, as it has come a long way historical development and reflected the life of the Russian people in many ways. When classifying, it is necessary to take into account that in folklore, as in literature, two forms of speech are used - poetic and prosaic, therefore, in the epic genus it is necessary to distinguish poetic types (epic, historical song, ballad) and prose (fairy tale, legend, tradition). Lyrical gender works only use poetic form. All poetic works are distinguished by the combination of words and melody. Prose works are told, not sung.
In order to present a general picture of the classification (distribution) of types of works of Russian folk poetry, a number of other circumstances should be taken into account, namely: firstly, the relationship of genres to the so-called rituals (special cult actions), secondly, the relationship of the verbal text to singing and acting, which is typical for some types of folklore works. Works may be associated with ritual and singing and may not be associated with them.
I Ritual poetry:
1) Calendar (winter, spring, summer and autumn cycles)
2) Family and household (maternity, wedding, funeral)
3) Conspiracy
II Non-ritual poetry:
1) Epic prose genres
A) fairy tale
B) legend
C) legend (and bylichka as its type)
2) Epic poetic genres:
A) epics
B) historical songs(primarily seniors)
B) ballad songs
3) Lyrical poetic genres
A) songs with social content
B) love songs
B) family songs
D) small lyrical genres (ditties, choruses, etc.)
4) Small non-lyrical genres
A) proverbs
B) riddles
5) Dramatic texts and actions
A) mummers, games, round dances
B) scenes and plays.
Ticket 3. Ancient (archaic) genres of folklore (work songs, spells, fairy tales, etc.).
Folklore as a special form of art originates in ancient times. The process of its origin is difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of materials from that time. The most ancient (archaic) period in the history of human society is the period of its pre-class structure (primitive system). The folklore of the pre-class, primitive communal system among many peoples had common features due to the fact that the peoples of the world generally went through similar stages of historical development. The folklore of this social formation is distinguished by the following features:
· It still clearly retains connections with labor processes
Traces of thinking appear ancient era– animism, magical views, totemism, mythology;
· Real phenomena are intertwined with fictional and fantastic ones;
· Some features of realism are developing: concrete depiction of nature and man; fidelity to reality in content and forms (the conventionality of the image appears later);
· Genus, types and genres are gradually emerging, of which the most ancient are proverbs, fairy tales, riddles, conspiracies, legends; on last stage formations of heroic epics and legends are born;
· The collective, choral beginning of creativity dominates, but the singer or lead singer begins to stand out;
· The works do not yet exist in a stable traditional form, as in the later stages of the development of folklore, but have the form of improvisation, i.e. text created during performance;
· The plots, imagery, means of expression, and artistic forms are gradually enriched and become more and more traditional.
Animism manifested itself in the spiritualization of forces and natural phenomena, for example the sun and the month, in songs about their marriage, in the spiritualization of the earth (“the mother of the earth is cheese”), water, plants, in the images of the waterman and the goblin, in the personification of Frost, Spring, Maslenitsa, Kolyada . In conspiracies, there is usually an appeal to the dawn. Fairy tales feature the Sea King, the Moon, the Wind, and the Frost. Magic was reflected in incantations and spells, in fortune telling about the weather and harvest, in stories about sorcerers, in the transformation of a comb into a forest, and a towel into a river, in such wonderful objects like a self-assembled tablecloth and a flying carpet. Totemism was expressed in the cult of the bear and in the image of the helper bear. In fairy tales and epics there are stories about the miraculous origin of heroes from animals, from a serpent. Ballad-type songs contain stories about talking plants growing on people's graves. In fairy tales (especially in fairy tales about animals, but not only in them) there are often images of animals speaking and acting like people. The mythology of ancient Russian tribes has already taken the form of a certain system of ideas. It included two types of beings: gods and spirits. For example, Svarog is the god of the sun, Dazhdbog is the god of life, Perun is the god of thunder, Stribog is the god of wind, Yarilo is the god of light and heat, Veles is the patron god of livestock. The spiritualizations of the forces and phenomena of nature were the water goblin, the goblin, and the field weed. Among the ancient Russian tribes, the cult of ancestors was widely developed, associated with the clan system. It was reflected in the personification of the clan and the women in labor to whom sacrifices were made, in funeral rites and remembrances of ancestors (radnitsa, rusalia, semik).
Slavic mythology was not as complete a system as the Greek. This is explained by the fact that the Slavs in their historical development bypassed the slave system, the reasons for which were the earlier development of agriculture and settled life, as well as frequent clashes with southern nomads, which required the creation of a feudal-type state. Therefore, in the mythology of the Slavs there are only the beginnings of the division of gods into elders and younger ones, according to the social system of the state. It is clear that in ancient Russian folklore There were not only genres that reflected animism, totemism, magic and mythology, but also genres of a family and everyday nature, since there were personal relationships within the clan, paired marriage. Finally, work and life experience accumulated, which was imprinted in proverbs.
Classification
I By result
1) White - aimed at getting rid of illnesses and troubles and containing elements of prayer (witchcraft)
2) Black - aimed at causing damage, harm, used without prayer words (witchcraft associated with evil spirits)
II By topic
1) Medical (from illness and painful condition of people and domestic animals, as well as from damage.)
2) Household. (Agricultural, pastoral, commercial - from drought, weeds, for taming domestic animals, hunting, fishing.)
3) Love spells: a) love spells (dry spells); b) lapels (drying)
4) Social (with the goal of regulating social and relationships between people; to attract honor or favor, to go to a judge, for example)
III According to form
1) Epic
Expanded, large
1.1 epic picture
1.2 a conspiracy based on colloquial formulas
1.3 setting (Amen = “so be it”)
2) formulaic
short conspiracies consisting of 1-2 sentences; they don't have bright images- order or request
3) conspiracies-dialogues
4) abracadabra
This is 99 percent a female tradition (because no normal man would do this). The conspiracy mafia is a secretive business.
Characters:
1) human world
1.1 neutral (red maiden)
1.2 Christian: a) real (Jesus, Mother of God), b) fictional (Virgin's daughters, Herod's sons), c) historical characters (Nicholas the Pleasant), d) Christian evil spirits (devils)
1.3 fictional
2) animal world
2.1 recognizable
2.2 fantastic
Typical artistic techniques of conspiracy:
1) at the lexical, morphological and even sound levels (????????)
2) an abundance of epithets
3) comparison
4) stepwise narrowing of images or unfolding (gradation)
Classic legends.
1.1. Cosmogonic
For example, about a duck that sank to the bottom of a reservoir, grabbed some water in its beak - spat it out - the earth appeared (or mountains - I can’t figure it out)
1.2. Etiological
Legends about the creation of the animal world. For example, there was a legend about the appearance of lice. God often acts as a punitive force
Legends have always been believed.
A legend is an independent view of the world around you. Most likely they used to be myths. Indian myths also have ideas about the origin of animals (for example, the kangaroo's pouch), but there are no religious motives, as in our legends.
1.3. Anthropological myths.
Here is some example of a legend about a sick person, but with God’s soul (???). and about a dog that guarded a person and for this God gave her a fur coat or not
1.4. Hagiographical legends
Hagiographical legends
Hagiographic legends (about saints); for example, Nicholas of Myra (Wonder Worker)
· Pan-Orthodox saints
· Locally revered saints
· General Christian
· Orthodox
Saint Yegoriy (George the Victorious)
Warrior/Saint
Patron of livestock and wolves
1.5. Eschatology.
One of the sections of church philosophy. Legends about the end of the world.
Features of Classic Legends:
1. The artistic time of classical legends is a time of the distant, uncertain, abstract past.
2. Artistic space is also abstract
3. These legends talk about global changes (the emergence of the sea, mountains, animals)
4. All stories are told from the 3rd person. The narrator is not the hero of the legend.
Legend about the local region.
Heroes: local sacred (saints) natural objects. For example, holy springs, trees, stones, groves, or local icons, as well as locally revered elders and blessed ones.
! partly reminiscent of legends, but have a religious character.
For example, about Dunechka, who was shot by the Red Army. She is a fortune teller.
I sent a man to work in Arzamas, and not in Samara (he made money, but those who went to Samara did not), that is, the predictions are mostly everyday
Pigeons hovered over the carriage in which Dounia was being led to execution, protecting her from lashes.
Halo above your head during execution
Afterwards, houses in that village started burning - they decided to hold funeral services twice a year - but they stopped burning
Holy fools.
Blessed = holy fool who figuratively communicates with people.
Pasha Sarovskaya gave a piece of red fabric to Nicholas I and said “for my son’s pants”
about the time of glorification (Venerable Seraphim - comp.) She lived in Diveyevo, famous throughout Russia. The Emperor with all the Grand Dukes and three metropolitans proceeded from Sarov to Diveevo. She predicted his death (9 soldiers, jacket potatoes). She took a piece of red material from the bed and said: “This is for your little son’s pants.” - predicted the appearance of a son.
Legend about a man.
The legend of man is based on a man's encounter with miraculous power. A typical example: a saint tells a man how to find his way in the forest.
The saint appears to people in a dream “the call of the saint”
Pilgrims and immigrants - the saint appears and invites them to his monastery.
Ticket 8. Art space and time in a fairy tale. Types of heroes and composition.
Artistic space and time in fairy tales are conditional, as if another world is shown there. The real world and the world of fairy tales can be compared with paintings, for example, by Vasnetsov and Bilibin.
In a fairy tale, there are 7 types of characters (Propp):
1 . the hero is the one who performs all the actions and gets married at the end.
2 . antagonist, or antipode - the one with whom the hero fights and defeats.
3 . a wonderful helper.
4 . a wonderful giver is one who gives the hero a wonderful helper or a wonderful object.
5. princess - the one whom the hero usually marries and who lives, as a rule, in another country, very far away.
6 . king - appears at the end of the fairy tale, the hero marries his daughter or at the beginning of the fairy tale, as a rule, he sends his son somewhere.
7. false hero - appropriates the merits of the real hero.
You can try to classify it differently, but the essence will remain the same. First of all, there are two groups of characters: negative and positive. The central place is the positive heroes, as it were, “characters of the first row.” They can be divided into 2 groups: heroic heroes and “ironic” ones, who are favored by luck. Examples: Ivan the Tsarevich and Ivan the Fool. “Second-row characters” - the hero’s assistants, animate and not (magic horse, magic sword). "Third row" is the antagonist. An important place is occupied by female heroines, the ideals of beauty, wisdom, kindness - Vasilisa the Beautiful or the Wise, Elena the Beautiful or the Wise. Antagonists often include Baba Yaga, the snake and Koschey the immortal. The hero's victory over them is a triumph of justice.
Composition – structure, construction of a fairy tale.
1.) Some fairy tales begin with sayings - humorous jokes that are not related to the plot. They are usually rhythmic and rhyming.
2.) The opening, which seems to transport the listener into a fairy-tale world, shows the time, place of action, and setting. Represents an exposition. A popular opening is “Once upon a time” (hereinafter – who, and what circumstances) or “In a certain kingdom, a certain state.”
3.) Action. Some fairy tales begin immediately with action, for example, “The prince decided to marry...”
4.) A fairy tale has an ending, but not always; sometimes with the completion of the action the fairy tale ends. The ending shifts attention from fairy world to the real.
5.) In addition to the ending, there may also be a saying, which is sometimes connected to the ending - “They played a wedding, they feasted for a long time, and I was there, I drank honey, it flowed down my mustache, but it didn’t get into my mouth.”
The narrative in fairy tales develops sequentially, the action is dynamic, situations are tense, terrible events can occur, and three-fold repetition is common (three brothers go to catch the Firebird three times). The unreliability of the story is emphasized.
Connection with the initiation rite.
Hood space is abstract; there is a border/transitional space; spatial movements are not shown. Hud time is also abstract, closed, and has no outlet into reality; develops from episode to episode, retardation.
Fairy tale the most archaic - it was not originally intended for children, and in its origin goes back to rituals. Rite of initiation. You can see superstitious ideas about the next world. For example, Baba Yaga: “the nose has grown into the ceiling”, “the knee has rested against the wall”, a bone leg – i.e. without meat - she lies on the stove as if in a coffin
Those. she is a borderline character between the world of the dead and the living - between the world and the distant kingdom.
Spring cycle.
Maslenitsa and Maslenitsa rituals. In the center of the Maslenitsa holiday stands symbolic image Maslenitsa
The holiday itself consists of three parts: a meeting on Monday, a revelry or turning point on the so-called Broad Thursday, and farewell.
Songs for Maslenitsa can be divided into two groups. The first - meeting and honoring, has the appearance of grandeur. They glorify the wide, honest Maslenitsa, its dishes, and entertainment. She is called in full - Avdotya Izotyevna. The character of the songs is cheerful and playful. The songs accompanying the farewell are somewhat different - they talk about the upcoming fast. The singers regret the ending of the holiday. Here Maslenitsa is already a dethroned idol, she is no longer magnified, but is called disrespectfully “a deceiver.” Maslenitsa was usually interpreted primarily as a celebration of the victory of spring over winter, life over death.
Spring post - clean monday- the beginning of the spring calendar ritual. We washed ourselves in the bathhouse, washed the house, washed all the dishes, played funny games with pancakes - hung them on a tree, gave them to the cattle.
The week of the cross/middle of the cross is the fourth after Lent; the fasting breaks - they baked Lenten cookies; fortune telling - a coin - a coin in a cookie, several crosses - a coin, a sliver, a ring, they gave crosses to the cattle.
March 30 is the day of the forty martyrs (lark-shaped cookies); meeting of spring, arrival of the first birds; On March 17, the day of Gregory Grachevnik, rooks were baked. Signs: many birds - good luck, snowdrifts - harvest, icicles - flax harvest. First spring holiday– meeting of spring – falls in March. These days, in the villages they baked figurines of birds from dough and distributed them to girls or children. Vesnyankas are ritual lyrical songs of the incantatory genre. The ritual of “spell” spring was imbued with the desire to influence nature in order to obtain a good harvest. Imitating the flight of birds (throwing larks from dough) was supposed to cause the arrival of real birds, the friendly onset of spring. Stoneflies are characterized by a form of dialogue or appeal to imperative mood. Unlike a conspiracy, stoneflies are like carols. performed collectively.
Annunciation - April 7: “birds don’t curl their nests, girls don’t braid their hair”; you cannot turn on the light or work with the birthday soil; The sledge was broken - they removed the sleigh and took out the cart.
Palm Sunday (the last Sunday before Easter) is the “entry of the Lord into Jerusalem.” They brought willow into the house and kept it near the icons all year, and blessed children; they put willow and icons on the water.
Holy Week is the week before Easter. Maundy Thursday (in religion - Friday) is the most terrible day; whitewashing the hut, ridding the hut of cockroaches by freezing, clipping the wings of poultry, all water is holy.
Easter - dyeing eggs (no Easter cake, no Easter); do not go to the cemetery, only on the next red/Fomina week - Tuesday and Saturday-Rainbow); The first egg was kept near the icon for a year.
Vyunishnye songs are songs that congratulated the newlyweds on Saturday or Sunday of the first week after Easter. Contents of the songs: wishing the newlyweds a happy family life.
May 6 - St. George's Day (St. George the Victorious); Yegory is a bestial god; took the cattle out into the field for the first time
Ascension (40 days after Easter)
Semitsky ritual songs - the 7th week after Easter was called Semitsky. Thursday of this week was called Semik, and its last day (Sunday) was called Trinity. Special rituals were performed, which were accompanied by songs. The main ritual is “curling” the wreath. Having dressed in festive outfits, the girls went into the forest, looked for a young birch tree, bent the birch branches and wove them with grass, after a few days they cut down the birch tree, carried it around the village, then drowned it in the river or threw it into the rye. The girls wove an arch from the tops of two birch trees and walked under it. Then there was a fortune-telling ceremony with a wreath. The theme of marriage and family relationships occupies an increasing place in Semitic songs.
Spiritual day - you can’t work with the earth.
Summer cycle.
Calendar rituals were accompanied by special songs.
Trinity-Semitic Week: Semik - the seventh Thursday after Easter, Trinity - the seventh Sunday. The girls, dressed smartly and taking treats with them, went to “curl” the birch trees - weaving them with grass. The girl's holiday was also accompanied by fortune telling. The girls wove wreaths and threw them into the river. Fortune telling by wreaths was widely reflected in songs performed both during fortune telling and without regard to it.
Feast of Ivan Kupala (John the Baptist/Baptist) - the night of June 23-24. During the Kupala holidays they do not help the earth, but, on the contrary, they try to take everything from it. On this night, medicinal herbs are collected. Whoever finds the fern, it was believed, will be able to find the treasure. The girls put handkerchiefs on the dew and then washed themselves with them; they broke birch brooms for the bath; young people swam at night, purified themselves, jumped over fires.
Trinity - 7th Sunday after Easter. Cult of the birch tree. Formation of a new wedding cycle. Formation of a layer of brides. Songs, round dances (choice of the bride and groom), singing songs only on Trinity. The meaning is duplicated on several levels - in action, in words, in music, in an object. The following Sunday after Toitsa we celebrated the farewell to winter.
Autumn cycle. ( just in case )
Autumn rituals among the Russian people were not as rich as winter and spring-summer ones. They accompany the harvest. Zazhinki (the beginning of the harvest), dozhinki or obzhinki (the end of the harvest) were accompanied by songs. But these songs do not have a magical character. They are directly related to the labor process. Dozhin songs are more diverse in theme and artistic techniques. They tell about the harvest and the custom of refreshments. In pre-harvest songs there are elements of glorification of rich hosts who have treated the reapers well.
It was believed that the harvest should be protected, because... devilry might take him away. They placed sheaves in the form of a cross, made of wormwood and nettles. Striga/Perezhinakha - the spirit of the field who took the harvest.
Celebrating the first sheaf, they cooked the first new porridge and sprinkled it on the cattle and chickens. The last sheaf/last ears of corn were left on the field, not reaped, tied into a bundle and called a beard. Having finished the harvest, the women rolled on the ground: “Reaper, reaper, give up your snare.”
Afterwards, many calendar rituals turned into holidays, which, in addition to the ritual function, also have a very important social function - uniting people, the rhythm of life.
Ticket 14. Epics of the ancient period. (Volkh Vseslavsky, Sadko, Danube, Svyatogor, Volga and Mikola)
Among Russian epics there is a group of works that almost all folklorists classify as more ancient. The main difference between these epics is that they contain significant features of mythological ideas.
1.) “Volkh Vseslavyevich.” The epic about Volkh consists of 2 parts. In the first, he is depicted as a wonderful hunter with the ability to transform into an animal, bird, or fish. While hunting, he obtains food for the squad. In the second, Volkh is the leader of a campaign in the Indian kingdom, which he conquers and destroys. The second part almost went out of existence, since its theme did not correspond to the ideological essence of the Russian epic. But the first part was popular among the people for a long time. Researchers attribute the image of a wonderful hunter to ancient times, but this image was layered with historical features, linking the epic with the Kyiv cycle, which is why Likhachev and other scientists compared Volkh, for example, with Prophetic Oleg. The image of India is fabulous, not historical.
2.) Epics about Sadko. The epics are based on 3 plots: Sadko receives wealth, Sadko competes with Novgorod, Sadko visits the sea king. These three plots exist separately and in combination. The first plot has 2 different versions. First: Sadko walked along the Volga for 12 years; having decided to go to Novgorod, he thanks the Volga, lowering bread and salt into it; The Volga gave him orders to boast about the “glorious Lake Ilmen”; Ilmen, in turn, rewarded him with wealth, advising him to fish, and the caught fish turned into coins. Another version: Sadko, a poor guslar, goes to the shore of Ilmen, plays, and comes out to him sea king and rewards with wealth. This expresses the popular opinion about the value of art; utopianism: the poor man became rich. The second plot: having received wealth, Sadko became proud and decided to measure his wealth with Novgorod itself, but was defeated. IN rare version There is a story with Sadko’s victory. Third plot: Sadko fell into the underwater kingdom, fell in love sea game on the harp, and the king decided to keep him and marry him to the girl Chernava; but Sadko deceived the tsar with the help of St. Nicholas of Mozhaisk, and saved himself, built a church in honor of the saint and stopped traveling around blue sea. The epics about Sadko are distinguished by the completeness of each of the three parts and the dramatic intensity of the action. Propp classified “Epics about Sadko” as epics about matchmaking, and considered the main plot to be “Sadko at the Sea King”. Belinsky saw the main social conflict between Sadko and Novgorod. Fabulousness is characteristic of the first and third epics.
3.) Epics about Svyatogor have a special form - prosaic. Some scientists consider this proof of their antiquity, others – of their novelty. They contain a number of episodes: about the meeting of Ilya Muromets and Svyatogor, about Svyatogor’s unfaithful wife, about a bag with earthly cravings. These epics are ancient, as is the type of hero Svyatogor itself, which contains many mythical traces. Scientists view this image as the embodiment of the old order, which must disappear, because the death of Svyatogore is inevitable. In the epic about Svyatogor and the coffin, first Ilya tries on the coffin, but it is too big for him, and Svyatogor is just the right size. When Ilya covered the coffin with a lid, it was no longer possible to remove it, and he received part of Svyatogor’s power. Propp said that there is a change of two eras here, and the epic hero Svyatogor was replaced by Ilya Muromets. Svyatogor is a hero of unprecedented strength, but in the episode with the earthly pull that Svyatogor cannot lift, the existence of an even more powerful force is shown.
The epic "Volga and Mikula" is the most significant of the group of social epics. Its main idea is to contrast the peasant plowman and the prince. The social antithesis made it possible for some scientists to attribute the composition of the epic to later times, when social conflicts intensified; in addition, it was attributed to the Novgorod epics. But ridicule of the prince is not very typical for Novgorod epics, and the conflict is placed in the setting of early feudal times. Volga goes to collect tribute, he has a brave squad; Mikula is not a warrior, but a hero, he is powerful and superior to the entire Volga squad, which cannot pull his bipod out of the furrow; The prince and his squad cannot catch up with Mikula. But Mikula is opposed to Volga not only as mighty hero, but also as a working man, he lives not by exactions from the peasants, but by his own labor. Everything comes easy to Mikula, he reaps a rich harvest. The scientist Sokolov saw in this the dream of the peasantry, tired of backbreaking physical labor. The epic waxes poetic peasant labor, the image of Mikula is the embodiment of the strength of the working people.
Ticket 1. Main features of folklore.
Folklore- artistic origin
Mythological beginning
Folkloristics
Folklore was called folk poetry, but this is not so (not everything is poetry)
At the end of the 19th century the term appeared folk literature(emphasis on the word - again not the correct definition, for example, the ritual of making rain - killing a frog - without words)
In the 20th century - Russian folk art.
Main features of folklore:
1) Orality (oral system, culture, phenomenon) only in oral form
2) Sacred letters do not have a written record - an exception
Written conspiracies, questionnaires, diaries (girl's album) demobilization album
Epic storytellers (they were sung)
3) Variability
Those. modification of one text
The downside is that we don't know which option came before
4) Locality (all texts and genres of folklore are local)
Thus, Russian folklore is a set of genres and each locality has its own.
5) Folklore - folk culture; people are the lower strata of the population (peasants)
· Student folklore
· Army folklore
· Youth/informal groups
· Blatnoy folklore
· Soldier's folklore
· Burlatsky
· Political prisoners
6) Folklore is collective creativity. The creator of folklore is not one person.
7) Typification; Most works and genres of folklore contain typical motifs, plots, verbal forms, types of heroes
For example, the number 3, a beautiful maiden, heroes: all strong, beautiful, winners
8) Syncretism – (“combining in itself”) connection different arts in one art.
For example wedding ceremony(songs, lamentations, carrying a Christmas tree (they decorated a small Christmas tree and carried it around the village - kind of like a bride’s Christmas tree))
Round dance (dance, song, costume + game)
People's Theatre: Petrushka Theater
Lamentations (text lamented)
9) Functionality
Each genre performs a specific function. For example, a lullaby served to rhythmize movements while rocking a child; lamentations - to mourn.
10) Inclusiveness
· Folklore includes the historical, family, labor, sound memory of the people
· Folklore itself is organically included in the working and economic life of the people.
ST. PETERSBURG HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF TRADE UNIONS
TEST
discipline ______________________________
subject ___________________________________________________________________
_____ course student
correspondence faculty
speciality
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FULL NAME.
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Saint Petersburg
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signature surname clearly
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(cutting line)
Student(s) of _____ course________________________________________________________________
(FULL NAME.)
correspondence faculty specialty__________________________________________________________
discipline___________
subject________________
Registration No.__________________ "_______"_______________________200______
date of submission of work to the University
ASSESSMENT____________________ “_________”________________________200_____g.
TEACHER-REVIEWER___________________________/_________________________________
signature surname clearly
1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….………………. 3
2. Main part…………………………………………………………………………………. 4
2.1 Genres of Russian folklore……………………………………………………………...4
2.2 The place of folklore in Russian literature………………………………………………………6
3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
4. List of references……………………………………………………….13
Introduction
Folklore – [English] folklore] folk art, a set of folk actions.
The relationship between literature and oral folk art is actual problem modern literary criticism in the context of the development of world culture.
In recent decades, a whole trend has emerged in Russian literature. creative use folklore, which is represented by talented prose writers who reveal the problems of reality at the level of intersection of literature and folklore. Deep and organic mastery of various forms of oral folk art has always been an integral property of true talent
In the 1970-2000s, many Russian writers working in a variety of literary directions turned to oral folk art. What are the reasons for this literary phenomenon? Why did writers of various literary movements and styles turn to folklore at the turn of the century? It is necessary to take into account, first of all, two dominant factors: intraliterary patterns and the socio-historical situation. Undoubtedly, tradition plays a role: writers have turned to oral folk art throughout the development of literature. Another, no less important, reason is the turn of the century, when Russian society, summing up the results of the next century, again tries to find answers to important questions of existence, returning to the national spiritual and cultural origins, and the richest folklore heritage is the poetic memory and history of the people.
The problem of the role of folklore in Russian literature on the threshold of the 21st century is natural because it has now acquired a special philosophical and aesthetic value.
Folklore is an archaic, transpersonal, collective type of artistic memory that has become the cradle of literature.
Main part.
Genres of Russian folklore.
Russian folk poetic creativity has gone through a significant path of historical development and has reflected the life of the Russian people in many ways. Its genre composition is rich and varied. The genres of Russian folk poetry will appear before us in the following scheme: I. Ritual poetry: 1) calendar (winter, spring, summer and autumn cycles); 2) family and household (maternity, wedding, funeral); 3) conspiracies. II. Non-ritual poetry: 1) epic prose genres: * a) fairy tale, b) legend, c) legend (and bylichka as its type); 2) epic poetic genres: a) epics, b) historical songs (primarily older ones), c) ballad songs; 3) lyrical poetic genres: a) songs of social content, b) love songs, c) family songs, d) small lyrical genres (ditties, choruses, etc.); 4) small non-lyrical genres: a) proverbs; o) sayings; c) riddles; 5) dramatic texts and actions: a) mummers, games, round dances; b) scenes and plays. In scientific folklore literature one can find the question of mixed or intermediate generic and genre phenomena: lyric-epic songs, fairy tales, legends, etc.
However, it must be said that such phenomena are very rare in Russian folklore. In addition, the introduction of this type of work into the classification of genres is controversial because mixed or intermediate genres have never been stable; in no period of development of Russian folklore were they the main ones and did not define it big picture and historical movement. The development of genera and genres does not consist in their mixing, but in the creation of new ones artistic forms and the dying away of the old. The emergence of genres, as well as the formation of their entire system, is determined by many circumstances. Firstly, by the social need for them, and, consequently, by the tasks of a cognitive, ideological, educational and aesthetic nature that the diverse reality itself posed to folk art. Secondly, the originality of the reflected reality; for example, epics arose in connection with the struggle of the Russian people against the nomadic Pechenegs, Polovtsians and Mongol-Tatars. Thirdly, the level of development of the artistic thought of the people and their historical thinking; In the early stages, complex forms could not be created; the movement probably went from simple and small forms to complex and large ones, for example, from a proverb, a parable (short story) to a fairy tale and legend. Fourthly, the previous artistic heritage and traditions, previously established genres. Fifthly, the influence of literature (writing) and other forms of art. The emergence of genres is a natural process; it is determined both by external socio-historical factors and by the internal laws of the development of folklore.
The composition of folklore genres and their connection with each other are also determined by their common task of multilateral reproduction of reality, and the functions of the genres are distributed so that each genre has its own special task - the depiction of one of the aspects of life. The works of one group of genres have as their subject the history of the people (epics, historical songs, legends), another - the work and life of the people (calendar ritual songs, work songs), the third - personal relationships (family and love songs), the fourth - the moral views of the people and his life experience (proverbs). But all genres taken together widely cover everyday life, work, history, social and personal relationships of people. Genres are interconnected in the same way as different aspects and phenomena of reality itself are interconnected, and therefore form a single ideological and artistic system. The fact that folklore genres have a common ideological essence and common task the multifaceted artistic reproduction of life also evokes a certain commonality or similarity of their themes, plots and heroes. Folklore genres are characterized by a commonality of principles of folk aesthetics - simplicity, brevity, economy, plot, poeticization of nature, certainty of moral assessments of the characters (positive or negative). The genres of oral folk art are also interconnected by a common system of artistic means of folklore - the originality of the composition (leitmotif, unity of theme, chain connection, screensaver - a picture of nature, types of repetitions, common places), symbolism, special types of epithets. This system, developing historically, has a pronounced national identity, determined by the peculiarities of the language, way of life, history and culture of the people. Relationships between genres. In the formation, development and coexistence of folklore genres, a process of complex interaction occurs: mutual influence, mutual enrichment, adaptation to each other. The interaction of genres takes many forms. It serves as one of the reasons for significant changes in oral folk art.
The place of folklore in Russian literature.
“The Russian people have created a huge oral literature: wise proverbs and cunning riddles, funny and sad ritual songs, solemn epics - spoken in a chant, to the sound of strings - about the glorious exploits of heroes, defenders of the people’s land - heroic, magical, everyday and funny tales.
Folklore- This is folk art, very necessary and important for the study of folk psychology in our days. Folklore includes works that convey the basic, most important ideas of the people about the main life values: work, family, love, social duty, homeland. Our children are still being brought up on these works. Knowledge of folklore can give a person knowledge about the Russian people, and ultimately about himself.
In folklore, the original text of a work is almost always unknown, since the author of the work is unknown. The text is passed on from mouth to mouth and survives to this day in the form in which the writers wrote it down. However, writers retell them in their own way to make the works easy to read and understand. Currently, many collections have been published that include one or several genres of Russian folklore. These are, for example, “Epics” by L. N. Tolstoy, “Russian folk poetry” by T. M. Akimova, “Russian folklore” edited by V. P. Anikin, “Russian ritual songs” by Yu. G. Kruglov, “Strings of Rumble: Essays on Russian Folklore” by V. I. Kalugin, “Russian Soviet Folklore” edited by K. N. Femenkov, “On Russian Folklore” by E. V. Pomerantseva, “Folk Russian Legends” and “People-Artists: myth, folklore, literature” by A. N. Afanasyev, “Slavic mythology” by N. I. Kostomarov, “Myths and legends” by K. A. Zurabov.
In all publications, the authors distinguish several genres of folklore - these are fortune telling, spells, ritual songs, epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, riddles, tales, pestushki, chants, ditties, etc. Due to the fact that the material is very huge, and in a short time time to study it is impossible, I use only four books given to me in my work central library. These are “Russian Ritual Songs” by Yu. G. Kruglov, “Strings of Rumble: Essays on Russian Folklore” by V. I. Kalugin, “Russian Soviet Folklore” edited by K. N. Femenkov, “Russian Folk Poetry” by T. M. Akimova.
Modern writers often used folklore motives in order to give the narrative an existential character, to combine the individual and the typical.
Oral folk poetry and book literature arose and developed on the basis of the national riches of the language; their themes were related to the historical and social life of the Russian people, their way of life and work. In folklore and literature, poetic and prose genres that were largely similar to each other were created, genera and types arose and were improved poetic art. Therefore, creative connections between folklore and literature, their constant ideological and artistic mutual influence are quite natural and logical.
Oral folk poetry, having arisen in ancient times and reaching perfection by the time of the introduction of writing in Rus', became ancient Russian literature a natural threshold, a kind of “poetic cradle”. On the basis of the richest poetic treasury of folklore, the original Russian language arose to a large extent. written literature. It was folklore, according to many researchers, that introduced a strong ideological and artistic current into the works of ancient Russian literature.
Folklore and Russian literature represent two independent areas of Russian national art. At the same time, the history of their creative relationship should have become the subject of independent study by both folklore and literary studies. However, such targeted research did not appear in Russian science immediately. They were preceded by long stages of autonomous existence of folklore and literature without proper scientific understanding of the processes of their creative influence on each other.
Tolstoy's work, addressed to children, is vast in scope and polyphonic in sound. It demonstrates his artistic, philosophical, pedagogical views.
Everything Tolstoy wrote about children and for children signified new era in the development of domestic and, in many ways, world literature for children. During the writer’s lifetime, his stories from “ABC” were translated into many languages of the peoples of Russia and became widespread in Europe.
The theme of childhood in Tolstoy's works received a philosophically deep, psychological significance. The writer introduced new themes, a new layer of life, new heroes, enriched moral issues works addressed to young readers. The great merit of Tolstoy, a writer and teacher, is that he raised educational literature (the alphabet), which traditionally had an applied, functional nature, to the level of real art.
Leo Tolstoy is glory and pride Russian literature. 2 Beginning pedagogical activity Tolstoy dates back to 1849. When he opened his first school for peasant children.
Tolstoy did not ignore the problems of education and upbringing until the last days of his life. In the 80s and 90s, he was engaged in publishing literature for the people, and dreamed of creating an encyclopedic dictionary and a series of textbooks for peasants.
Constant interest of L.N. Tolstoy to Russian folklore, to the folk poetry of other peoples (primarily Caucasian) is a well-known fact. He not only recorded and actively promoted fairy tales, legends, songs, proverbs, but also used them in his artistic creativity, in teaching activities. The 70s of the 19th century were especially fruitful in this regard - a time of intensive work on “The ABC” (1872), “The New ABC” and complementary books for reading (1875). Initially, in the first edition, “ABC” was a single set of educational books. Tolstoy summarized his teaching experience at the Yasnaya Polyana school and revised the stories for children published in the appendix to Yasnaya Polyana. First of all, I would like to note the serious, thoughtful attitude of L.N. Tolstoy to folklore material. The author of both “ABCs” strictly focused on the primary sources, avoided arbitrary changes and interpretations and allowed himself some adjustments only for the purpose of adapting folklore texts that were difficult to perceive. Tolstoy studied the experience of Ushinsky, spoke critically about the language of his predecessor’s educational books, which, from his point of view, was too conventional and artificial, and did not accept descriptiveness in stories for children. The positions of both teachers were close in assessing the role of oral folk art and the experience of spiritual culture in mastering the native language.
Proverbs, sayings, riddles in “ABC” alternate with short sketches, micro-scenes, small stories from folk life 3(“Katya went mushroom picking”, “Varya had a siskin”, “The children found a hedgehog”, “Bug was carrying a bone”). Everything is close in them peasant child. Read in the book, the scene is filled with special significance and sharpens observation: “They laid the stacks. It was hot, it was difficult, and everyone was singing.” “Grandfather was bored at home. My granddaughter came and sang a song.” The characters in Tolstoy's short stories are, as a rule, generalized - mother, daughter, sons, old man. In the traditions of folk pedagogy and Christian morality, Tolstoy pursues the idea: love work, respect your elders, do good. Other everyday sketches are executed so masterfully that they acquire a high generalized meaning and come close to a parable. For example:
“The grandmother had a granddaughter; Before, the granddaughter was small and kept sleeping, and the grandmother baked bread, chalked the hut, washed, sewed, spun and wove for her granddaughter; and then the grandmother became old and lay down on the stove and kept sleeping. And the granddaughter baked, washed, sewed, weaved and spun for her grandmother.”
A few lines of simple two-syllable words. The second part is almost a mirror image of the first. What's the depth? The wise course of life, the responsibility of generations, the transmission of traditions... Everything is contained in two sentences. Here every word seems to be weighed, emphasized in a special way. The parables about the old man planting apple trees have become classic, “ old grandfather and granddaughters”, “Father and sons”.
Children are the main characters of Tolstoy's stories. Among his characters are children, simple children, peasant children and noble children. Tolstoy does not focus on social difference, although in each story children are in their own environment. The village little Filipok, wearing his father’s big hat, overcoming fear and fighting off other people’s dogs, goes to school. It takes no less courage little hero story “How I Learned to Ride” to beg adults to take him into the playpen. And then, without being afraid of falling, sit on Chervonchik again.
“I’m poor, I immediately understood everything. “I’m so clever,” says Filipok about himself, beating his name. There are many such “poor and clever” heroes in Tolstoy’s stories. The boy Vasya selflessly protects a kitten from hunting dogs (“Kitten”). And eight-year-old Vanya, showing enviable ingenuity, saves the life of his little brother, sister and old grandmother. The plots of many of Tolstoy's stories are dramatic. A hero - a child must overcome himself and decide to act. The tense dynamics of the story “The Jump” are characteristic in this regard. 4
Children are often disobedient and do wrong things, but the writer does not seek to give them a direct assessment. The reader must make the moral conclusion for himself. A conciliatory smile can be caused by Vanya’s misdeed, secretly eating a plum (“Pit”). Seryozha’s carelessness (“Bird”) cost Chizhu his life. And in the story “Cow” the hero is in an even more difficult situation: fear of punishment for a broken glass led to dire consequences for the big peasant family- death of the nurse Buryonushka.
Famous teacher D.D. Semyonov, a contemporary of Tolstoy, called his stories “the height of perfection, as in the psychological. So in artistically... What expressiveness and figurativeness of language, what strength, conciseness, simplicity and at the same time elegance of speech... In every thought, in every story there is a moral... moreover, it does not catch the eye, does not bore children, but hidden in artistic image, and therefore it asks for a child’s soul and sinks deep into it” 5 .
A writer's talent is determined by the significance of his literary discoveries. What is immortal is what is not repeated and unique. The nature of literature does not tolerate repetition.
The writer creates his own image real world, not being satisfied with someone else's idea of reality. The more this image reflects the essence and not the appearance of phenomena, the deeper the writer penetrates into the fundamental principles of existence, the more accurately their immanent conflict, which is the paradigm of a genuine literary “conflict,” is expressed in his work, the more durable the work turns out to be.
In number forgotten works there are things that reduce the idea of the world and man. This does not mean that the work is intended to reflect a holistic picture of reality. It’s just that the “private truth” of a work must be connected with a universal meaning.
Question about nationalities of this or that writer cannot be fully resolved without analyzing his connection with folklore. Folklore is an impersonal creativity, closely related to the archaic worldview.
Conclusion
Thus, Tolstoy’s creation of the cycle of “folk stories” of the 1880s - 1900s was due in combination to both external and internal reasons: socio-historical factors, the laws of the literary process of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the religious and aesthetic priorities of the late Tolstoy.
In the conditions of socio-political instability in Russia in the 1880-1890s, the tendency for a radical reorganization of society by violent methods, sowing discord and disunity among people, Tolstoy puts into practice the idea of “active Christianity” - a religious and philosophical doctrine of spiritual enlightenment based on Christian axiomatics, developed by him over a quarter of a century, and following which, in the writer’s opinion, should inevitably lead to the spiritual progress of society.
Objective reality, being unnatural, receives aesthetic condemnation by the writer. In order to contrast the image of harmonious reality with reality, Tolstoy develops a theory of religious art as the most appropriate to the needs of the day, and radically changes the nature of his own creative method. The method of “spiritual truth” chosen by Tolstoy, synthesizing the real and the ideal as a way of embodying harmonious reality, was most clearly realized in a cycle of works with a conventional genre definition of “folk stories”.
In the context of the growing interest of modern literary criticism in Christian issues in Russian classics, the study of “folk stories” in the context of spiritual prose of the late 19th - early 20th centuries seems promising, allowing us to present the spiritual literature of this period as an integral phenomenon.
Bibliography.
1. Akimova T. M., V. K. Arkhangelskaya, V. A. Bakhtina / Russian folk poetic creativity (a manual for seminar classes). – M.: Higher. School, 1983. – 208 p.
2. Gorky M. Collection. Op., vol. 27
3. Danilevsky I.N. Ancient Rus' through the eyes of contemporaries and their descendants (XI – XII centuries). – M., 1998. – P. 225.
5. Kruglov Yu. G. Russian ritual songs: Textbook. manual for teachers in-tovpospets "rus. language or T.". – 2nd ed., rev. and additional – M.: Higher. school 1989. – 320 p.
6. Semenov D.D. Favorite Ped. Op. – M., 1953
