What is this image called in literary criticism? Artistic image

Vestnik Chelyabinsk state university. 2009. № 35 (173).

Philology. Art history. Vol. 37. pp. 20-26.

E. B. Borisova

AND ‘IMAGATIONALITY’ IN LITERARY STUDIES AND LINGUISTICS

The article examines the content of the concepts 'image' and 'imagery' in various interpretations accepted in Russian literary criticism and linguistics. Various criteria for the interpretation of these terms are given and our own definition of the artistic image is proposed, which is derived taking into account two approaches.

Keywords: artistic image, imagery, literary criticism, linguistics, fiction, character image, image of nature and the material world.

It is known that art has its own special, specific artistic content. It is the result of an expanded creative mastery of the characteristic content of life and appears in the form of an artistically typified or artistically mastered characteristic, that is, such a characteristic in which the artist has creatively mastered the connection of a person’s individual existence with society or with the world as a whole. This artistically mastered characteristic is the basic unit of artistic content. It can appear in a work of art as the integral character of an individual, as a characteristic life-like situation, or as a characteristic mood.

If the basic unit of artistic content is the artistically mastered characteristic of life, then the basic unit of artistic form is the image. An image is, first of all, a category of aesthetics that characterizes a special way of mastering and transforming reality, inherent only in art. Image and imagery are key concepts for the language of art and the language of fiction in particular, but there is still no clear definition of these terms. There is often a confusion between the concepts of ‘verbal’, ‘linguistic’, ‘speech’ and ‘artistic image’. It is noteworthy that even the compilers of the linguistic encyclopedia “Linguistics” do not consider the artistic image as a linguistic concept. This indicates that the artistic image, despite numerous studies, is not included in the terminological apparatus of the science of language. We will talk about the content of the concept of ‘image’ in fiction, which clarifies the qualitative originality

of this type of image in comparison with other possible ones, for example, logical, mental, etc.

Image and figurativeness are key concepts of literary language. The complexity of the problem of studying imagery is largely explained by the complexity and ambiguity of this concept, which is the subject of study in various scientific fields. The concepts of ‘image’ and ‘imagery’ are used, in accordance with their specificity, by philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, art criticism, literary criticism, linguistic stylistics, didactics and other sciences.

Particularly characteristic of modern Russian works on literary criticism is the approach to the image as living and whole organism, most capable of comprehending the complete truth of existence, since it not only exists (as an object) and not only means (as a sign), but is what it means. In comparison with Western science, the concept of ‘image’ in Russian literary criticism is itself more “figurative” and polysemantic. I. F. Volkov comes to the following definition of the image: “An artistic image is a system of concrete sensory means that embodies the actual artistic content, that is, the artistically mastered characteristic of real reality”1. The specificity of the figurative principle in literature is largely predetermined by the fact that imagery in in this case framed in words. A word can mean everything. what is in a person's horizons. With the help of the word, literature masters the intelligible integrity of objects and phenomena. The word is a conventional sign, that is, it does not resemble the object it denotes. Word pictures are ignorant

significant, through them the author addresses the reader’s imagination. That is, in literature there is figurativeness (subjectivity), but there is no direct visibility of images. Being insubstantial and lacking clarity, verbal and artistic images at the same time depict a fictional reality and appeal to the reader’s vision. This side of literary works is called verbal plasticity. Verbal works capture subjective reactions to the objective world to a greater extent than the objects themselves as directly visible. There are also “non-plastic” principles of imagery: sphere

psychology and thoughts of narrators, lyrical

ical heroes, characters2.

The image has a duality that allows disparate phenomena to be pulled together into one whole. An image is the intersection of the objective and semantic series, the verbally designated and the implied. In the image, one object is revealed through another, and their mutual transformation occurs. At the same time, the image can both facilitate and complicate the perception of an object, explain the unknown to the known or the known to the unknown. The purpose of an image is to transform a thing, to turn it into something else.

Complex into simple, simple into complex, but in any case to achieve the highest semantic tension between the two poles, to reveal the interpenetration of the most diverse planes of existence.

A deeper understanding of the image in fiction can be obtained by considering a literary work as a kind of structural model, presented in the form of a core surrounded by several shells. The outer shell contains the verbal material from which the work itself consists. The material considered in itself is a kind of text that does not yet have artistic meaning. The structural “shell” of a work becomes artistically significant only when it acquires a symbolic character, that is, it expresses the spiritual information contained in it. The core itself, which includes the theme and idea of ​​the work, that is, what the writer depicts and what he wants to say about what is depicted, has, in contrast to the content of everyday, business, scientific and other texts, a two-sided structure, since art understands life And

simultaneously evaluates it. The need to organically connect the verbal shell with the spiritual core, making it extremely expressive and poetically meaningful, leads to the appearance in the structure of two intermediate shells, usually called the internal and external form. The internal form is a system of images, and the external form is the organization of linguistic fabric, which makes it possible to achieve activation of the sound side of the text, which makes the text a carrier of new, artistic information located in the subtext of the work.

So the subtext plays important role in creating an image. Subtext is the hidden meaning of a statement resulting from the relationship verbal meanings with context. Usually subtext is a means psychological characteristics, but it can also evoke visual images. We can say that subtext is that which is beyond both the literal and figurative meaning words.

In an artistic image, real life characteristic no longer appears on its own, not just as an object of evaluation, but in a creative synthesis with the author’s attitude towards it, that is, as a creatively transformed characteristic and, therefore, as part of a special, second, artistic reality.

It should be noted that in domestic literary criticism from the 20s of the last century to the present day there are two different approaches to the study of the nature of the artistic image. Some scientists interpret the artistic image in literature as a purely speech phenomenon, as a property of the language of works of art. Others see a more complex phenomenon in the artistic image

A system of concrete sensory details that embody the content of a work of art, and not only details of the external, speech form, but also internal, object-figurative and rhythmically expressive.

So, for example, A.I. Efimov in his article “Figurative speech of a work of art” writes about two types of images. He calls one type literary images, by which he means images of characters in literary works, for example, the image of Tatyana, the image of Onegin.

Another type, from his point of view, consists of speech images, that is

figurative and expressive properties national language: colorful expressions, comparisons, tropes and more. Wherein

A. I. Efimov argues that the actual artistic significance literary work achieved primarily through speech imagery3.

However, this researcher does not take into account that speech images in themselves are not a sign of a literary text. In addition, literary text is not always replete with speech images. Speech images, like speech in general, acquire artistic significance only when they become a means of embodying the artistic content itself, in particular the characters of the heroes of epic works as a result of the artistic and creative development of the real characteristics of life.

A. I. Efimov’s article aroused fundamental objections from many well-known literary scholars, in particular P. V. Palievsky. According to P.V. Palievsky, the artistic image is not reduced to the figurativeness of language, it is a more complex and more capacious phenomenon, which includes, along with language, other means and performs a special, strictly artistic function. Thus, P. V. Palievsky considers an artistic image as a complex interconnection of details of a concrete sensual form, as a system of figurative details that are in complex mutual reflection, due to which something essentially new is created, possessing a colossal content capacity4.

Specifics artistic imagery ultimately determined by the specifics of artistic content. Therefore, the artistic image is often determined, first of all, by the general features of artistic content. For example, in the book by M. B. Khrapchenko “Horizons of the Artistic Image” the following definition is given: “an artistic image is a creative synthesis of universally significant, characteristic properties of life, the spiritual “I” of a person, a generalization of his ideas about what is essential, important in the world, the embodiment of a perfect ideal beauty. In the structure of the image, in close unity there is a synthetic development of the surrounding world, an emotional attitude towards the object of creativity, an orientation toward the internal perfection of artistic generalization, and its potential impressive power”5.

The creatively mastered characteristic of real reality, which I. F. Volkov writes about, appears in a work of art as something concrete, first of all, as the character of a human individual. The artistic form, in turn, acquires certainty in the fact that the system of concrete sensory forms (speech and imaginary) forms something individual, in this case the image of a hero epic work. So, in the center literary image stands a person in the life process, shown in the complexity and multidimensionality of his relationship to reality.

We find a similar point of view on image and figurativeness in the work of L. I. Timofeev “Fundamentals of the Theory of Literature.” According to the researcher, “an image is a specific and at the same time generalized picture human life created through fiction and having aesthetic significance"6. This scientist draws attention to two essential features of the figurative reflection of life: to the fact that, on the one hand, it contains, as in science, a well-known generalization that establishes character traits life phenomena, and, on the other hand, that these phenomena are depicted specifically, preserving them individual characteristics, that is, as we see them in life. The subject of artistic depiction, according to L.I. Timofeev, is a person in all the complexity of his relationships with society and nature. The writer reflects in his work all reality, all the complexity of life's relationships, but shows them in a certain refraction, the way they manifest themselves in a specific human life. The subject of his knowledge is reality, the subject of the image is man in his complex and multifaceted relationship to reality, man as a person.

Depicting a person as a unique personality in all the richness and diversity of his psychological and physical characteristics, speech characteristics, social, everyday, intimate and natural settings, literature depicts him in the entire integrity of the life process that determines the formation and development of his character.

An image is a picture of human life. To reflect life with the help of images means to draw pictures of human life, that is, the actions and experiences of people, the characteristics

thorny for a given area of ​​life, allowing one to judge it. An image as a picture of human life presupposes the artist’s use of everything that is connected with a person in life, but it is in the refraction of all this material through human perception that the originality of literature lies.

L.I. Timofeev notes that the concept of image is broader than the concept of character, since it presupposes the image of all things, animals and in general objective world, in which a person is located and outside of which he is unthinkable, but, at the same time, without an image of character, an image cannot arise7.

However, some researchers consider artistic images only as images of characters. For example, V.P. Meshcheryakov notes that “with good reason, only images of human characters can be included in the concept of “artistic image”. In other cases, the use of this term presupposes a certain degree of convention, although its “broad” use is quite acceptable.”8

In our opinion, this understanding of the artistic image is somewhat narrow and does not reflect all the specifics of literature as a form of reflecting life in images.

IN linguistic literature image and figurativeness are considered inextricably from each other and, moreover, these concepts are defined one through the other.

In dictionary linguistic terms"O. S. Akhmanova we find the concept of 'figurative meaning', i.e. 'the meaning of a word that functions as a trope"9, therefore, the linguistic definition of image can be given through the understanding of figurativeness as a linguistic category, which is interpreted as semantic biplane , that is, transferring the name from one object to another.

Speaking about imagery from the point of view of linguistics, we cannot help but turn to such a concept as internal form, which was introduced into linguistic use in the 19th century. The first to talk about the internal form

V. Humboldt. He was interested in the internal form of language, by which he understood a system of concepts reflecting the features of the worldview, fixed by the external form of language. That is, in this case we are talking about the peculiarity of the worldview of a particular nation: the internal form of language as a worldview10.

Developing the theory of V. Humboldt, A. A. Potebnya distinguishes between the external (articulate sound) and internal form of the word (content objectified through sound). A. A. Potebnya writes: “The internal form of a word is the relation of the content of thought to consciousness; it shows how a person’s own thought appears to him. This alone can explain why in the same language there can be many words to denote the same object, and vice versa, one word, completely in accordance with the requirements of the language, can denote dissimilar objects.”11

Continuing the research direction of A. A. Potebnya on the internal form of the word, G. O. Vinokur sees the essence of the artistic word in the fact that “one content, expressed in a special sound form, serves as the form of another content that does not have a special sound expression”12.

Reality is embodied in the word, and the artist (poet, prose writer) performs its secondary transformation. In the context of a literary work, a word can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries. Imagery artistic speech lies not in the use of speech phenomena in themselves (expressiveness, individualization, tropes, etc.), but in the nature, in the principle of their use. For any verbally stands the person who created it.

Having examined the existing points of view in literary criticism and linguistics on the concept of 'image' and using as a basis the definition proposed by I. F. Volkov, we propose the following general definition of the concept of 'artistic image': “An artistic image is the basic unit of an artistic form, a system of concrete sensory means, embodying a special, strictly artistic content, that is, an artistically mastered characteristic of real reality, which appears in a work of art as something concrete and is created with the help of verbal and artistic compositional techniques.”

Despite the fact that in fiction the concept of “image” is associated primarily with the character of the human individual, we will try to expand the boundaries of this concept.

In this regard, we note that the authors of the Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary delimited and classified artistic images. Since in the image two main components are isolated - the objective and the semantic, the said and the implied and their relationship. Thus, the following threefold classification of images is possible: objective, generalized semantic and structural13.

The objectivity of the image is divided into a number of layers, appearing one within the other, like the big through the small. The first includes images-details, the smallest units of aesthetic vision. Images-details themselves can vary in scale: from details, often denoted by one word, to detailed descriptions consisting of many details, for example, landscape, portrait, interior; but at the same time their distinctive property is static, descriptive, fragmentary. From them grows the second figurative layer of the works - the plot, imbued with purposeful action, linking together all the substantive details. It consists of images of external and internal movements: events, actions, moods, aspirations - all dynamic moments unfolding in the time of a work of art. The third layer is the impulses behind the action and determining it - images of characters and circumstances, individual and collective heroes of works, possessing the energy of self-development and revealing themselves in the entire set of plot actions: collisions, various kinds of collisions and conflicts. Finally, from the images of characters and circumstances as a result of their interaction, holistic images of fate and the world are formed; this is being in general, as the artist sees and understands it - and behind this global image there are already non-objective, conceptual layers of the work.

According to their semantic generality, images are divided into individual, characteristic, typical, image-motifs, topoi, and archetypes.

Individual and individualized images are created by the original, often whimsical imagination of the artist and express the measure of his originality and uniqueness.

Characteristic images reveal the patterns of socio-historical life, capture the morals and customs common in a given era and in a given environment.

Typicality is the highest degree of specificity, thanks to which a typical (typical) image, absorbing the essential features of the concrete historical, socially characteristic, at the same time outgrows the boundaries of its era and acquires universal human features, revealing the stable, eternal properties of human nature.

The indicated varieties of images (individual, characteristic, typical) are isolated in the sphere of their existence, that is, they are, as a rule, creative creation one author within one specific work.

The next three varieties (motive, topos, archetype) are generalized not according to the “reflected”, real-historical content, but according to the conditional, culturally developed and fixed form; therefore, they are characterized by the stability of their own use, going beyond the scope of one specific work.

A motif is an image that is repeated in several works of one or many authors and reveals the creative preferences of the writer or the whole artistic direction. Such, for example, are the images-motifs of a snowstorm and wind by A. A. Blok, rain and a garden by B. L. Pasternak.

Topos (“common place”) is an image that is already characteristic of an entire culture of a given period or a given nation. Such are the topoi of “the world as a book”, “the world as a theater” for the European artistic culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the topoi of the road or winter for Russian literature.

The archetype image contains the most stable and omnipresent “schemes” or “formulas” of human imagination, manifested both in mythology and in art at all stages of its historical development. Permeating all fiction from its mythological origins to the present, archetypes form a constant fund of plots and situations, passed on from writer to writer.

According to their structure, that is, the relationship between their two planes, the objective and the semantic, the revealed and the implied, images are divided into autological, “self-significant” ones, in which both planes coincide; metalogical, in which the revealed differs from the implied, as a part from the whole, the material from the spiritual, the greater from the lesser; here from-

all the image-tropes are worn; allegorical and symbolic, in which the implied is not fundamentally different from the revealed, but surpasses it in the degree of its universality and abstraction.

It should be noted that the study of the image was carried out in many other directions, correlating with different traditions and problems of aesthetic thought: the connection of the image with myth and ritual (O. M. Freidenberg, A. F. Losev), image and artistic speech (G. O. Vinokur, A. V. Chicherin, V. V. Kozhinov), historical development and national specificity of images (G. D. Gachev, P. V. Palievsky), the image as a special model for mastering reality (M. B. Khrapchenko), the convention and iconicity of the image (Yu. M. Lotman, B. A. Uspensky ), spatio-temporal form of images (M. M. Bakhtin), the image of the author and hero (V. V. Vinogradov, L. Ya. Ginzburg). Particularly characteristic of modern aesthetics is the approach to the image as a living and integral organism, most capable of comprehending the complete truth of existence. In comparison with Western science, the concept of ‘image’ in Russian and Soviet literary criticism is itself more “figurative”, polysemantic, having a less differentiated sphere of use.

Images of the objective world constitute a special subject of philological research. As E. R. Kotochigova notes in the article “The Thing in Artistic Representation”, there is no single term to designate these images: they are called “things”, “details of everyday life”, “interior”14. Speaking about the concept of ‘image’, we, to a certain extent, abstract it from the specific fabric of a work of art. It is indisputable that the most insignificant and most random details, things, phenomena in the artistic world are subordinated to the main idea of ​​the work, the image of a person in all his forms. The anthropocentricity of any artistic image is irrefutable. But we should not underestimate the importance of the objective world. The most insignificant and random details, things, phenomena in the artistic world are a way of characterizing a person, an expression of his individuality.

In this regard, A. B. Esin calls the world depicted in a work of art an image, that is, “that picture of reality conditionally similar to the real world,

which the writer draws: people, things, nature, actions, experiences, etc.” This scientist introduces the concept of “the world of things” and identifies such types of images as portraits, landscapes, and the world of things. The author unites all these images with one name - artistic detail. A. B. Esin also writes that these images are of a subordinate nature, since an artistic detail is the smallest pictorial and expressive detail that forms a “block” of a larger image, which in turn flows into an even larger image - holistic image of a person15. So we once again confirm the anthropocentricity of artistic imagery.

So, material concreteness constitutes an integral and very significant facet of artistic subject imagery. Images of things “enter” literary texts in different ways. Most often, they are episodic, present in very few episodes of the text, and are often given in passing, as if between times. But sometimes images of things come to the fore and become the central link of the narrative.

Sharing the opinion about the absolute anthropocentricity of the artistic image, we emphasize that in a work of literary art it is advisable to distinguish both personified and non-personified images, i.e. images of people, animals, nature, images of things (images of the material / objective world), images feelings, verbal and speech images, images-details, etc.

Having examined the content of the concepts of 'artistic image' and 'artistry', as interpreted by literary scholars and linguists, it becomes clear to us that an image is a specific and at the same time generalized picture of existence, created with the help of verbal means and artistic and compositional techniques, and having an aesthetic meaning. The main types of classifications of images can be considered subject (images-details, external and internal images, images of characters and circumstances, individual and collective heroes of works); generalized semantic (individual, characteristic, typical, image-motives, topoi, archetypes) and structural (autological and metalogical).

From the above it follows that by artistic image we will understand

an element or part of an artistic whole, i.e. a fragment that has independent life and content and is created by the author with the help creative use richness of the literary language. At the same time, in an artistic text, linguistic units of all levels (word - phrase - sentence) realize the duality of their nature and appear in a transformed form, being a means of expressing not only the main content (plot), but also meta-content (creating an artistic image and providing an emotional and aesthetic impact per reader).

Notes

1 Volkov, I. F. Theory of Literature. M., 1995. P. 75.

2 Khalizev, V. E. Theory of Literature. M., 2007.

3 Efimov, A. I. Stylistics of artistic speech. M., 1959. P. 93.

4 See: Palievsky, P.V. Literature and theory. M., 1979.

5 Khrapchenko, M. B. Horizons of the artistic image. M., 1982. P. 79.

6 Timofeev, L. I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. M., 1976. P. 60.

7 Ibid. P. 38.

8 Meshcheryakov, V. P. Dictionary of literary characters. M., 2000. P. 18.

9 Akhmanova, O. S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. M., 1996. P. 163.

10 See: Humboldt, V. Language and Philosophy of Culture. M., 1985.

11 Potebnya, A. A. Aesthetics and poetics. M., 1976.S. 114.

12 Vinokur, G. O. Philological studies. M., 1990. P. 390.

13 Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary (LES). M., 1987. pp. 253-254.

14 Kotochigova, E. R. Thing in artistic representation // Introduction to literary studies. M., 1999. P. 45.

15 Esin, A. B. Principles of analysis of a literary work. M., 1998. P. 75.

Literary image. Word and image

A literary image is an artistic reflection, using words, of human characters, events, objects, phenomena in a specific, individually sensual form.

The term “image” in literary criticism is understood as 1) a character in a work of art (hero, character, character), and as 2) a reflection of reality in an individual form (verbal image or trope).

The images created by the writer are distinguished by their emotionality, associativity, originality, and capacity.

Artistic image. Image and sign

When referring to the ways (means) by which literature and other forms of art that have figurativeness carry out their mission, philosophers and scientists have long used the term “image” ( other-gr. eidos – appearance, appearance). As part of philosophy and psychology, images are specific representations, i.e., the reflection by human consciousness of individual objects (phenomena, facts, events) in their sensory perceptible form. They oppose the abstract concepts, which record the general, repeating properties of reality, ignoring its unique individual features. There are, in other words, sensory-figurative and conceptual-logical forms of mastering the world.

Further distinguishable figurative representations(as a phenomenon of consciousness) and images themselves as the sensory (visual and auditory) embodiment of ideas. A.A. Potebnya in his work “Thought and Language” considered the image as reproduced representation - as a certain sensory perceived reality 1 . It is this meaning of the word “image” that is vital for the theory of art, which distinguishes between scientific-illustrative, factual (informing about facts that actually took place) and artistic images 2 . The latter (and this is their specificity) are created with the explicit participation of the imagination: they do not simply reproduce isolated facts, but condense and concentrate aspects of life that are significant for the author in the name of its evaluative comprehension. The artist’s imagination is, therefore, not only a psychological stimulus for his creativity, but also a certain reality present in the work. In the latter there is a fictitious objectivity that does not fully correspond to itself in reality.

Nowadays, the words “sign” and “sign” have taken root in literary studies. They have noticeably replaced the usual vocabulary (“image”, “imagery”). The sign is the central concept of semiotics, the science of sign systems. Structuralism, which became established in the humanities in the 1960s, and post-structuralism, which replaced it, is oriented toward semiotics.

A sign is a material object that acts as a representative and substitute for another, “pre-found” object (or property and relationship). Signs constitute systems that serve to receive, store and enrich information, that is, they have primarily a cognitive purpose.

The creators and supporters of semiotics consider it as a kind of center of scientific knowledge. One of the founders of this discipline, the American scientist C. Morris (1900 - 1978) wrote: “The relationship of semiotics to the sciences is twofold: on the one hand, it is a science among other sciences, and on the other hand, it is an instrument of the sciences”: a means of unification different areas scientific knowledge and giving it “greater simplicity, rigor, clarity, the path to liberation from the “web of words” that the man of science has woven” 3 .

Domestic scientists (Yu.M. Lotman and his associates) placed the concept of a sign at the center of cultural studies; the idea of ​​culture as a primarily semiotic phenomenon was substantiated. “Any reality,” wrote Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Uspensky, referring to the French structuralist philosopher M. Foucault, - involved in the sphere of culture, begins to function as a symbolic<...>The very attitude towards sign And iconicity constitutes one of the main characteristics of culture" 4 .

Speaking about the sign process in the composition of human life ( semiotics), experts identify three aspects of sign systems: 1) syntactics(relationship of signs to each other); 2) semantics(the relationship of a sign to what it denotes: the signifier to the signified); 3) pragmatics(the relationship of signs to those who operate with them and perceive them).

Signs are classified in a certain way. They are combined into three large groups: 1) indexical sign (sign- index) indicates an object, but does not characterize it; it is based on the metonymic principle of contiguity (smoke as evidence of a fire, a skull as a warning of danger to life); 2) sign- symbol is conditional, here the signifier has neither similarity nor connection with the signified, such as words of natural language (except onomatopoeic) or components of mathematical formulas; 3) iconic signs reproduce certain qualities of the signified or its holistic appearance and, as a rule, are visual. In the series of iconic signs they differ, firstly, diagrams- schematic recreations of objectivity that is not entirely specific (graphic designation of industrial development or the evolution of fertility) and, secondly, images that adequately recreate the sensory properties of the designated single object (photographs, reports, as well as capturing the fruits of observation and fiction in works of art) 5 .

Thus, the concept of “sign” did not abolish traditional ideas about image and figurativeness, but placed these ideas in a new, very broad semantic context. The concept of a sign, vital in the science of language, is also significant for literary studies: firstly, in the field of studying the verbal fabric of works, and secondly, when referring to the forms of behavior of characters.

In images-tropes, one object is equated to another by association, the unknown is explained by the known, and the so-called “figurative” meaning is manifested.

There are different types of images and different ways their classifications. If we consider everything fantasized by a writer in a work of art as an image, then according to its objectivity we can build a series from the image-detail in such varieties as the image of paths, the image of landscape, the image of a thing, the image of a portrait, through the image of a plot, then the image of a character. , and to holistic images of fate and the world, the image of being.

According to their semantic generality, images can be divided into individual, characteristic and type images. Separately, we can distinguish the image-motive, image-topos and image-archetype, as well as the concept of chronotope. These are images that go beyond the boundaries of a single work; they can be repeated.

An image-motif is repeated in several works by one author or by many authors. (The image of a snowstorm and wind by Blok, rain and a garden by Pasternak.

Topos image (common place) - an image characteristic of an entire culture certain period, for the whole nation. (topos of the road, winter in Russian literature).

The archetype image is the most stable images that appear in the literatures of different peoples throughout the entire path of development.

Chronotope is a term proposed by D. Bakhtin. This is “a significant interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature”, otherwise called “time-space”.

In poetry, there is also the concept of a “lyrical hero” - a collective image behind the lyrical verses of a particular poet.

Artistic image

Typical image
Image-motive
Topos
Archetype.

Artistic image. The concept of artistic image. Functions and structure of the artistic image.

Artistic image– one of the main categories of aesthetics, which characterizes the way of displaying and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is also called any phenomenon creatively recreated by the author in a work of art.
An artistic image is one of the means of knowing and changing the world, a synthetic form of reflection and expression of the artist’s feelings, thoughts, aspirations, and aesthetic emotions.
Its main functions: cognitive, communicative, aesthetic, educational. Only in their totality do they reveal specific features image, each of them separately characterizes only one side of it; isolated consideration of individual functions not only impoverishes the idea of ​​the image, but also leads to the loss of its specificity as a special form public consciousness.
In the structure of an artistic image, the main role is played by the mechanisms of identification and transference.
The identification mechanism carries out the identification of the subject and the object, in which their individual properties, qualities, and characteristics are combined into one whole; Moreover, identification is only partial, extremely limited: it borrows only one feature or a limited number of features of the object person.
In the structure of the artistic image, identification appears in unity with another important mechanism of primary mental processes- transfer.
Transference is caused by the tendency of unconscious drives, in search of ways of satisfaction, to be directed by associative paths to ever new objects. Thanks to transference, one representation is replaced by another along the associative series and the objects of transference merge, creating the so-called in dreams and neuroses. thickening.

Conflict as the basis of the plot of the work. The concept of “motive” in Russian literary criticism.

The most important function of the plot is to reveal life’s contradictions, that is, conflicts (in Hegel’s terminology, collisions).

Conflict- a confrontation of contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within character, underlying the action. If we are dealing with a small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of one single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.

Conflict- the core around which everything revolves. The plot least of all resembles a continuous one, continuous line, connecting the beginning and end of an event series.

Stages of conflict development- basic plot elements:

Lyric-epic genres and their specificity.

Lyric-epic genres reveal connections within literature: from lyricism - theme, from epic - plot.

Combining an epic narrative with a lyrical beginning - a direct expression of the author’s experiences and thoughts

1. poem. – genre content can be either epic dominant or lyrical. (in this regard, the plot is either enhanced or reduced). In antiquity, and then in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Classicism, the poem, as a rule, was perceived and created synonymously with the epic genre. In other words, these were literary epics or epic (heroic) poems. The poem has no direct dependence on the method; it is equally represented in romanticism (“Mtsyri”), in realism (“The Bronze Horseman”), in symbolism (“12”)…

2. ballad. - (French “dance song”) and in this sense it is a specifically romantic poetic work with a plot. In the second meaning of the word, ballad is a folk genre; this genre characterizes the Anglo-Scottish culture of the 14th-16th centuries.

3. fable- one of the oldest genres. Poetics of the fable: 1) satirical orientation, 2) didacticism, 3) allegorical form, 4) peculiarity genre form yavl. Inclusion in the text (at the beginning or at the end) of a special short stanza - morality. A fable is connected with a parable; in addition, a fable is genetically connected with a fairy tale, an anecdote, and later a short story. rare fable talents: Aesop, Lafontaine, I.A. Krylov.

4. lyrical cycle is a unique genre phenomenon belonging to the field of lyric epic, each work of which was and remains a lyrical work. All together, these lyrical works create a “circle”: the unifying principle of the phenomenon. topic and lyrical hero. Cycles are created “at once” and there may be cycles that the author forms over many years.

Basic concepts of poetic language and their place in school curriculum on literature.

POETIC LANGUAGE, artistic speech, is the language of poetic (verse) and prose literary works, a system of means of artistic thinking and aesthetic development of reality.
Unlike ordinary (practical) language, whose main language is communicative function(see Functions of language), in P. i. the aesthetic (poetic) function dominates, the implementation of which focuses more attention on the linguistic representations themselves (phonic, rhythmic, structural, figurative-semantic, etc.), so that they become valuable means of expression. General imagery and artistic uniqueness of literature. works are perceived through the prism of P. I.
The distinction between ordinary (practical) and poetic languages, i.e. the actual communicative and poetic functions of language, was proposed in the first decades of the 20th century. representatives of OPOYAZ (see). P. I., in their opinion, differs from the usual one in the perceptibility of its construction: it draws attention to itself, in a certain sense slows down reading, destroying the usual automatism of text perception; the main thing in it is to “experience the making of a thing” (V.B. Shklovsky).
According to R. O. Yakobson, who is close to OPOYAZ in understanding P. Ya., poetry itself is nothing more than “as a statement with an attitude toward expression (...). Poetry is language in its aesthetic function."
P. I. is closely related, on the one hand, to literary language(see), which is its normative basis, and on the other hand, with the national language, from which it draws a variety of characterological language means, eg. dialectisms when conveying the speech of characters or to create local coloring of the depicted. The poetic word grows from the real word and in it, becoming motivated in the text and performing a certain artistic function. Therefore, any sign of language can, in principle, be aesthetic.

19. The concept of artistic method. The history of world literature as the history of changes in artistic methods.

The artistic method (creative) method is a set of the most general principles of the aesthetic development of reality, which is consistently repeated in the work of one or another group of writers who form a direction, trend or school.

O.I. Fedotov notes that “the concept of “creative method” differs little from the concept of “artistic method” that gave birth to it, although they tried to adapt it to express a larger meaning - as a way of studying social life or as the basic principles (styles) of entire movements.”

The concept of artistic method appeared in the 1920s, when critics of the Russian Association proletarian writers"(RAPP) borrow this category from philosophy, thereby seeking to theoretically substantiate the development of their literary movement and the depth of creative thinking of “proletarian” writers.

The artistic method has aesthetic nature, it represents historically determined general forms emotionally charged figurative thinking.

Objects of art are the aesthetic qualities of reality, that is, “the broad social significance of the phenomena of reality, drawn into social practice and bearing the stamp of essential forces” (Yu. Borev). The subject of art is understood as a historically changing phenomenon, and changes will depend on the nature of social practice and the development of reality itself. The artistic method is analogous to the object of art. Thus, historical changes in the artistic method, as well as the emergence of a new artistic method, can be explained not only through historical changes in the subject of art, but also through historical changes in the aesthetic qualities of reality. The object of art contains life basis artistic method. The artistic method is the result of a creative reflection of an object of art, which is perceived through the prism of the artist’s general philosophical and political worldview. “The method always appears to us only in its specific artistic embodiment- in the living matter of the image. This matter of the image arises as a result of the artist’s personal, intimate interaction with the concrete world around him, which determines the entire artistic and mental process necessary to create a work of art” (L.I. Timofeev)

The creative method is nothing more than a projection of imagery into a specific historical setting. Only in it does the figurative perception of life receive its concrete implementation, i.e. is transformed into a specific, organically emerged system of characters, conflicts, and storylines.

The artistic method is not an abstract principle of selection and generalization of the phenomena of reality, but a historically determined understanding of it in the light of those basic questions that life poses to art at each new stage of its development.

The diversity of artistic methods in the same era is explained by the role of worldview, which acts as an essential factor in the formation of an artistic method. In each period of the development of art, there is a simultaneous emergence of various artistic methods depending on the social situation, since the era will be considered and perceived by artists in different ways. The similarity of aesthetic positions determines the unity of the method of a number of writers, which is associated with the commonality of aesthetic ideals, similarity of characters, homogeneity of conflicts and plots, and manner of writing. For example, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok are associated with symbolism.

The artist's method is felt through style his works, i.e. through individual manifestation of the method. Since the method is a way of artistic thinking, the method represents the subjective side of the style, because This method of figurative thinking gives rise to certain ideological - artistic features art. The concept of method and the individual style of the writer are related to each other as the concept of genus and species.

Interaction method and style:

§ variety of styles within one creative method. This is confirmed by the fact that representatives of one or another method do not adhere to any one style;

§ stylistic unity is possible only within one method, since even the external similarity of the works of authors adjoining the same method does not provide grounds for classifying them as unified style;

§ reverse influence of style on method.

Full use of the stylistic techniques of artists who adhere to one method is incompatible with consistent adherence to the principles of the new method.

Along with the concept of the creative method, the concept also arises direction or type of creativity, which in a wide variety of forms and relationships will manifest themselves in any method that arises in the process of development of the history of literature, since they express the general properties of the figurative reflection of life. In their totality, the methods form literary movements (or directions: romanticism, realism, symbolism, etc.).

The method determines only the direction of the artist’s creative work, and not its individual properties. The artistic method interacts with the creative personality of the writer

The concept of “style” is not identical to the concept "creative individuality of the writer". The concept of “creative individuality” is broader than what is expressed by the narrow concept of “style”. A number of properties are manifested in the style of writers, which in their totality characterize the creative individuality of writers. The concrete and real result of these properties in literature is style. A writer develops his own individual style based on one or another artistic method. We can say that the creative individuality of the writer is a necessary condition further development every artistic method. We can talk about a new artistic method when new individual phenomena created by the creative individuals of writers become common and represent a new quality in their totality.

The artistic method and creative individuality of the writer are manifested in literature through the creation literary images, construction of motives.

Mythological school

The emergence of a mythological school at the turn of the 19th–19th centuries. The influence of the Brothers Grimm’s “German Mythology” on the formation of the mythological school.

Mythological school in Russian literary criticism: A.N. Afanasyev, F.I. Buslaev.

Traditions of the mythological school in the works of K. Nasyiri, Sh. Mardzhani, V.V. Radlov and others.

Biographical method

Theoretical and methodological foundations biographical method. The life and work of S.O. Saint-Beuve. Biographical method in Russian literary criticism of the 19th century. ( scientific activity N.A. Kotlyarevsky).

Transformation of the biographical method in the second half of the twentieth century: impressionistic criticism, essayism.

A biographical approach to studying the heritage of major literary artists (G. Tukay, S. Ramiev, Sh. Babich, etc.) in the works of Tatar scientists of the 20th century. Using a biographical approach in studying the works of M. Jalil, H. Tufan and others. Essays at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.

Psychological direction

Spiritual and historical school in Germany (W. Dilthey, W. Wundt), psychological school in France (G. Tarde, E. Hennequin). Reasons and conditions for the emergence of a psychological trend in Russian literary criticism. Concepts by A.A. Potebnya, D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky.

Psychological approach in Tatar literary criticism at the beginning of the twentieth century. Views of M. Marjani, J. Validi, G. Ibragimov, G. Gubaidullin, A. Mukhetdiniya and others. Work of G. Battala “Theory of Literature”.

The concept of psychological analysis of a literary work in the 1920s–30s. (L.S. Vygotsky). Research by K. Leonhard, Müller-Freinfels and others.

Psychoanalysis

Theoretical basis psychoanalytic criticism. Life and work of S. Freud. Psychoanalytic works of Freud. Psychoanalysis by C. G. Jung. Individual and collective unconscious. Archetype theory. Humanistic psychoanalysis by Erich Fromm. The concept of the social unconscious. Research by J. Lacan.

Psychoanalytic theories in Russia in the 20s. XX century (I.D. Ermakov). Psychoanalysis in modern literary criticism.

Sociology

The emergence of sociology. Difference between sociological and cultural-historical methods. Features of the application of the sociological method in Russian and Tatar literary criticism. Views of P.N. Sakulin. Works of G. Nigmati, F. Burnash.

Vulgar sociologism: genesis and essence (V.M. Friche, late works of V.F. Pereverzev). F.G. Galimullin about vulgar sociologism in Tatar literary criticism.

Sociologism as an element in literary concepts of the second half of the twentieth century (V.N. Voloshinov, G.A. Gukovsky).

The emergence of new concepts and trends that managed to overcome reductionism sociological approach. The life and work of M.M. Bakhtin, the concept of dialogue. An attempt to expand the capabilities of the sociological method in the works of M. Gainullin, G. Khalit, I. Nurullin.

Sociologism on a global scale: in Germany (B. Brecht, G. Lukács), in Italy (G. Volpe), in France, the desire for a synthesis of sociologism and structuralism (L. Goldman), sociologism and semasiology.

Formal school.

Scientific methodology formal school. Works of V. Shklovsky, B. Eikhenbaum, B. Tomashevsky. The concepts of “technique/material”, “motivation”, “defamiliarization”, etc. Formal school and literary methodologies of the 20th century.

The influence of the formal school on the views of Tatar literary scholars. Articles by H. Taktash, H. Tufan on versification. Works of H. Vali. T.N. Galiullin about formalism in Tatar literature and literary criticism.

Structuralism

The role of the Prague linguistic circle and the Geneva linguistic school in the formation of structuralism. Concepts of structure, function, element, level, opposition, etc. Views of J. Mukarzhovsky: structural dominant and norm.

Activities of the Parisian semiotic schools (early R. Barthes, C. Levi-Strauss, A. J. Greimas, C. Bremont, J. Genette, U. Todorov), the Belgian school of sociology of literature (L. Goldman and others).

Structuralism in Russia. Attempts to apply the structural method in studying Tatar folklore(works by M.S. Magdeev, M.Kh. Bakirov, A.G. Yakhin), in school analysis (A.G. Yakhin), in the study of the history of Tatar literature (D.F. Zagidullina and others).

Emergence narratology - theories of narrative texts within the framework of structuralism: P. Lubbock, N. Friedman, A.–J. Greimas, J. Genette, W. Schmid. Terminological apparatus of narratology.

B.S.Meilakh about complex method in literary criticism. Kazanskaya basic group Yu.G. Nigmatullina. Problems of forecasting the development of literature and art. Works of Yu.G. Nigmatullina.

A complex method in the research of Tatar literary scholars T.N. Galiullina, A.G. Akhmadullina, R.K. Ganieva and others.

Hermeneutics

The first information about the problem of interpretation in Ancient Greece and the East. Views of representatives of the German “spiritual-historical” school (F. Schleiermacher, W. Dilthey). Concept of H. G. Gadamer. The concept of the “hermeneutic circle”. Hermeneutical theory in modern Russian literary criticism (Yu. Borev, G.I. Bogin).

Artistic image. The concept of artistic image. Classification of artistic images according to the nature of their generality.

Artistic image- a method of mastering and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art, for example, the image of a warrior, the image of a people.).
By the nature of their generality, artistic images can be divided into individual, characteristic, typical, image-motifs, topoi and archetypes (mythologems).
Individual images are characterized by originality and uniqueness. They are usually the product of the writer's imagination. Individual images are most often found among romantics and science fiction writers. Such, for example, are Quasimodo in “Notre Dame Cathedral” by V. Hugo, the Demon in the poem of the same name by M. Lermontov, Woland in “The Master and Margarita” by A. Bulgakov.
Characteristic image, is generalizing. It contains common character traits and morals inherent in many people of a certain era and its public spheres(characters from “The Brothers Karamazov” by F. Dostoevsky, plays by A. Ostrovsky).
Typical image represents the highest level of characteristic image. Typical is exemplary, indicative of a certain era. The depiction of typical images was one of the achievements of realistic literature of the 19th century. It is enough to recall Father Goriot and Gobsek Balzac, Anna Sometimes both the socio-historical signs of an era and the universal character traits of a particular hero can be captured in an artistic image.
Image-motive- this is a steadily recurring theme in the work of any writer, expressed in various aspects by varying its most significant elements (“village Rus'” by S. Yesenin, “Beautiful Lady” by A. Blok).
Topos(Greek topos - place, locality) denotes general and typical images created in literature an entire era, nation, and not in the work of an individual author. An example would be the image “ little man"in the works of Russian writers - from Pushkin and Gogol to M. Zoshchenko and A. Platonov.
Archetype. This term was first found among German romantics in early XIX century, but true life in various fields knowledge was given to him by the work of the Swiss psychologist C. Jung (1875–1961). Jung understood an “archetype” as a universal human image, unconsciously passed on from generation to generation. Most often, archetypes are mythological images. The latter, according to Jung, are literally “stuffed” with all of humanity, and archetypes nest in the subconscious of a person, regardless of his nationality, education or tastes.

Beautiful language, imagery, accuracy, rhythm of prose, the ability to convey the language of different strata of society, the power of imagination, expressive picturesqueness, subtle psychologism - these are just some of the features of his work, rooted in Russian classics. His literary merits were highly appreciated: he was awarded

2 Pushkin Prizes Russian Academy Sciences (1903, 1909)

Bunin was elected honorary academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the category of fine literature (1909)

Was awarded the Pushkin Gold Medals (1911, 1915)

Already in exile, Bunin was the first of the Russian writers to receive Nobel Prize (1933)

Bunin wrote about 1200 poems

1900 story “Antonov Apples”

1910 story “Village”

1911 story “Sukhodol”

1916 story "Mr. from San Francisco"

1916 story “Easy Breathing”

article “Cursed days”

novel "The Life of Arsenyev"

book of stories "Dark Alleys"

1944 story " Clean Monday»

1925 story “Sunstroke”

The story "Mr. from San Francisco"(1916)

Walked First World War, there was a crisis of civilization. Bunin addressed current problems, but not directly related to Russia, to current Russian reality. In the spring of 1910, Bunin visited France, Algeria, and Capri. In December 1910-spring 1911 he was in Egypt and Ceylon. In the spring of 1912 he went to Capri again, and in the summer next year visited Trebizond, Constantinople, Bucharest and other European cities. From December 1913 he spent six months in Capri. Impressions from the travels were reflected in the stories and novellas that made up the collections “Sukhodol” (1912), “John the Weeper” (1913), “The Cup of Life” (1915), “The Master from San Francisco” (1916).

The story "Mr. from San Francisco" ( original title“Death on Capri”) continued the tradition of depicting life and death as the most important events that reveal the true value of an individual (“Polikushka”, “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”). (The immediate impetus for the idea was the title of the story German writer T. Mann "Death in Venice". Initially, the story had an epigraph: “Woe to you, Babylon, strong city!”, which Bunin removed only in the last edition of 1951 and which was taken from the Apocalypse) Along with the philosophical line in the story, social issues associated with a critical attitude towards the lack of spirituality of bourgeois society, towards the exaltation technical progress to the detriment of internal improvement. Bunin does not accept bourgeois civilization as a whole.

Pathos of the story- in the feeling of the inevitability of the death of this world.

Plot built on a description of an accident that unexpectedly interrupted the established life and plans of the hero, whose name “no one remembered” (He “went to the Old World for two whole years, with his wife and daughter, solely for the sake of entertainment”)

The beginning– disruption of the millionaire’s plans (fog, rain and terrible rolling), his dissatisfaction with the bad weather

Climax– death of the main character

Denouement– the master’s body is sent home.

Heroes ___________________________________________________________________________

1. In the first sentence of which story about his hero is it said “... no one remembered his name either in Naples or Capri...”?

2.Indicate the title of the story, the hero of which, after meeting his first love, asks himself the following questions: “But, my God, what would happen next? What if I hadn't left her? What nonsense? This same Nadezhda is not the owner of the inn, but my wife, the mistress of my St. Petersburg house, the mother of my children?

3.Which epic genre does Bunin’s work “Mr. from San Francisco” belong to?

4.What was the original title of the story “The Mister from San Francisco”?

5.Which work, according to the writer himself, became the direct impetus for the idea of ​​“The Gentleman from San Francisco”?

6. In the latest edition of “The Gentleman from San Francisco,” the author removed the significant epigraph: “Woe to you, Babylon, strong city.” He removed it, perhaps, because these words, referring to the punished city of vice and debauchery Babylon, too clearly expressed his attitude towards what was described. What did Bunin quote?

7.What was the name of the ship on which the hero of “The Gentleman from San Francisco” traveled?

8.Name the main character.

9.What is the symbol of the ship?

10.What is the symbolism of the name of the ship?

11.What is the meaning of the epigraph removed by Bunin?

12.Who watched “from the rocks of Gibraltar, from the stone gates of two worlds, the ship leaving into the night and blizzard”?

13. With whom does Bunin compare the captain of the ship on which the main character travels?

14.Which artistic device Bunin uses when describing the ship: “dining rooms and ballrooms halls her poured out light and joy , buzzed the talk of a smart crowd, smelled fragrant fresh flowers, sang string orchestra"?

15.Name a means of creating the image of the main character, based on a description of his appearance: “Dry, short, poorly cut, but tightly sewn, he sat in a golden-pearl radiance... There was something Mongolian in his yellowish face with a trimmed silver mustache, gold fillings glittering his large teeth, old ivory - a strong bald head..."

16. At the heart of the plot of “The Gentleman from San Francisco”, in addition to the general philosophical meaning, there is also a social aspect: “If you cut the ship vertically, you will see: we are sitting, drinking wine... and the drivers are in the heat, black from coal, working... Is this fair?” What is the model of what in the text is the ship on which the heroes of the work are sailing?

16. Death in “The Mister from San Francisco” is contrasted with life. “I cried while writing the end,” Bunin admitted in his diary. The author cried not out of pity for the main character, but from the feeling of the fullness of existence, which he shared with the mountaineers rejoicing in the sun. Who did the highlanders worship?

17.What term in literary criticism is used to describe an artistic image that contains a generalized polysemantic meaning (ocean, Atlantis steamship)?

18.What is the name of the description of nature in a work of art: “The ocean that walked behind the walls was terrible... The ocean roared like black mountains behind the wall, the blizzard whistled tightly in the heavy gear... and these mountains, like a plow, breaking apart their unsteady sides, then and the masses were boiling and soaring high with their foamy tails.”

19.What is the name of the compositional technique with which the writer contrasts the elements of nature and the fragility of the human world?

20.What is the name of the artistic technique of animating an inanimate object used by the author: “In the evenings, the floors of Atlantis gaped in the darkness with countless fiery eyes,” “... the gigantic furnaces cackled dully, devouring piles of coal with their red-hot jaws”?

21. What term denotes the means of allegorical expressiveness that the author refers to when describing the giant ship “Atlantis”: “... the floors... gaped with countless fiery eyes”?

22.What term in literary criticism is used to describe an artistic image that contains a generalized polysemantic meaning (the ocean, the steamship Atlantis, the silver mustache and gold fillings of the gentleman from San Francisco)?

23.Indicate the term used to describe the depiction of a character’s inner life, an analysis of the character’s personality traits.

Questions about the work “Clean Monday”

1. The conflict associated with the relationship between the hero and heroine determines the plot action of “Clean Monday”. Define this conflict.

2.What genre does “Clean Monday” belong to?

3. Indicate the term that in literary criticism is used to describe the setting of the action, the interior decoration of the premises (“We went into the second room, where in the corner, in front of the black board of the icon of the Mother of God of the Three-Handed, a lamp was burning, we sat down at a long table on a black leather sofa...”)

4.Name artistic medium, based on an image of a person’s appearance, his face, clothes, etc. (“The fluff on her outer lip was covered in frost, the amber of her cheeks turned slightly pink, the blackness of the rai completely merged with the pupil...”)

5. When describing the tavern where the heroes arrived, he uses figurative expression, built on the comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have common feature(“it was steamy, like in a bathhouse”). What is the name of this artistic technique?

6. Name the form of artistic speech - exchange of remarks between characters - that is used.

7. Describing the heroine’s contradictory feelings, Bunin contrasts objects and phenomena: “There are wild men below, and here are pancakes with champagne and the Mother of God of Three Hands...”. What is the name of this artistic technique?

C1.What is the difference? spiritual world hero and heroine and how did she determine their future fate?

C2.What are the similarities between “Clean Monday” and other works of Russian classics of the 19th and 20th centuries? about love? (When comparing, indicate works and authors)

Like in April at night in the alley

Like in April at night in the alley,

And the smoke is thinner than the upper branches,

And everything is easier, closer and more visible

The pale horizon behind him.

This top is in the constellations, in their patterns,

Smoky, airy and through,

These leaves rustle under your feet,

This sadness is the same as in spring.

Again the day before. And over the years

The heart doesn't count. I'm coming

With young, easy steps -

And again, again I’m waiting for something.

1.What literary movement did Bunin develop in his work?

2.What are they called in literary criticism? artistic definitions: « pale sky", " young, light Steps"?

3.Indicate the name of the means of expression: “boughs smoke.”

4. Determine the meter in which the poem is written.

5. Determine the nature of the rhyme in the poem.

A task with a detailed answer of limited scope

What does the fate of the gentleman from San Francisco symbolize and which other 20th century writer addressed the theme of “the well-fed”?

Composition

Why is the ship in the story "Mr. from San Francisco" called "Atlantis"?

In which of Bunin's works is naturalness opposed to artificiality?

How is the theme of life and death revealed in prose?

What is the role female images in Bunin's stories?

How is the problem of man and civilization solved in the story “The Mister from San Francisco”?

What role do symbolic images play in prose?

What is unique about the composition of the story “Mr. from San Francisco”?