17 Russian culture of the 18th century. European culture in the 17th - 18th centuries

Completed by: Saitkhanova R.

Checked by: Karpuk N.A.

1. Introduction 3 pages

2. Peter's cultural reforms I 5 pages

2. Catherine's reforms II 9 pages

4. Conclusion 12 pages.

5. Information sources 13 pages.

INTRODUCTION

You can't understand Russia with your mind,

A common arshin cannot be measured,

She has something special to become:

You have to believe in Russia.

F.I. Tyutchev

Russian culture is, in the words of D.S. Likhachev, a huge variety of possibilities coming from many sources and teachers. “The Age of Reason and Enlightenment” - this is what the great thinkers of the 18th century, the heralds of new revolutionary ideas. The 18th century entered the history of world culture as an era of great ideological and socio-historical shifts, an acute struggle against feudal-monarchical foundations and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom were clearly reflected in philosophy, science, literature, and in the educational activities of the greatest philosophers, scientists, and writers of that time - Diderot and Holbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev.

IN new period Russian culture, which survived at the turn of the 17th and XVIII century a significant turning point. After a long period of forced cultural isolation due to three centuries of Mongol conquest and the influence Orthodox Church, who tried to protect Rus' from everything “heretical”, “Western” (including education, morals, forms cultural life), Russian art embarks on the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of a new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic dogmas of religious morality. “Secular” art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education and in the formation of new foundations of the country’s social life. And at the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past.

While joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on indigenous Russian traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art. It was precisely because of this deep continuity that Russia was able, during the 18th century, not only to accept Active participation V general process movements of world culture, but also to create their own national schools, firmly established in literature and poetry, in architecture and painting, in theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieved enormous success.

Peter's cultural reforms I.

At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was experiencing a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, textiles, and agricultural implements. It had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which it could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own navy to guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns; their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies. There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the serving nobles. The country experienced continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes, who fought against both the nobles and the boyars, since they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy gaze of neighboring states - Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands. It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a fleet, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government of the country. To radically break the old way of life, Russia needed an intelligent and talented leader, an extraordinary person. This is how Peter I turned out to be. Peter not only comprehended the dictates of the times, but also devoted all his extraordinary talent, the tenacity of an obsessed person, the patience inherent in a Russian person, and the ability to give the matter a state scale to the service of this command. Peter imperiously invaded all spheres of the country's life and greatly accelerated the development of the principles he inherited.

Important changes in the life of the country strongly required the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks that replaced the church textbooks.

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font, which replaced the old Kirillov semi-charter. To print secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of book printing was accompanied by the beginning of organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. Since 1702 The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti was systematically published.

The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which was expressed in the organization of a number of large expeditions.

At this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

During this period, a number of important works on history were written, and the Kunstkamera created by Peter marked the beginning of collecting collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, charters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of museum work in Russia.

The logical result of all activities in the field of development of science and education was the foundation in 1724. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

From the first quarter of the 18th century. There was a transition to urban planning and regular city planning. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and the aristocracy. In painting, icon painting is replaced by portraiture. By the first quarter of the 18th century. There were also attempts to create a Russian theater; at the same time, the first dramatic works were written.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old habitual long-skirted clothing with long sleeves was prohibited and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, and wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothing in the cities. Western European outerwear and dresses spread most quickly among women. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the tax-paying classes. A special “beard tax” and a mandatory copper sign indicating its payment were introduced.

Peter I established assemblies with the mandatory presence of women in them, which reflected serious changes in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of “rules of good manners” and “noble behavior in society,” and the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.

The process of Europeanization of Russia in the era of Peter the Great is the most controversial part of Peter’s reforms. Even before Perth, the preconditions for widespread Europeanization had been created, ties with foreign countries had noticeably strengthened, Western European cultural traditions were gradually penetrating into Russia, even barber shaving had its roots in the pre-Petrine era. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened - the first higher educational institution in Russia. And yet Peter’s activities were revolutionary. V.Ya. Ulanov wrote: “What was new in the formulation of the cultural question under Peter the Great was that now culture was called upon as a creative force not only in the field of special technology, but also in its broad cultural and everyday manifestations, and not only in application to the chosen society... but also in relation to the broad masses of the people."

The most important stage in the implementation of reforms was Peter’s visit to a number of European countries as part of the Grand Embassy. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly mastering marine sciences. The Tsar also cared about the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by a professor at the University of Aberdeen, the Scot Forvarson. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky, the author of “Arithmetic...”. in 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

Peter strove to overcome as quickly as possible the problem that had arisen since the time of Tatar-Mongol yoke disunity between Russia and Europe. One of its appearances was different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 became 1700, and the New Year celebration was moved from September 1 to January 1.

Important changes took place in the life of the nobles, remaking the Russian nobility “in the image and likeness” of the European one. In 1717, the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth” was published - a kind of etiquette textbook, and since 1718 there were Assemblies - noble meetings on the model of European ones.

However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society.

Peter sought to make Russia European country in every sense of the word and gave great importance even the smallest details of the process.

Catherine's reforms II

As a result of the latter, in the 18th century. In the palace coup carried out on June 28, 1762, the wife of Perth I was elevated to the Russian throne, who became Empress Catherine II (1762-1796).

Catherine II began her reign by confirming the Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility and generous gifts to the participants in the coup. Having proclaimed herself the successor of the work of Peter I, Catherine directed all her efforts towards creating a powerful absolute state.

In 1763, a Senate reform was carried out in order to streamline the work of the Senate, which had long ago turned into a bureaucratic institution. The Senate was divided into six departments with clearly defined functions for each of them. In 1763-1764. The secularization of church lands was carried out, which was associated with a reduction (from 881 to 385) in the number of monasteries. Thus, the economic viability of the church was undermined, which from now on became completely dependent on the state. The process of transforming the church into part of the state apparatus, begun by Peter I, was completed.

The economic base of the state has strengthened significantly. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated, control passed to the new Little Russian Collegium, located in Kyiv and headed by Governor General P.A. Rumyantsev. This was accompanied by the transfer of the mass of ordinary Cossacks to the position of peasants, and serfdom began to spread to Ukraine.

Catherine received the throne illegally and only thanks to the support of noble officers, she sought support in the nobility, realizing the fragility of her position. A whole series of decrees expanded and strengthened the class rights and privileges of the nobility. The Manifesto of 1765 on the implementation of the General Land Survey secured the monopoly right to own land for the nobility, and also provided for the sale of 5 kopecks to the nobles. for a tithe of serf lands and wastelands.

Super-preferential conditions for promotion to officer ranks were assigned to the nobility, and funds for the maintenance of class nobility educational institutions increased significantly. At the same time, the decrees of the 60s consolidated the omnipotence of the landowners and the complete lack of rights of the peasants. According to the Decree of 1767, any, even just, complaint from peasants against landowners was declared a grave state crime.

Thus, landowner power under Catherine II acquired wider legal boundaries.

Unlike her predecessors, Catherine II was large and smart politician, a clever politician. Being well educated and familiar with the works of French enlighteners, she understood that it was no longer possible to rule with the old methods. The policy pursued by her in the 60s and early 70s. called the policy of enlightened absolutism. The socio-economic basis of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the development of a new capitalist structure, which destroyed old feudal relations.

The policy of enlightened absolutism was a natural stage of state development and, despite the half-heartedness of the reforms carried out, brought closer the moment of transition of social life to a new, more progressive formation.

Within two years, Catherine II drew up a program of new legislation in the form of an order for the convened commission to draw up a new Code, since the Code of 1649 was outdated. Catherine II’s “mandate” was the result of her previous reflections on educational literature and a unique perception of the ideas of French and German educators. The “order” concerned all the main parts government structure, governance, supreme power, rights and responsibilities of citizens, classes, and, to a greater extent, legislation and the courts. The “Nakaz” substantiated the principle of autocratic rule: “The sovereign is autocratic; for no other power, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state...” The guarantee against despotism, according to Catherine, was the establishment of the principle of strict legality, as well as the separation of the judicial power from the executive and the continuous transformation associated with it legal proceedings that eliminate outdated feudal institutions.

The economic policy program inevitably brought to the fore the peasant question, which was of great importance under the conditions of serfdom. The nobility showed itself as a reactionary force (with the exception of individual deputies), ready to defend serfdom by any means. Merchants and Cossacks thought about acquiring privileges to own serfs, and not about mitigating serfdom.

In the 60s, a number of decrees were issued that dealt a blow to the dominant system of monopolies. A decree of 1762 allowed the free opening of calico factories and sugar factories. In 1767, freedom of urban trades was declared, which was of great importance. Thus, the laws of the 60-70s. created favorable conditions for the growth of peasant industry and its development into capitalist production.

The time of Catherine II was the time of awakening of scientific, literary and philosophical interests in Russian society, the time of the birth of the Russian intelligentsia. And although it covered only a small part of the population, it was important step forward. During the reign of Catherine, the first Russian charitable institutions appeared. Catherine's time is the heyday of Russian culture, this is the time of A.P. Sumarokova, D.I. Fonvizina, G.I. Derzhavina, N.I. Novikova, A.N. Radishcheva, D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotova, etc.

In November 1796, Catherine passed away. Her son Paul (1796-1801) ascended the throne. Under Paul I, a course was established towards strengthening absolutism, maximum centralization of the state apparatus, and strengthening the personal power of the monarch.

Conclusion

The main result of the totality of Peter’s reforms was the establishment of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in the title in 1721 Russian monarch- Perth declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most famous figures in world history.

All reforms of Catherine II were also aimed at creating a powerful absolutist state. The policy pursued by her was called the “policy of enlightened absolutism.”

On the one hand, Catherine proclaimed the advanced truths of educational philosophy (especially in the chapters on legal proceedings and economics), on the other hand, she confirmed the inviolability of the autocratic serfdom system. Strengthening absolutism, she maintained autocracy, making only adjustments ( more freedom economic life, some foundations of the bourgeois legal order, the idea of ​​​​the need for enlightenment), which contributed to the development of the capitalist structure.

Catherine's undoubted merit was the introduction of universal public education.

Bibliography.

1. Soloviev S.M. About the history of new Russia. – M.: Education, 1993

2. Anisimov E.V. The time of Peter's reforms. – L.: Lenizdat, 1989

3. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries: History. Document. – M.: MIROS, 1994

4. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. – M.: Mysl, 1990

XVIII – XIX V. RUSSIAN CULTURE.

1. Culture of the Russian Enlightenment and the reforms of Peter 1.

2. Culture of the St. Petersburg period.

3. Russian culture in XIX century. Golden age of Russian culture.

The main content of Peter's reforms was the division of the previously unified culture into secular and religious.

New phenomena in Russian life were: libraries and a public theater, the Kunstkamera (the first museum). Academy of Sciences, parks and park sculpture, palace architecture and navy.

However, those who carried out reforms with the too “firm” hand of the tsar acquired not only supporters (F. Prokopovich, I. T. Pososhkov, V. N. Tatishchev), but also opponents, such as Prince Mikhail Shcherbatov (1733-1790) (historian, writer) , who, after the death of Peter 1, wrote in his works “On the Damage to Morals in Russia”, the seven-volume “Russian History from Ancient Times”, that enlightenment spoils morals. He idealized pre-Petrine antiquity as whole and pure in morals, and as a result historical process- decline of faith and morals, and debauchery. He saw the reason for this in the invasion of foreign external culture.

Outstanding educator XVIII century in Russia - Princess E.R. Dashkova (1744-1810), who received a rare for those times in childhood European education, a supporter of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, could not agree with the cruelty and violence of Peter’s reforms. She celebrated inhumane conditions builders of St. Petersburg, thousands of dormouse died from disease and hunger during the construction of the Trinity Harbor near Taganrog, the construction of which was led by Peter 1. Enormous human and material sacrifices during the deepening of the Kronstadt fairway, and most importantly, the humiliation of human dignity of representatives of all classes, especially clergy.

Berdyaev compared the attitude of Peter 1 to the old church and religiosity with those of the Bolsheviks - “Peter ridiculed the religious feelings of antiquity, organized an all-shutey council with a buffoonish patriarch.” The Church, after such a huge role as it played in the past, took a modest position in political and private life. The religious split intensified, which gave rise to a civil split, sowing distrust of the authorities among the people. And as a consequence of this, the movements of Slavophiles and Westerners, and then Eurasians, appeared. And as a result, an intelligentsia was formed, which, exaggerating the extent and nature of the evil of old Russian life, brought this split to revolution and the death of the Great Russian culture.

But to deny the great significance of the reforms of Peter 1 means not to recognize statehood, which ensured Russia’s two-hundred-year existence among the main European powers.

The main stages of this period are;

1. The emergence of secular schools (the first navigation and artillery in 1701, medical, where teaching was equated with service, in 1714). Nobles began to be sent to study abroad, and a special decree of 1714 prohibited illiterate nobles from marrying. In the second half XVIII century in Russia it was about 20 vocational schools. Textbooks appeared - “Arithmetic” by Magnitsky (1703). For printing books, a simplified civil font was introduced in 1708 and Arabic numerals. In 1714, the first State Library was created. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, opened.

2. The growth of industry is accompanied by the rise of natural sciences: geographers studied the Caspian and Aral seas, V. Atlasov, an Ustyug peasant, compiled the first description of Kamchatka, in 1720 the first scientific expedition M. Schmidt, ore explorers found coal in the Moscow region and Kuznetsk, silver and copper in Transbaikalia.

3. The result of Peter’s reforms in the field of science and education was the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725, which combined scientific research and pedagogical functions. Peasants M. Lomonosov, M. Golovin, soldiers' children I. Lepekhin S. Krashennikov were among the first academicians of Russian science. The discovery of M. Lomonosov was of global significance: the atomic-molecular hypothesis of the structure of matter, the law of conservation of matter and motion laid the foundations of new sciences - physical chemistry and astrophysics. M. Lomonosov created the historical work “Ancient Russian history" Textbooks on grammar, rhetoric, completed the reform of Russian versification. Science in Russia developed as part of world science.

4. Peter’s immediate circle consisted of people known not for their birth, but for their business qualities (Menshikov, Kurbatov, Shakhirov).

5. Europeanization affected Russian life: chronology from the birth of Christ (January 1), shaving of beards, clothes of European cut, clothing material - wool from factories that were developed under Peter 1. The symbol of the era was the assemblies, which were introduced by decree of the tsar in 1718 of the year is a new form of communication among the upper circle noble society: They danced, talked, played chess, drank coffee.

6. The transformation affected only the nobility, and almost did not affect the peasantry. In the era of Peter 1, a split in society and culture began into Western European culture and civilization, and folk, peasant culture.

7. Peter’s Decrees regulated not only appearance person, home, but also all life from birth to death.

Each person born into the world was entered into the registry register kept at the church in order to be assigned to school, office, and assigned a poll tax in time. The deceased even had to be buried in a coffin of the established type.

Peter embodied the idea of ​​​​introducing “regularity” into everyday life - the main element of which was military reform.

The idea of ​​“regularity” is also embodied in the organizing role of the state in relation to culture, its financing, and personnel training.

Many cultural figures were at public service and received a salary - M.S. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin, F.G. Volkov.

Peter 1 had the peculiarity of delving into all the details, from the reforms he carried out to the arrangement of gardens and parks in St. Petersburg.

2. Culture of the St. Petersburg period XVIII century.

The center of cultural transformation and the emergence new culture a new capital of the state appeared - Petersburg.

St. Petersburg was conceived as an example of a new culture. A city development plan was developed, for the first time a Russian city was built according to the rules: straight streets, height of houses according to the architectural rules of that period, semicircle of squares, three-pointed streets, boulevards.

Architect Leblon (student of Andre Le Nôtre, chief architect under Louis XIV ) developed a city development plan. The architect Trezzini built Peter and Paul Cathedral. In the middle XVIII century Rastrelli, built the ensemble in the Baroque style Smolny Cathedral, Winter Palace, Grand Palace in Tsarskoe Selo and Peterhof. Russian architect A. Kokorin built the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg in the classicist style. Outstanding Russian architects V. Bazhenov and M. Kazakov created many beautiful buildings in the classicist style in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Tver.

In 1757, the Russian Imperial Academy of Arts was opened, in which a new generation of artists grew up: F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky (portrait painters).

Monumental sculpture is developing: Ivan Martos creates sculptures in the style of classicism (a monument to Minin and Pozharsky). Sculptors I. Prokofiev, F. Shubin (busts of Lomonosov, Potemkin), E. Falcone (The Bronze Horseman).

European culture in the 17th - 18th centuries.

The 17th century is one of the brightest and most brilliant pages in the history of world artistic culture. This is the time when the ideology of humanism and faith in limitless possibilities man came to feel the dramatic contradictions of life. On the one hand, a revolutionary revolution is taking place in natural science, and new picture world, new styles are appearing in art, on the other hand, political conservatism and pessimistic views of society and people prevail.

The era of the 17th century in culture and art is usually called the Baroque era. The formation of a new European culture was associated with the rapidly changing “picture of the world” and the crisis of the ideals of the Italian Renaissance. Great geographical discoveries and natural scientific discoveries were of great importance for the spiritual life of society in the 17th century. The man began to acutely feel the fragility and instability of his position, the contradictions between illusion and reality. The new worldview was refracted in a special way in artistic culture: everything unusual, unclear, ghostly began to seem beautiful, attractive, and clear and simple - boring and uninteresting. This new aesthetics noticeably supplanted the previous Renaissance principles of imitation of nature, clarity, and balance.

This is how a new style arose - Baroque. Baroque (Italian barocco- “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excess”, port. perola barroca- “pearl of irregular shape” (literally “pearl with a defect”) - a slang word from Portuguese sailors to refer to defective pearls of irregular shape began to be used in the meaning of “soften, dissolve the contour, make the shape softer, more picturesque.”

Baroque architecture was characterized by lush decorative decoration with many details, multi-colored modeling, an abundance of gilding, carvings, sculptures, and picturesque lampshades creating the illusion of open vaults stretching upward. This is the time of the dominance of curves, intricately curved lines flowing into each other, solemn building facades and majestic architectural ensembles. Dominates in painting ceremonial portrait, characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, a desire for grandeur and splendor, for a combination of reality and illusion.

The beginning of the Italian Baroque is associated with the construction of the Roman church of Il Gesu (1575), the facade of which was decorated Giacomo della Porta. It literally “created an era”, becoming an expression of the stylistic trends of the time: the traditional division into 2 floors, semi-columns, niches, statues and the inevitable volutes (curls) at the corners. The first and largest palace building of that era was the Palazzo Quirinale, the summer residence of the popes, built on the top of Quirinale Hill.

This trend finds its most striking expression in sculpture in the work of Lorenzo Bernini. His sculpture “David” depicts a moment of rapid movement, a rush towards the giant Goliath, the transition of one movement into another. Bernini does not stop at distorting his face, conveying a painful or blissful expression. In sculpture "Apollo and Daphne" Lorenzo Bernini captured in a flying motion the moment of transformation of the young defenseless Daphne, overtaken by the light-footed Apollo, into a laurel. Bernini's brilliant skill was manifested in the construction of the famous Roman fountains - the "Fountain of Triton" and the "Fountain of the Four Rivers".

Another stage of transformation is associated with the name of Bernini St. Peter's Basilica in Rome: he designed the square in front of the cathedral; covered galleries and corridors stretched far ahead right from the edges of the facade. The architect created 2 squares - a large elliptical framed by columns, and a trapezoid-shaped square immediately adjacent to it, limited on the opposite side by the main facade of the cathedral. At the same time, the space in front of the cathedral was also a city square, decorated with an obelisk in the center of the oval and two fountains.

The Netherlands comes to the fore in the visual arts and, above all, in painting. Peter Paul Rubens(1577-1640), like the great figures of the Renaissance, showed himself in various fields of activity: he was a diplomat, a courtier, was awarded the title of nobility, was friends and collaborated with outstanding people era. Like many other painters, in his youth Rubens traveled to Italy, where he studied ancient monuments and the works of Renaissance masters. Returning to his homeland, he created classic look monumental baroque altar image - "Elevation of the Cross" And "Descent from the Cross"(1610-1614). A group of executioners and soldiers put up a large cross with Christ nailed to it. The various poses of the figures, their complex angles and swollen muscles express the extreme tension of physical strength; this raw power is contrasted with the idealized image of Christ. Rubens is characterized by powerful and lush human bodies, full of vitality, great decorative scope. The theme of his paintings was mythological and biblical stories, historical scenes.

Rubens "Elevation of the Cross" "Descent from the Cross"

In the picture "Lion Hunt", the sketch for which is one of the best Rubens works in the Hermitage collection, the action is endowed with extraordinary swiftness and passion. The rearing horses, the lion tormenting the falling rider, and the hunters striking him merged into an inextricable group, where unbridled strength and vital energy turn into fury.

He willingly turns to themes of the ancient world. The Hermitage painting is one of the master's masterpieces "Perseus and Andromeda"(1620-1621) gives an example of how freely and realistically he uses images of classical antiquity. Depicts the moment when mythical hero Perseus, flying on his winged horse Pegasus, frees Andromeda chained to a rock. He defeated the dragon who held her captive, and the terrible monster powerlessly opens its mouth at his feet. Admired by the beauty of the captive, Perseus approaches her, glory crowns the winner, and the cupids rush to serve him.

The main topic Rubens was a man with living and earthly love, one might even say passion. He was committed to vital fullness, strength, scope, storm of movement. He often depicted nude figures, often a heavy, warm, full-blooded body, filled with the lush color of life and usually highlighted with a light spot on a dark background. So, he writes “Elena Fourman in a fur coat.” In Rubens's portraits, accessories, backgrounds - lush curtains, etc. did not interfere, but on the contrary contributed to revealing the character's character, penetrating into his inner world(“Portrait of a Chambermaid”).

Realistic tendencies in painting can be observed in the work of the great Dutch artist Rembrandt Garmens van Rijn(1606-1669). The themes of his work are diverse: religious subjects, mythology, history, portraits, genre scenes. Rembrandt’s art was distinguished, first of all, by his love for man, humanism; in each of Rembrandt’s works there is an attempt to convey the spiritual evolution of man, the tragic path of learning about life. His heroes are people with contradictory characters and difficult destinies. The artist always studies nature, his model, not limiting himself to depicting general features. Rembrandt entered the history of world painting as a master of self-portraiture. From year to year he portrayed himself either cheerful or sad, then angry or indifferent. In the hundred self-portraits he created, there is the story of his life, the biography of his soul, the confession of the artist.
In the picture "Return of the Prodigal Son" The final episode of the parable is depicted when the prodigal son returns home, “and while he was still far away, his father saw him and had compassion; and, running, fell on his neck and kissed him,” and his elder righteous brother, who remained with his father, became angry and did not want to enter.

"Danae" is based on the ancient Greek myth about Danae, the mother of Perseus. When the king of the ancient Greek city of Argos learned of a prophecy according to which he was destined to die at the hand of the son of Danae, his daughter, he imprisoned her in a dungeon and assigned a maid to her. God Zeus, however, penetrated Danae in the form of golden rain, after which she gave birth to a son, Perseus.

In France in the 17th century, classicism reigned. Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries. Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. The masters of classicism did not convey in their works the immediate life surrounding them. They depicted an ennobled reality and sought to create ideal images that corresponded to their ideas about the reasonable, heroic and beautiful. The themes of classic art were limited mainly ancient history, mythology and the Bible, and figurative language And artistic techniques borrowed from classical ancient art, which, in the minds of the masters of classicism, most closely corresponded to the harmonious ideal of the reasonable and the beautiful.

The founder of classicism in French painting was Nicolas Poussin(1594-1665). His works are distinguished by deep ideas, thoughts and feelings. He believed that art should remind a person “of contemplation and wisdom, with the help of which he will be able to remain firm and unshakable before the blows of fate.” Within the framework of stories from ancient mythology and the Bible, Poussin revealed themes of the modern era. In his works he strove for majestic calm, noble restraint, and balance. His ideal is a hero who preserves life trials unperturbed calm of spirit, capable of accomplishing a feat. The idea of ​​the transience of life and the inevitability of death often attracted the attention of Poussin and served as the theme of many of his works. The best among them is the picture "Arcadian Shepherds"(Louvre), apparently made in the early 1650s. It depicts four inhabitants of the legendary happy country - Arcadia, who found a tomb among the thickets of bushes and deciphered the words carved on it: “And I was in Arcadia.” This chance discovery makes the Arcadian shepherds think, reminding them of the inevitability of death. The deep philosophical idea underlying this painting is expressed in a crystal clear and classically rigorous manner. The nature of the figures, their statuesque appearance and closeness to ancient forms and proportions are indicative of the mature art of the master. The painting is distinguished by its extraordinary integrity of concept and execution, and the hidden sadness with which it is imbued gives it a completely unique charm. One of the characteristic features of his talent is the ability to reveal the inner world of a person in movement, in gesture, in rhythms.

In the history of French culture, the period from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the beginning of the revolution (1789) is called the period of Enlightenment. One of the most important characteristics The culture of the Enlightenment is the process of replacing the religious principles of art with secular ones. In the 18th century, secular architecture for the first time took precedence over church architecture throughout almost all of Europe.
The social life of the Enlightenment was very controversial. Enlightenmentists fought against the “old order,” which then still had real power. Not only the style of artistic creativity, but also the way of life of the royal courts, personifying the “Old Order” of Europe becomes rococo (from the French “rocaille” - shell). The name conveys the main feature of this style - the choice of a complex, refined shape and whimsical lines, reminiscent of the silhouette of a shell.
The term "rococo" (or "rocaille") came into use in mid-19th V. Initially, “rocaille” is a way of decorating the interiors of grottoes, fountain bowls, etc. with various fossils that imitate natural formations. The characteristic features of Rococo are sophistication, great decorative loading of interiors and compositions, graceful ornamental rhythm, great attention to mythology, personal comfort.

Rococo architecture

Unlike Baroque, which was exclusively a courtly style, Rococo was the art of the aristocracy and the upper classes of the bourgeoisie. Now the main goal of the master was not the glorification of anyone or anything, but the convenience and pleasure of a particular person. Rococo architects began to care about human comfort. They abandoned the pomp of majestic baroque buildings and tried to surround people with an atmosphere of convenience and grace. Painting also abandoned “great ideas” and became simply beautiful. Freed from the violent emotions of the Baroque, the paintings were filled with cold light and subtle halftones. Rococo was perhaps the first almost entirely secular style in the history of European art. Like the philosophy of the Enlightenment, so the art of Rococo separated from the church, moving away religious themes far into the background. From now on, both painting and architecture were supposed to be light and pleasant. Gallant Society XVIII century, tired of moralizing and preaching, people wanted to enjoy life, getting the maximum pleasure from it.
Rococo did not manifest itself in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture and paintings. The Rococo style was also expressed brilliantly in all branches of artistic and industrial production; it was used with particular success in the manufacture of porcelain, imparting a unique elegance to both the form and ornamentation of its products; Thanks to him, this fabrication took a huge step forward in its time and came into great esteem among art lovers. In addition to porcelain, silver is in fashion. Chocolate bowls, tureens, coffee pots, dishes, plates and more are made. In this century, culinary art in its modern form was born, including the art of table setting. Rococo furniture is different characteristic features. One of the most striking features is the curved lines, curved legs. The furniture becomes lighter and more elegant compared to what it was before. New pieces of furniture appear: console tables, secretaries, bureaus, chests of drawers, wardrobes. The two most common types of chairs are Bergere and Marquise. Gilded candelabra, clocks, porcelain figurines, tapestries, screens are essential elements of the Rococo style. Mirrors and paintings that weigh asymmetrically are used in abundance. On sofas and armchairs, use silk pillows and poufs with embroidered motifs. Interesting fact– it was the Rococo design style that introduced such an innovation into the interior as an aquarium in the interior.

Rococo interior

The main themes of Rococo painting– the exquisite life of the court aristocracy, “gallant festivities”, idyllic pictures of “shepherd” life against the backdrop of pristine nature. One of greatest masters French art of the 18th century was Antoine Watteau(1684-1721), an artist of subtle poetic feeling and great artistic talent. A dreamy and melancholy master of “gallant festivities,” he brought genuine poetry and depth of feeling to his portrayal of the life of secular society, and a touch of melancholy and dissatisfaction to his interpretation of love scenes and carefree amusements. Very often we see in his paintings the image of a lonely dreamer, melancholy and sad, immersed in thought and removed from the noisy fun, from the vain vanity of the crowd. This - true hero Watteau. His works are always shrouded in lyrical sadness. We will not find stormy fun, sharp and sonorous colors in them. He especially loves to depict ladies and gentlemen walking or having fun against the background of a landscape, in overgrown shady parks, on the banks of ponds and lakes. Such are two charming paintings in the Dresden Gallery, for example "Society in the Park" where everything is imbued with subtlety lyrical mood, and even marble statues of ancient gods seem to look at the lovers with favor.

"Arrival on the island of Kytheru"

The most famous artist was rococo Frans and Boucher, who, in addition to painting, worked in all types of decorative and applied arts: he created cardboards for tapestries, drawings for Sevres porcelain, painted fans, made miniatures and decorative paintings. François Boucher was an artist ideologically associated with aristocratic society during its decline; he captured in his canvases the desire to enjoy all the blessings of life that reigned among the upper classes in the mid-18th century. In Boucher's work they are widely used mythological stories, giving rise to the depiction of naked female and children's bodies. He especially often writes mythological heroines - at different moments of their love affairs or busy in the toilet. No less characteristic of Boucher are the so-called pastorals, or shepherd scenes. The passion for pastoral themes, characteristic of the entire era, was a reflection of the then fashionable theories, according to which only naive people living far from civilization, in the lap of nature, are happy. His shepherds and shepherdesses are smart and pretty young men and women, a little costumed and depicted against the backdrop of landscapes. In addition to pastorals and mythological paintings, he painted genre scenes from the life of aristocratic society, portraits (especially often portraits of the Marquise of Pompadour), religious images, usually solved in the same decoratively(“Rest on the Flight to Egypt”), flowers, ornamental motifs. Boucher had an undeniable talent as a decorator; he knew how to connect his compositions with interior design.

Rococo fashion

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Features of the development of culture in the 17th century.

The 17th century occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transition from the traditional medieval culture of Moscow Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of history Russian culture XVII century. The most important feature of Russian culture of the 17th century is its widespread secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval entirely religious consciousness. Worldliness has affected all sides cultural development: education, literature, architecture, painting. This concerns mainly the urban population, while the culture of the village remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.

The main events of Russian history in the 17th century were: the transition from medieval history to the history of modern times, the weakening of the influence of the church. Accordingly, the main feature of culture was the beginning of the secularization of culture, that is, the destruction of medieval religious consciousness and the penetration of secular elements into the culture.

Education and writing. Literature.

· The number of literate people is increasing. The clergy and clerks taught church books. But already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric, ancient languages, foreign languages(German) and philosophy. The teachers there were often learned Ukrainian monks. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia was created - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (Likhud brothers). The Academy was modeled after European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin.

· Book printing is developing: the first printed primer (Karion Istomin), textbooks, liturgical books, official documents ( Cathedral Code). Libraries were created, both state (Posolsky Prikaz) and private (Ordina-Nashchokina, Golitsyna).

· Fundamentally new genres appeared in the literature of the 17th century: satire , drama , poetry . Satirical stories - about Ersha Ershovich, about the Shemyakin trial, where the unjust and selfish court was exposed. The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk (educator of the royal children). The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum. Oral folk art- songs about Stepan Razin.

· Under Alexei Mikhailovich, a theater , in 1672. The theater was created under the influence of the Tsar's young wife, Natalya Kirillovna. It staged plays based on biblical subjects, which usually lasted several hours.

Architecture.

· At the end of the 17th century, a new architectural style appeared - Naryshkin (Moscow) Baroque. Its distinctive features are picturesqueness, complexity of the plan, and a combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A typical example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate, Novodevichy Convent.

· Secular buildings: the wooden royal palace in Kolomenskoye, the brick Teremnoy Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, the chambers of Averky Kirillov.

· The Moscow Kremlin ceased to be a defensive structure; in the 17th century, the Kremlin towers were decorated with tents, and a clock appeared on the Spasskaya Tower.

art.

In the fine arts of the 17th century, the influence of tradition remained stronger than in other spheres of culture, which was explained by the control of church authorities over compliance with the iconographic canon. And yet, it was in the 17th century that the transformation of icon painting into painting began.

· At the Armory, a school for teaching painting was created, a painting workshop - in fact, an Academy of Arts, headed by Simon Ushakov.

· Simon Ushakov – the greatest artist of the 17th century: “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, “Trinity”.

· In the 17th century the beginning was laid portrait painting – parsuns . There are known images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky.

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Topic: Culture Russia XVIII century.

The development of the culture of the ruling strata of Russian society is characterized by the final triumph of the secular principle, decisive adherence to European models, and a deep break with traditional folk culture. In the second half of the 18th century, a distinctive national culture of the European type was formed in Russia. The successes of culture reflected the progressive development of the state and society as a whole. The atmosphere of special noble spirituality that formed at this time prepared the rise of Russian national culture in the 19th century.

Enlightenment and science.

− 1701 - School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower (later - the Maritime Academy in the Kikin Chambers in St. Petersburg). Later, an Artillery School, a Medical School, and an Engineering School arose.

− 42 “digital schools” were created to educate provincial nobles.

− Education took on a secular character, mathematics, astronomy, and engineering took first place.

− New textbooks have appeared. "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers" by Magnitsky.

− 1700 - chronology is not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, the beginning of the year is not September 1, but January 1.

− 1702 - the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti" (under Alexei Mikhailovich, the handwritten newspaper "Chimes" was published for the needs of the court), the editor of which was Peter I.

− 1708 - transition to a civilian font.

− 1755 - on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov and with the support of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Moscow University was created. The university's charter provided for teaching in Russian (in European universities teaching was conducted in Latin). The university consisted of the faculties of philosophy, law and medicine. There was no theological faculty.

− Catherine II - a system of educational and educational institutions was created under the leadership of Ivan Betsky.

− 1764 - Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens.

− Peter I opened the first museum in Russia - the Kunstkamera, where various antiquities and anatomical collections were collected. The Kunstkamera had a rich library.

− 1741 - Vitus Bering's expedition explored the northwestern coast of America and proved that Asia was separated from America.

− A famous inventor of Peter the Great’s time is Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov.

− 1718 - Peter decided to create the Russian Academy of Sciences and ordered to invite the largest foreign scientists. The Academy opened in 1725 year, after the death of the emperor. The creation of the Academy of Sciences attracted European scientists to Russia, including such world celebrities as mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli. German historians G. Bayer and G.F. worked in Russia. Miller, who made a significant contribution to the development of Russian historical science. Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences was headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.

− Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov: entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in 1731, from where he was transferred to St. Petersburg University at the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to study in Germany. In 1745 he became the first Russian professor, a member of the Academy of Sciences. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Lomonosov: “He created the first university. It is better to say that he himself was our first university.”

− In the 18th century, historical science achieved significant success. Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. "Russian History" in 5 volumes.

− The famous self-taught inventor - Ivan Petrovich Kulibin: projects of an elevator, a “self-running stroller”, a single-arch bridge across the Neva, a telescope, a microscope, a barometer.

− Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov managed to improve the steam engine, the operation of which he became acquainted with in England. A similar machine was created in England by James Watt only twenty years later.

Literature. Social thought.

− The most important direction in Russian and European literature the middle of the 18th century was classicism . Classicism found expression, first of all, in poetry: Antioch Cantemir, Vasily Trediakovsky and especially Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov. The most outstanding Russian poet of the late 18th century who wrote in the style of classicism was Gavrila Derzhavin. Denis Fonvizin’s comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” also belong to classicism.

In the 17th century In the history of Russia, the Middle Ages period ends. The beginning of a new period in history was also a new stage in Russian history. to-ry. Rus. The country retained all the features of the previous era, but new elements were also emerging. It was a time of transition. There was a breakdown of the traditional worldview. A craving for science, an interest in real subjects in literature, the growth of secular journalism, a violation of iconographic canons in painting, the rapprochement of religious and civil architecture, a love of decoration - all this speaks of the rapid process of secularization of the 17th century. In the struggle between old and new, in contradictions, the art of new times is born. The history of ancient Russia ends with the 17th century. is-va, and the way opens for a new secular religion. The formation of the Russian nation begins. Folk traditions are being generalized, interconnection is strengthening local customs, on the basis of the Moscow dialect, a single Russian language is being formed. The state, eastern in its structure, begins to break its isolation and strive for rapprochement with the West. Art is becoming more secular, optimistic, and picturesque. Russian and Italian craftsmen are starting to build palaces and tent-roofed churches. State and secular monumental buildings, posad stone structures (Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, 22-domed wooden Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord in Kizhi). Secular and church architecture mutually enrich each other. A major factor in the emerging crisis of the Middle Ages was the schism of the church. The reforms of Patriarch Nikon (the thesis “The priesthood is higher than the kingdom”) led to a break with the tsar. The need to revise all church rituals was caused, first of all, by the desire to streamline ritual practice in the conditions of growing religious free-thinking and the fall of the authority of the clergy. Rapprochement with the Greek Church was supposed to raise the prestige of the Russian state in the Orthodox East. 18th century characterized in Rus' by late feudalism. Attempts are being made to overcome Russia's lag behind Western European countries, and significant changes are taking place in all areas of life. Their beginning is associated with the reforms of Peter I. In the 18th century. economic and cultural ties between Russia and Western countries, contributing to its entry into the world historical and cultural process, the main content of which during this period was the formation and development of national Russian culture. New spheres of culture are emerging - science, art. literature, secular painting, public theater, etc. Interest in the human personality has increased. The 18th century was a time of broad and all-round flourishing of Russian art. culture. This was due to the radical socio-economic transformations of Peter I. Many types of art began to develop rapidly - painting, architecture, sculpture, applied arts, engraving. New Russian art manifested itself in the process of construction of the capital of Russia - St. Petersburg and a number of other cities with their numerous palaces, public buildings and structures. In the 18th century the role of man as an individual in society increases. Preference was given to a person's talent rather than his title or birth. The new state needed energetic, enterprising and skillful people. It was during Peter's time that the idea of ​​creating an Academy of Arts arose. During the era of Peter there were changes in views in the moral field. Not only Christian virtues, antiquity and wealth began to be valued, but also secular ones, such as intelligence, courage, and activity. Construction of secular, industrial, and scientific buildings is underway. Art is increasingly moving away from the church. The themes for the plots are portraits, battle scenes, relationships between people. Painting, engraving, decorative and applied arts, sculpture, architecture, and jewelry are being developed. Defining directions: baroque, rococo, classicism, eclecticism (mixing styles). Peter's transformations also destroyed the old patriarchal way of life, establishing a secular way of life. New forms of furniture, glass and crystal dishes, and porcelain products appear. During the Peter the Great era special meaning given to education and science. Peter's reforms were a complex phenomenon, ambiguous in their means and consequences. There is an opinion that the reforms were alien to the national spirit of Russia. And yet, an introduction to history and the Western way of life took place. In the 17th century Russian culture has made a big step in its development, new directions have appeared - everyday and historical stories, poetic, dramatic, historical and satirical genres in literature; the transition from church canons to the elegance and decorativeness of the Moscow Baroque style in architecture; approaching the original in painting, the penetration of secular motifs into music and the emergence of a new type of art - court and school theater. Results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century. very significant. The development of Russian nationalities continued. traditions in all forms of art. Strengthening ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence into Russian culture. Strengthening the power of the Russian state, which became one of the largest states in the world, contributed to the formation of the Russian nation and a single Russian language, which became the greatest cultural wealth of the Russian people. All areas of culture were developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There was secularization, secularization of culture, and the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia. This contributed to the emergence of new types of culture - the first literary magazines, art. literature, public theater, secular music. The sphere of spiritual activity of Russian people has expanded significantly.