National customs of the Yakuts. Economic foundations of life of the Yakuts

Living in harmony with nature, faith and oneself, honoring traditions, but not being afraid of change - all this is about the Yakuts, one of the most numerous northern peoples Russia.

The Yakuts (self-name Sakha or Sakhalar) as a people appeared as a result of the mixing of the Turks with the peoples who lived along the middle reaches of the Lena. It is believed that as ethnic community The Yakuts were formed by the XIV-XV centuries. However, even then the process was not completely completed: as a result of the nomadic lifestyle, these people were constantly moving, along the way infusing new blood into the nation, for example, Evenki.

The Yakuts belong to the North Asian type of the Mongoloid race. In many ways, their culture and traditions are similar to the customs of Central Asian Turkic peoples, but there are still some differences. The Yakut language is part of the Altai family and belongs to the Turkic dialects.

Patience, perseverance and high efficiency are the national traits of the Yakuts: despite the extremely harsh climate and difficult living conditions, the Sakha from time immemorial managed to graze cattle and plow frozen, thankless lands. The climate also had a great influence on the national costume: even at weddings, Yakut girls wear fur coats.

The main industries of the Yakuts include horse breeding, hunting and fishing. Nowadays, it is problematic to earn a living through such activities, so many Yakuts are involved in the mining industry, because their region is rich in diamonds.

Yakuts – traditionally nomadic people, so they use an easily disassembled yurt as a home.

But don’t rush to imagine a felt house similar to those built by the Mongols: the Yakut yurt is made of wood and has a steel roof, shaped like a cone.

The yurt has many windows, under each of which there are sleeping places. The loungers are separated by partitions that separate small “rooms” from each other; the heart of the yurt is a greased fireplace. In the hot season, short-lived birch bark yurts are built, which are called urasami. Not all Yakuts are comfortable in yurts, therefore, since the 20th century, many have preferred huts.

Traditional beliefs and holidays

Yakut beliefs are characterized by an appeal to nature as a mother, love and respect for it. At the same time, there is a certain “non-family” detachment in relations with the environment: nature is perceived as an otherworldly force that cannot be completely controlled. According to the Sakha, everything that exists has a soul and powers. And the rituals of the Yakuts are designed to improve relations between numerous spirits and humanity.

Sakha has his own, rather curious, explanation of the origin of natural disasters: they arise to cleanse the affected evil spirits places.

Thus, a tree split or burned by lightning is pure from any filth and can even heal.

The goddess Aan, the patroness of all living things, is of great importance, helping people, plants and animals to grow and reproduce. The ritual with offerings for Aan takes place in the spring.

One of the most important spirits in the Yakut tradition is the master of the road. They try to appease him with small offerings: horse hair, coins, pieces of fabric and buttons are placed at crossroads.

No less important is the owner of water, to whom it is customary to offer gifts twice a year: in autumn and spring. They consist of a birch bark boat with an image of a person carved on it, and pieces of fabric, ribbons, etc. tied to it. You should not drop knives, needles or other sharp objects into the water: this may offend and offend the owner of the water.

The owner of fire is old and gray-haired, his purpose is to expel evil spirits. Fire, as a symbol of light and warmth, has always been revered by the Sakhas. They were afraid to extinguish it and transferred it to a new place in pots, because while the flames were smoldering, the family and home were protected.

Baai Bayanai - the spirit of the forest - is an assistant in everything related to hunting. Even in ancient times, the Yakuts chose some animals as sacred, closest to Baai, and therefore put a taboo on killing and eating them. Such animals included the goose, swan, and ermine. The eagle was considered the king of birds. The main among animals and the most revered among the Yakuts was the bear. And in our time, many believe in the miraculous power of amulets made from his claws or teeth.

The roots of Yakut holidays go back to ancient rituals, among which Ysyakh, celebrated at the beginning of summer, is considered the most important. During the festival, a hitching post is made around young birch trees in the clearing. Nowadays, such an action is associated with the friendship of all peoples living on the territory of Yakutia, but previously it symbolized the World Tree. Ysyakh is a family day and is celebrated by people of all ages.

An important part of the holiday is sprinkling the fire with kumys, and then turning to the Deities with a request to send blessings such as good luck, peace, etc. Yakuts put on traditional costume, preparing National dishes, drink kumiss. During the meal, you must sit at the same table with the whole family, close or distant relatives. Ysyakh is a cheerful holiday with dancing, round dances, wrestling competitions, tug-of-war, and archery.

Family rituals and traditions

A modern Yakut family differs little from the average Russian one. But until the 19th century, polygamy was common among the Sakhas. According to the Yakut traditional family model, each of the wives lived separately, observing their own way of life, life, and household. Yakuts preferred to tie the knot at the age of 16-25. When the groom's family went to woo the bride's parents, it was customary to pay a bride price for the girl. If the groom is too poor, he could steal the bride and “work off” the money later.

To protect home and livestock from damage, the evil eye, and evil spirits, it is still accepted in some uluses whole line measures For a successful conspiracy, seemingly little things matter, such as patterns on clothes, “correct” jewelry, and special utensils. Conspiracies alone are not enough; special rituals are also necessary, with the help of which the Sakhas hope to get a good harvest, increase the number of livestock, give birth to healthy children, etc.

Old customs and traditions are of great importance. Women should not look at the magic stone Sat, which is found in the stomachs or livers of animals and birds, otherwise it will lose its power. Sat is wrapped in birch bark and horsehair and treasured like the apple of one’s eye, because with its help one can summon rain, wind, and snow. The first is especially important in case of dry weather, because soil fertility largely depends on timely watering.

Interesting facts about the Yakuts and Yakutia

The most famous component of Yakut folklore is the olonkho epic, which is considered a type of poetry, but sounds more like opera. Thanks to ancient art Olonkho, many Yakut folk tales have survived to this day. The contribution of olonkho to the folklore of the peoples of the world is so great that in 2005 it was included in the list cultural heritage UNESCO.

One of the popular Yakut dishes is stroganina: thinly sliced ​​frozen fish.

The area of ​​Yakutia is larger than the area of ​​Argentina.

About a quarter of the world's diamond production comes from Yakutia.

More than forty percent of the territory of Yakutia is located beyond the Arctic Circle.

When the Sakha eat bear meat, they imitate the cry of a crow before starting the meal. In this way they protect themselves from the bear spirit by posing as birds.

Yakut horses graze on their own, without a shepherd looking after them.

According to archaeological data, the Yakut nationality arose as a result of the union of local tribes living along the middle reaches of the Lena River with southern Turkic-speaking settlers. Over time, the new nationality created was divided into several groups. For example, reindeer herders of the northwest, etc.

Yakuts, description of the people

The Yakuts are considered one of the most numerous Siberian peoples. Their number reaches over 380 thousand people. Yakuts live in the Irkutsk, Khabarovsk and Krasnoyarsk regions, but mainly in the Sakha Republic. The Yakut language belongs to the Turkic dialects, part of the Altai family. The main occupations of the Yakuts are horse and cattle breeding, fishing and hunting. In modern times, the main wealth of the Yakuts is diamonds. The mining industry is very developed. The home of the Yakuts is yurts, which can be small and vice versa, different in height. Yurts are built from wood.

Who did the Yakuts worship since ancient times?

Among the Yakuts, reverence for nature still occupies an important place in their beliefs. All traditions and customs of the Yakuts are closely connected with it. They believe that nature is alive, and all earthly objects have their own spirits and inner strength. For a long time, the owner of the road was considered one of the main ones. Previously, they even made sacrificial offerings to him, leaving horse hair, scraps of cloth, buttons and copper coins at crossroads. Similar actions were performed for the owners of reservoirs, mountains, etc.

Thunder and lightning, in the view of the Yakuts, pursue evil spirits. If a tree splits during a thunderstorm, it is believed to have healing powers. The wind, in the view of the Yakuts, has four spirits who guard earthly peace. The Earth has a female deity - Aan. She monitors the growth and fertility of all living things (plants, animals, people). In the spring, special offerings are made for Aan.

Water has its own owner. Gifts are brought to him in the fall and spring in the form of a birch bark boat with an image of a person carved on it and pieces of cloth attached. Dropping sharp objects into water is considered a sin.

The owner of the fire is a gray-haired old man who drives out evil spirits. This element has always been treated with great respect. The fire was never extinguished and in former times it was carried with us in pots. It is believed that he is the patron of family and home.

The Yakuts call the spirit of the forest Baai Bayanai. He helps in fishing and hunting. In ancient times, it was chosen which could not be killed or eaten. For example, goose, swan, ermine and some others. The eagle was considered the head of all birds. The bear has always been the most revered among all groups of Yakuts. Its claws and other attributes are still used as amulets.

Holidays

Yakut holidays are closely connected with traditions and rituals. The most important one is Ysyakh. It takes place once a year and reflects the worldview and picture of the world. It is celebrated at the very beginning of summer. According to ancient traditions, a hitching post is installed in a clearing surrounded by young birch trees, which symbolizes the World Tree and the axes of the Universe. In modern times, she has also become the personification of the friendship of the peoples living in Yakutia. This holiday is considered a family holiday.

Ysyakh always begins with sprinkling kumiss on the fire and the four cardinal directions. Then follows a request to the Deities to send grace. Worn for celebration National clothes and getting ready traditional dishes and kumiss. The meal must take place at the same table with all relatives. Then they begin to dance in circles, sports competitions, wrestling, archery and tug-of-war are held.

Yakuts: families

Yakuts live in small families. Although polygamy was common until the 19th century. But they all lived separately, and each had their own household. Yakuts marry between the ages of 16 and 25. During matchmaking, the bride price is paid. If so, the bride can be kidnapped and then served in prison.

Rituals and traditions

The Yakut people have many traditions and rituals, the description of which could even lead to a separate book. They are often associated with magical actions. For example, to protect housing and livestock from evil spirits, the Yakuts use a number of conspiracies. Important components in this case are the ornament on clothes, jewelry and utensils. Rituals are also held for a good harvest, livestock offspring, birth of children, etc.

To this day, the Yakuts retain many traditions and customs. For example, the Sat stone is considered magical, and if a woman looks at it, it loses its power. It is found in the stomachs or livers of animals and birds. Once removed, it is wrapped in birch bark and wrapped in horsehair. It is believed that through certain spells, rain, wind or snow can be caused using Sat.

Many traditions and customs of the Yakuts have been preserved since ancient times. For example, they have But in modern times it has been replaced by ransom. Yakuts are very hospitable and love to exchange gifts. Maternity rites are associated with the goddess Aiyy-syt, who is considered the patroness of children.

Hitching posts

The Yakuts have a lot of different hitching posts. And this is no coincidence, since since ancient times they have been one of the main components of the culture of the people. Beliefs, many rituals, traditions and customs are associated with them. All hitching posts have different patterns, decorations, heights, and shapes.

There are three groups of such pillars in total. The first (outdoor) includes those installed near the home. Horses are tied to them. The second group includes pillars used for various religious rituals. And thirdly - hitching posts, which are installed on the main Yakut holiday Ysyakh.

Yakut yurts

Yakut settlements consist of several houses (yurts) located on long distance from each other. The Yakut dwelling is created from round standing logs. But only small trees are used in construction, since cutting down large ones is considered a sin. The doors are located on the east side, towards the sun. Inside the yurt there is a fireplace covered with clay. The home has many small windows. There are wide sun loungers along the walls different heights. At the entrance - the lowest. Only the owner of the yurt sleeps on the high one. The sun loungers are separated from each other by partitions.

To build a yurt, choose a low place, protected from the winds. In addition, the Yakuts are looking for a “happy place.” Therefore, they do not settle among the mighty trees, since they have already taken all the power of the earth. There are many more such moments, as in Chinese geomancy. When choosing a place to build a yurt, they turn to a shaman. Often yurts are built collapsible so that they can be transported during a nomadic lifestyle.

National clothes

Consists of a single-breasted caftan. Previously, for winter it was made of fur, and for summer - from the skin of a horse or cow. The caftan has 4 additional wedges and a wide belt. The sleeves are wide. Fur socks are also worn on the feet. In modern times, the Yakuts use fabric for sewing clothes. They began to wear shirts with collars, belted around them.

Wedding fur coats for women are sewn long, reaching to the heels. They widen towards the bottom. The sleeves and collar are decorated with brocade, red and green cloth, silver jewelry, braid. The hem is lined with sable fur. These wedding fur coats are passed down through generations. They wear it on their head instead of a veil fur hats with a high top made of black or red decorated cloth.

Folklore

When talking about the traditions and customs of the Yakuts, one cannot fail to mention their folklore. The main thing in it is the olonkho epic, which is considered a type of poetry, and when performed is similar to opera. This art has been preserved since ancient times. Olonkho includes many traditional tales. And in 2005, this art was recognized as a UNESCO heritage.

Poems ranging from 10 to 15 thousand lines in length are performed by folk storytellers. Not everyone can become one. Storytellers must have the gift of oratory, be able to improvise, and have acting talent. Speech should be of different tones. Larger olonkhos can be performed over seven nights. The largest and famous work consists of 36 thousand poetic lines.

YAKUTS (self-name - Sakha), people in Russian Federation(382 thousand people), indigenous people Yakutia (365 thousand people). The Yakut language is a Uyghur group of Turkic languages. Believers are Orthodox.

Language

They speak the Yakut language of the Turkic group Altai family languages. The dialects are united into the central, Vilyui, northwestern and Taimyr groups. 65% of Yakuts speak Russian.

Origin

The ethnogenesis of the Yakuts involved both local Tungus-speaking elements and Turkic-Mongolian tribes (Xiongnu, Tugu Turks, Kipchaks, Uyghurs, Khakass, Kurykans, Mongols, Buryats), who settled in Siberia in the 10th–13th centuries. and assimilated the local population. The ethnic group was finally formed by the 17th century. By the beginning of contacts with the Russians (1620s), the Yakuts lived in the Amga-Lena interfluve, on the Vilyue, at the mouth of the Olekma, in the upper reaches of the Yana. Traditional culture is most fully represented among the Amga-Lena and Vilyui Yakuts. The northern Yakuts are close in culture to the Evenks and Yukagirs, the Olekminsky are highly cultivated by the Russians.

Farm

Yakut hunters

The main traditional occupation of the Yakuts is horse breeding and cattle breeding. In Russian sources of the 17th century. The Yakuts are called “horse people”. Men looked after horses, women looked after cattle. Cattle were kept on pasture in the summer and in barns (khotons) in the winter. Haymaking was known even before the Russians arrived. Special breeds of cows and horses were developed that were adapted to harsh climates. conditions of the North. Local cattle were distinguished by their endurance and unpretentiousness, but were unproductive and were milked only in the summer. Cattle occupies a special place in the Yakut culture; special rituals are dedicated to it. There are known burials of Yakuts with a horse. Her image is given important role in the Yakut epic. The Northern Yakuts adopted reindeer husbandry from the Tungus peoples.

Hunting

Both meat hunting for large animals (elk, wild deer, bear, wild boar and others) and fur trade (fox, arctic fox, sable, squirrel, ermine, muskrat, marten, wolverine and others). Specific hunting techniques are characteristic: with a bull (the hunter sneaks up on the prey, hiding behind the bull, which he drives in front of him), horseback chasing the animal along the trail, sometimes with dogs. Hunting tools - bow and arrows, spear. They used abatis, fences, trapping pits, snares, traps, crossbows (aya), grazes (sohso); from the 17th century – firearms. Subsequently, due to the decrease in the number of animals, the importance of hunting fell.

Fishing

Fishing was of great importance: river (fishing for sturgeon, broad whitefish, muksun, nelma, whitefish, grayling, tugun and others) and lake (minnow, crucian carp, pike and others). Fish were caught with tops, muzzles (tuu), a net (ilim), a horsehair seine (baady), and beaten with a spear (atara). Fishing was carried out mainly in the summer. In the fall, they organized a collective seine with the division of the spoils between the participants. In winter we fished in the ice hole. For the Yakuts, who did not have livestock, fishing was the main economic activity: in documents XVII V. the term “balysyt” (“fisherman”) was used in the meaning of “poor man.” Some tribes also specialized in fishing - the so-called “foot” Yakuts - Osekui, Ontul, Kokui, Kirikians, Kyrgydais, Orgots and others.

Gathering and farming

There was gathering: harvesting pine and deciduous sapwood, collecting roots (saran, mint and others), greens (wild onions, horseradish, sorrel), and, to a lesser extent, berries (raspberries were not consumed, they were considered unclean). Agriculture was borrowed from the Russians at the end of the 17th century. Before mid-19th V. it was poorly developed. The spread of agriculture (especially in the Amginsky and Olekminsky environs) was facilitated by Russian exiled settlers. They cultivated special varieties of wheat, rye, and barley, which managed to ripen during the short and hot summer, and grew garden crops.

Over the years Soviet power The Yakuts formed new sectors of the economy: caged fur farming, small-scale livestock farming, and poultry farming. They moved mainly on horseback, and carried loads in packs.

Life

There were known skis lined with horse camus, sleighs (silis syarga) with runners made of wood with rhizomes that had a natural curvature; later - sleighs of the Russian wood-burning type, which were usually harnessed to oxen; among the northern Yakuts - straight-hoofed reindeer sledges. Water transport: raft (aal), dugout boats (onocho), shuttle (tyy), birch bark boat (tuos tyy), others. The Yakuts calculated time according to the lunisolar calendar. The year (year) was divided into 12 months of 30 days each: January - Tokhsunnu (ninth), February - Olunnu (tenth), March - Kulun Tutar (month of feeding foals), April - Muus Ustar (month of ice drift), May - Yam yya (month of cow milking), June - bes yya (month of harvesting pine sapwood), July - from yya (month of haymaking), August - atyrdyakh yya (month of hay baling), September - booth yya (month of migration from summer roads to winter roads), October – Altynnyi (sixth), November – Setinnyi (seventh), December – Ahsynnyi (eighth). New Year came in May. Vedali folk calendar weather forecasters (dylylyty).

Craft

Among the traditional crafts of the Yakuts are blacksmithing, jewelry making, processing of wood, birch bark, bone, leather, fur, and, unlike other peoples of Siberia, molded ceramics. They made dishes from leather, wove from horsehair, twisted cords, and used it for embroidery. Yakut blacksmiths (timir uuga) smelted iron in cheese furnaces. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. forged products from purchased iron. Blacksmithing also had commercial value. Yakut jewelers (kemus uuga) made women's jewelry, horse harness, dishes, religious objects and others from gold, silver (partially melting down Russian coins) and copper; they knew how to mint and blacken silver. Artistic wood carving (ornaments of serge hitching posts, choron koumiss cups, and others), embroidery, appliqué, horsehair weaving, and others were developed. In the 19th century Carving on mammoth bone became widespread. The ornamentation is dominated by curls, palmettes, and meanders. The two-horned motif on saddle cloths is characteristic.

Housing

Yakut

The Yakuts had several seasonal settlements: winter (kystyk), summer (sayylyk) and autumn (otor). Winter settlements were located near meadows and consisted of 1–3 yurts, summer settlements (up to 10 yurts) were located near pastures. The winter dwelling (booth kypynny diee), where they lived from September to April, had sloping walls made of thin logs on a log frame and a low gable roof. The walls were coated with clay and manure, the roof was covered with bark and earth on top of the log flooring. Since the 18th century Polygonal log yurts with a pyramidal roof are also common. The entrance (aan) was made in the eastern wall, the windows (tyunyuk) were in the southern and western walls, and the roof was oriented from north to south. In the north-eastern corner, to the right of the entrance, a fireplace of the chuval type (opoh) was built, plank bunks (oron) were built along the walls, and the bunk running from the middle of the southern wall to the western corner was considered honorable. Together with the part of the western bunk adjacent to it, it formed an honorable corner. Further north was the owner's place. The bunks to the left of the entrance were intended for young men and workers, and to the right, by the fireplace, for women. A table (ostuol) and stools were placed in the front corner, and there were chests and drawers from other furnishings. On the northern side of the yurt, a barn (hoton) of the same design was attached. The entrance to it from the yurt was behind the fireplace. A canopy or canopy (kyuyule) was built in front of the entrance to the yurt. The yurt was surrounded by a low embankment, often with a fence. A hitching post was placed near the house, often decorated with rich carvings. From 2nd half of the XVIII V. Russian huts with a stove became common among the Yakuts as a winter home. The summer dwelling (uraga sayyngy diye), in which they lived from May to August, was a birch bark-covered cylindrical structure made of poles (on a frame of four poles fastened at the top with a square frame). In the North, frame buildings covered with turf (holuman) were known. The villages had outbuildings and structures: barns (ampaar), glaciers (buluus), cellars for storing dairy products (tar iine), smoking dugouts, mills. At a distance from the summer dwelling, they set up a barn for calves (titik), built sheds, and more.

Cloth

The national clothing of the Yakuts consists of a single-breasted caftan (son), in winter - fur, in summer - from cow or horse skin with the hair inside, for the rich - from fabric, it was sewn from 4 wedges with additional wedges at the waist and wide sleeves gathered at the shoulders; short leather pants (syaya), leather leggings (sotoro), fur socks (keenche). Later, fabric shirts with a turn-down collar (yrbakhy) appeared. Men wore a simple belt, the rich wore silver and copper plaques. Women's wedding fur coats (sangiyakh) - toe-length, widening at the bottom, with a yoke, with sewn-in sleeves with small puffs and a fur shawl collar. The sides, hem and sleeves were bordered by wide stripes of red and green cloth and braid. Fur coats were richly decorated with silver jewelry, beads, and fringe. They were valued very dearly and were passed down by inheritance, mainly in Toyon families. Women's wedding headdress (diabakka) was made from sable or beaver fur. It looked like a cap going down to the shoulders, with a high top made of red or black cloth, velvet or brocade, densely trimmed with beads, braid, plaques, and certainly with a large silver heart-shaped plaque (tuosakhta) above the forehead. The most ancient dabakka are decorated with a plume of bird feathers. Women's clothing was complemented by a belt (kur), breast (ilin kebikher), back (kelin kebikher), neck (mooi simege) decorations, earrings (ytarga), bracelets (begekh), braids (sukhuekh simege), rings (bihileh) made from silver, often gold, with engraving. Shoes - winter high boots made of deer or horse skins with fur on the outside (eterbes), summer boots made of suede (saara) with tops covered with cloth, for women - with appliqué.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Traditional culture of the peoples of Yakutia.

1.1. culture of the peoples of Yakutia in the XVII-XVIII centuries. and the spread of Christianity……………………………………………………2

1.2. Yakuts………………………………………………………………………………4

Chapter 2. Beliefs, culture, life .

2.1. Beliefs…………………………………………………………………………………12

2.2. Holidays………………………………………………………………………………17

2.3. Ornaments……………………………………………………………...18

2.4. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..19

2.5. Used literature……………………………………………………………...20

Traditional culture of the peoples of Yakutia in XVII - XVIII bb

IN traditional culture peoples of Yakutia until the end of the 18th century. no significant changes occurred. Taking this into account, this section provides a general description of the culture of the indigenous peoples of the region in the 17th – 18th centuries.

The peoples of the entire Lena region are beginning to change their way of life and type of activity, there is a change in language and traditional culture. The main event in this change was the collection of yasak. Most of The indigenous population are moving away from their main occupations and moving on to fur hunting. The Yukaghirs, Evens and Evenks switch to fur farming, abandoning reindeer husbandry. By the middle of the 17th century, the Yakuts began to pay Yasak, and by the 80s. In the same century, the Evens, Evenks and Yukaghirs began to pay yasak, the Chukchi began to pay taxes by the middle of the 18th century.

There is a change in everyday life, houses of the Russian type (izba) appear, the premises for livestock become a separate building, buildings of economic importance appear (barns, storage rooms, bathhouses), the clothing of the Yakuts changes, which is made from Russian or foreign cloth.

Spread of Christianity.

Before the adoption of Christianity, the Yakuts were pagans, they believed in spirits and the presence of different worlds.

With the advent of the Russians, the Yakuts began to gradually convert to Christianity. The first to convert to the Orthodox faith were women marrying Russians. Men who accepted the new religion received a gift of a rich caftan and were freed from tribute for several years.

In Yakutia, with the adoption of Christianity, the customs and morals of the Yakuts change, such concepts as blood feud disappear, and family relations weaken. Yakuts are given first and last names, and literacy is spreading. Churches and monasteries became centers of education and book printing.

Only in the 19th century. Church books appear in the Yakut language and the first Yakut priests appear. The persecution of shamans and persecution of supporters of shamanism begins. Shamans who did not convert to Christianity were exiled away.

Yakuts.

The main occupation of the Yakuts was breeding horses and cattle; in the northern regions they practiced reindeer herding. Cattle breeders made seasonal migrations and stored hay for their livestock for the winter. Fishing and hunting remained of great importance. In general, a very unique specific economy was created - settled cattle breeding. Horse breeding occupied a large place in it. The developed cult of the horse and the Turkic terminology of horse breeding indicate that horses were introduced by the southern ancestors of the Sakhas. In addition, studies conducted by I.P. Guryev, showed the high genetic similarity of Yakut horses with steppe horses - with the Mongolian and Akhal-Teke breeds, with the Kazakh horse of the Jabe type, partly with the Kyrgyz and, what is especially interesting, with Japanese horses from the island of Cherchzhu.

During the period of development of the Middle Lena basin by the South Siberian ancestors of the Yakuts, there was a particularly large economic importance there were horses that had the ability to “go dark”, rake snow with their hooves, break the crust of ice with them, and feed themselves. Cattle are not suitable for long-distance migrations and usually appear during the period of semi-sedentary (pastoral) farming. As you know, the Yakuts did not roam, but moved from the winter road to the summer road. The Yakut dwelling, turuorbakh die, a wooden stationary yurt, also corresponded to this.

By written sources XVII-XVIII centuries It is known that the Yakuts lived in yurts “covered with earth” in winter, and in birch bark yurts in summer.

An interesting description was compiled by the Japanese who visited Yakutia at the end of the 18th century: “A large hole was made in the middle of the ceiling, on which a thick ice board was placed, thanks to which it was very light inside the Yakut house.”

Yakut settlements usually consisted of several dwellings, located one from another at a considerable distance. Wooden yurts existed almost unchanged until the middle of the 20th century. “For me, the inside of the Yakut yurt,” wrote V.L. Seroshevsky in his book “Yakuts,” “especially at night, illuminated by the red flame of the fire, made a slightly fantastic impression... Its sides, made of round standing logs, seem striped from the shaded "

The doors of Yakut yurts were located on the eastern side, towards the rising sun. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the fireplaces (kemuluek ohoh) were not broken with clay, but smeared with it, and were lubricated all the time. Khotons were separated only by a low pole partition. Dwellings were built from small trees, because they considered it a sin to cut down a thick tree. The yurt had an odd number of windows. The sunbeds running along the southern and western walls of the dwelling were wide and lay across. They had different heights. The lowest oron was placed on the right side, next to the entrance (uηa oron), and the higher one was the host’s, “so that the happiness of the owner would not be lower than the happiness of the guest.” The orons on the western side were separated from each other by solid partitions, and in front they were climbed upright with racks, leaving only an opening for a small door, and were locked from the inside at night. The partitions between the orons on the southern side were not continuous. During the day they sat on them and called them oron oloh “sitting”. In this regard, the first eastern bunk on the southern side of the yurt was called in the old days keηul oloh “free sitting”, the second - orto oloh, “middle seat”, the third bunk at the same southern wall - tuspetiyer oloh or uluutuyar oloh, “steady seat”; first oron on west side yurts were called kegul oloh, “sacred seat”, the second oron was called darkhan oloh, “seat of honor”, ​​the third on the north side near the western wall was kencheeri oloh “children’s seat”. And the bunks on the northern side of the yurt were called kuerel oloh, beds for servants or “pupils”.

For winter housing, they chose a lower, inconspicuous place, somewhere at the bottom of the alas (elani) or near the edge of the forest, where it was better protected from cold winds. The northern and western winds were considered to be such, so the yurt was placed in the northern or western part of the clearing.

In general, it should be noted that when choosing a place to live, they tried to find a secluded happy corner. They did not settle among the old mighty trees, for the latter had already taken the happiness and strength of the earth. As in Chinese geomancy, the choice of place to live was given exceptional importance. Therefore, pastoralists in these cases often turned to the help of a shaman. They also turned to fortune telling, for example, fortune telling with a kumiss spoon.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. large patriarchal families (kergen as a Roman "surname") were housed in several houses: urun die, " White House“the owners occupied them, married sons lived in the next ones, and servants and slaves lived in the hara die “black, thin house.”

So big in the summer rich family lived in a stationary (not collapsible) birch bark shelter of a cone shape. It was very expensive and had significant dimensions. Back in the 18th century. Most of the summer homes of wealthy families consisted of such birch bark yurts. They were called "Us kurduulaakh mogol urasa" (with three belts, large Mongolian urasa).

Uras with smaller diameters were also common. Thus, a medium-sized urasa was called dalla urasa, low and wide in shape; Khanas urasa, high urasa, but small in diameter. Among them, the largest was 10 m in height and 8 m in diameter.

In the 17th century The Yakuts were a post-tribal people, i.e. a nationality defined in the conditions of an early class society on the basis of the existing remnants of the tribal organization and without a formed state. In socio-economic terms, it developed on the basis of patriarchal-feudal relations. Yakut society consisted, on the one hand, of a small nobility and economically independent ordinary members of the community, and on the other, of patriarchal slaves and bonded people.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. There were two forms of family - a small monogamous family, consisting of parents and mostly minor children, and a large patriarchal family, an association of consanguineous families headed by a patriarch-father. At the same time, the first type of family prevailed. S.A. Tokarev found the presence of a large family exclusively in Toyon farms. It consisted, in addition to the toyon himself, of his brothers, sons, nephews, fosterlings, serfs (slaves) with their wives and children. Such a family was called aga-kergen, and the word aga in literal translation"senior in age" In this regard, aga-uusa, a patriarchal clan, could originally designate a large patriarchal family.

Patriarchal relations predetermined marriage with the payment of dowry (sulu) as the main condition for marriage. But marriage with bride exchange was rarely practiced. There was a custom of levirate, according to which, after the death of the elder brother, his wife and children passed into the family of the younger brother.

At the time under study, Sakha Dyono had a neighboring form of community, which usually arises in the era of the decomposition of the primitive system. It was a union of families based on the principle of territorial-neighborhood ties, partly with joint ownership of the means of production (pastures, hayfields, and fishing grounds). S.V. Bakhrushin and S.A. Tokarev noted that hay cuttings among the Yakuts in the 17th century. were rented, inherited, sold. It was a private property and part of the fishing grounds. Several rural communities made up the so-called. "volost", which had a relatively constant number of farms. In 1640, judging by Russian documents, 35 Yakut volosts were established. S.A. Tokarev defined these volosts as tribal groups, and A. A. Borisov proposed to consider the early Yakut ulus as a territorial association consisting of clans or as an ethno-geographical province. The largest of them were Bologurskaya, Meginskaya, Namskaya, Borogonskaya, Betyunskaya, which numbered from 500 to 900 adult men. The total population in each of them ranged from 2 to 5 thousand people. But among them there were also those where the total population did not exceed 100 people.

The underdevelopment and incompleteness of the Yakut community were dictated by the specifics of the farm type of farms settled over a vast territory. The absence of community government bodies was compensated by the presence of postnatal institutions. These were the patriarchal clan -aga-uusa "father's clan". Within its framework, the unification of families took place along the line of the patriarch father, the founder of the clan. Within the 17th century. existed small form aga-uusa, consisting of fraternal families up to the 9th generation. In subsequent times, a large segmented form of patriarchal gens prevailed.

The Aga-Uusa consisted not only of individual monogamous (small) families, but also of families based on polygamy (polygamy). A wealthy cattle breeder maintained his large farm on two to four separate alas-elans. Thus, the farm was scattered over several alas, where the cattle were kept by individual wives and servants. And because of this, descendants from one father, but from different wives (sub-households), subsequently branched out, forming a category of related families called ie-uusa “mother’s clan”. Before the segmentation of a single paternal household, this is a polygamous family with a filiation (daughter) structure. Subsequently, the sons started their own families and formed separate lines of maternal filiation from one father-ancestor. Therefore, many Aga-Uusa in the 18th centuries. consisted of a combination of individual ie-uusa. Thus, Ie-uusa was not a relic of matriarchy, but was a product of a developed patriarchal society with elements of feudalism.

Structurally, the Yakut rural community consisted of incomplete poor and rich Bai and Toyon aristocratic families.

The prosperous layer of Yakut society in Russian documents of the 17th century. was designated by the term "best people". The bulk of the direct producers constituted the category of “ulus peasants.” The most exploited stratum of community members were people living “next to”, “near” the Toyon and Bai farms. In a position of varying degrees of patriarchal dependence on the Toyons were the “zarebetniki” and “nursemen”.

Slaves were mainly supplied by the Yakut environment itself. But a small part of them were Tungus and Lamut. The ranks of slaves were replenished by military conquest, the enslavement of dependent community members, self-enslavement due to poverty, and the surrender of slaves in the form of capitulation to a place of blood feud. They formed part of the direct producers on the farms of wealthy families and toyons. For example, according to V.N. Ivanov, who specifically dealt with this problem, the Nama prince Bukey Nikin in 1697 mentioned 28 slaves for whom he paid yasak. Toyon of the Boturussky volost Molton Ocheev left behind 21 serfs, which were divided among his heirs.

In the 17th century the process of class formation accelerated due to the introduction of the yasak regime, but was never completed by the end of the time under study. One of the reasons for a certain stagnation of the social organization of Yakut society was its economic basis - unproductive natural resources. Agriculture, which could not ensure rapid population growth. And the development of socio-economic relations largely depended on the level of population density.

In the 17th century Each ulus (“volost”) had its own recognized leaders. These were among the Borogonians - Loguy Toyon (in Russian documents - Loguy Amykaev), among the Malzhegarians - Sokhkhor Duurai (Durei Ichikaev), among the Boturusians - Kurekay, among the Meginians - Borukhay (Toyon Burukhay), etc.

In general, in the 17th century. (especially in the first half) the Yakut population consisted of an association of neighboring communities. In its own way social essence they apparently represented transitional form rural community from primitive to class, but with an amorphous management structure. With all this, in social relations there were elements, on the one hand, of the era of military democracy (Kyrgys uyete - centuries of wars or Tygyn uyete - the era of Tygyn), on the other - feudalism. The administrative term “ulus” was apparently introduced into Yakut reality by the Russian authorities. It is first found in the yasak book of I. Galkin from 1631/32, then after the 1630s. the term fell out of use, replaced by the word “volost”. It resurfaced in the 1720s. Thus, in the 17th century. large uluses apparently consisted of conditionally united rural communities, which included patriarchal clans (patronymy - clans).

The question of the Yakut system of kinship and properties has not been clearly and independently subjected to detailed research in comparison with the terminology of kinship. In general, it is generally accepted that kinship terminology belongs to the most archaic layers of vocabulary of any language. Therefore, among many peoples there is a discrepancy between the system of kinship relations preserved from ancient times, the terminology of kinship and existing form families. This phenomenon is also inherent in the Turkic peoples, especially the Yakuts. This can be seen from the following terms of Yakut kinship by blood and marriage.

Beliefs .

In accordance with the ideas of the Sakha of that time, the Universe consists of three worlds: Upper, Middle, Lower. The upper world is divided into several (up to nine) tiers. The sky is round, convex, its edges along the circumference touch and rub with the edges of the earth, which are curved upward, like Tunguska skis; When they rub, they make noise and grinding noises.

The upper world is inhabited by good spirits - aiyy, who patronize people on earth. Their patriarchal way of life reflects the earthly way of life. Aiys live in heaven on different tiers. The topmost one is occupied by Yuryung Aiyy Toyon (White Creator), the creator of the universe. This supreme deity was apparently a personification of the sun. Other spirits live on the next tiers of the sky: Dyylga Khaan - the identity of fate, who was sometimes called Chyngys Khaan - the name of the half-forgotten deity of time, fate, winter cold; Sjunke haan Xuge is the deity of thunder. According to Yakut beliefs, he cleanses the sky of evil spirits. Ayyhyt, the goddess of childbirth and the patroness of women in childbirth, Ieyehsit, the patroness of people and animals, and other deities also live here.

Cattle breeding, the main type of economic activity of the Sakhas, also influenced the images of the good Ayys who patronize horse breeding and cattle breeding. The givers and patrons of horses Kieng Kieli-Baaly Toyon and Dyehegey live in the fourth heaven. Diehegey appears in the form of a loudly neighing light stallion. The giver and patroness of cattle, Ynakhsyt-Khotun, lives under the eastern sky on earth.

Inter-tribal wars are reflected in the images of the warlike demigods-half-demons Uluu Toyon and the gods of war, murder and bloodshed - Ilbis kyyha and Ohol uola. Uluu Toyon is depicted in the epic as the supreme judge and creator of fire, the souls of people and shamans.

Middle world Yakut mythology is a land that seems flat and round, but rugged high mountains and cut by high-water rivers. A poetic evocation of the everlasting vegetation on earth is the huge sacred tree Aal Luuk Mas. In one olonkho such a tree is located on the land of every hero-ancestor. The middle world is inhabited by people: Sakha, Tungus and other peoples.

Beneath the Middle World is the Nether World. It is a dark country with a damaged sun and moon, gloomy skies, swampy terrain, thorny trees and grass. The lower world is inhabited by one-eyed and one-armed evil creatures abaasy. When the Abaas sneak into the Middle World, they do a lot of harm to people, and the fight against them is the main plot of Olonkho.

Many mythological animals were highly revered; in some Olonkho you can hear about a fantastic two- or three-headed bird, yoksyokyus, with iron feathers and fiery breath; Bogatyrs often turn into such birds and overcome enormous distances in this form. Of the real animals, the eagle and the bear were especially revered. Once upon a time, people worshiped a god named Kiis

Tangara (Sable God), who, unfortunately, is now forgotten. One researcher notes the totemistic ideas of the Sakha at the beginning of the 18th century: “Each clan has and keeps as sacred a special creature, such as a swan, goose, raven, etc., and that animal that the clan considers sacred, it does not eat, but others they can eat it."

The content of olonkho, as well as the content of ritual songs that accompanied every significant event in the economic, social and family life of the Yakuts, is associated with mythological ideas, which reflected both the peculiar features of the life and social system of the Yakuts, and some features common to the mythology of the Turkic And Mongolian peoples who stood at a similar stage of social development. Some legends and stories reflect real historical events, indicating the place and time of action real people. There were legends and traditions about the first ancestors Elley and Omogoy, who arrived from the south to the middle Lena; stories about the tribes of the North, about the relationship between the Yakuts and the Tungus before and after the arrival

Russian move.

In other cases, contemporaries and participants in the events talked about inter-tribal wars, about the warlike Kangalas ancestor Tygyn and the brave Borogon strongman Bert Khara, about the Baturus ancestor Omoloon, the Borogon Legey, the Tattin Keerekeen, the Bayagantays, the Meginians, etc. People of that time should have been interested in legends and stories about distant outskirts, about the abundance of animals and game there, about the wide expanses suitable for horse breeding and cattle breeding in those parts. The descendants of the first inhabitants of the outskirts composed legends about their ancestors who migrated from central Yakutia.

Around the same time, a legend arose about the arrival of Russian Cossacks and the founding of the city of Yakutsk. They say that one day two fair-haired and blue-eyed people arrived in the lands of Tygyn. Tygyn made them workers. After a few years they disappeared. People saw them sailing on a boat up the Lena. Three years later, many people similar to those who ran away from Tygyn arrived on large rafts. The arrivals asked Tygyn for land the size of one oxhide. Having received permission, they cut the skin into thin threads and traced a large area, stretching the thread over pegs. An entire fortress was soon built on this site. Tygyn realized that he had made a mistake; he wanted to destroy the fortress together with his son Challaai, but he could not do it. This is how Yakutsk was founded. The Yakuts tried to attack the fortress, but to no avail. After this they submitted to the Russian Tsar.

Olonkho verse is alliterative. The size of the verse is free, the number of syllables in a line ranges from 6-7 to 18. The style and figurative system are close to the epic of the Altaians, Khakassians, Tuvinians, and Buryat Uligers. Olonkho is widely used among the Yakut people; the names and images of their favorite heroes have become household names.

For science, the Yakut olonkho was discovered by academician A.F. Middendorf during his trip to Siberia in 1844. Awakened in the middle of the night by loud singing from a nearby Yakut hut, he immediately noted that this singing was very different from what he had heard before, for example, from shamanic rituals. At the same time, the first recording of the Yakut olonkho (“Eriedel Bergen”) was made. It was Middendorf who conveyed the results of his observations to the Sanskritologist O.N. Bertling, who needed a little-studied non-Indo-European language to test his linguistic concept. This is how another record of the Yakut olonkho (Er Sogotokh) appeared, recorded from Bertling’s informant V.Ya. Uvarovsky.

In the second half of the 19th century, professional folklorists, political exiles I.A. began to record the olonkho. Khudyakov and E.K. Pekarsky, the latter began to involve the Yakut intelligentsia in the work.

This is how the monumental “Samples of Yakut Folk Literature” appeared in three volumes (1907-1918), where, among other things, 10 olonkhos were published in full. After the revolution, recording olonkho was carried out almost exclusively by Yakut scientists, first by figures of the Sakha Keskile (Yakut Revival) society, and since 1935 by employees of the Institute of Language and Culture at the Council of People's Commissars of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The peak of interest in Olonkho occurred in the early 1940s, when the idea appeared that it was possible to create a consolidated text

Yakut epic.

As a result, more than 200 independent plots were recorded. In the same era, the Yakut Lenrot appeared - Platon Alekseevich Oyunsky (1893–1939), who created a consolidated version of the olonkho about Nyurgun Bootur - “Nyurgun Bootur the Swift”.

Very big place in Everyday life Sakha was occupied by the cult of fire - Wat ichchite (spirit of sacred fire). In the minds of the people, he had a heavenly origin and was considered the son of Yuryung Ayyy toyon, the sun deity. The hearth where fire once descended from heaven is the sanctuary. People's prayers and sacrifices to deities were carried out through fire.

The universe “with eight fiery rays of light” was associated with the image of a beautiful powerful stallion, “aygyr silik”. The cultivated image of the horse is clearly manifested in its connection not only with the sky (sky-horse), but also with the sun: the first horse was lowered to earth by Yuryung Ayyy toyon himself.

In the religious views of the Yakuts, one of the main places was occupied by ideas about the soul. It consisted of three elements - salgyn kut (air-soul), ie-kut (mother-soul), buor kut (earth-soul). Sur, the spirit of man, his mental structure in these ideas, occupied a significant place. At the birth of a child, these souls and sur were united by the goddess Ayysyt. According to the same ideas, ie-kut lives near the heart (has White color), buor kut is located in human ears (has a brown color). And salgyn kut is colorless.

Holidays .

The main holiday is the spring-summer koumiss festival (Ysyakh), accompanied by libations of koumiss from large wooden cups (choroon), games, sports competitions, etc. Shamanism was developed. Shaman's drums(Dunpor) are close to the Evenki. Traditional musical instruments– Jew’s harp (khomus), violin (kyryimpa), drums. The most common dances are the round dance - osuokhai, play dances and etc.

Folklore. In folklore, the heroic epic (olonkho) was developed, performed in recitative by special storytellers (olonkhosut) in front of a large crowd of people; historical legends, fairy tales, especially tales about animals, proverbs, songs. Olonkho consists of many tales that are close in plot and style; their volume varies - 10-15, and sometimes more than thousands of poetic lines, interspersed with rhythmic prose and prose inserts.

Olonkho legends, which arose in ancient times, reflect the features of the patriarchal clan system, inter-tribal and inter-tribal relations of the Yakuts. Each legend is usually called by the name of the main hero-hero: “Nyurgun Bootur”, “Kulun Kullustuur”, etc.

The plots are based on the struggle of heroes from the Ayyy Aimaga tribe with the evil one-armed or one-legged monsters Abaasy or Adyarai, the defense of justice and peaceful life. Olonkho is characterized by fantasy and hyperbole in the depiction of heroes, combined with realistic descriptions of everyday life, and numerous myths of ancient origin.

Ornaments.

Yakut folk art is a significant phenomenon in the culture of the peoples of Siberia. Its originality in various forms of existence is generally recognized. Ornament is the basis of decorative and applied art of any people, therefore Yakut folk art appears to us primarily as ornamental. The Yakut ornament, associated with the way of life and the traditional way of life of the people, is an integral part of its material and spiritual culture. It plays a significant role in both everyday and ritual settings. The study of the process of formation and development of the Yakut ornament, the problems of its classification is facilitated by the analysis of the works of Yakut folk craftsmen XIX century.

The problem of classification of ornament is as ambiguous and debatable as the question of determining the boundaries and specifics of ornamental art. Historians and ethnographers have dealt with this quite a lot, identifying the main groups in the ornamental creativity of the peoples of our country.

Conclusion

Many peoples live in Yakutia and they all have a similar culture, way of life, beliefs and way of life, which has changed over time and begins to change with the entry of Yakutia into the Russian state. The Russians are introducing legal norms, universal rules, yasak payment, and a new religion. The spread of Christianity leads to changes in the customs and way of life of the aborigines of Yakutia, the disappearance of the concepts of kinship and blood feud.

The Chukchi's main occupation remains reindeer herding and sea fishing. Dramatic changes culture and everyday life are not received, but additional activities appear that gradually become dominant - fur farming.

Among the Evens, reindeer herding, fishing and hunting continue to be the main activity, which becomes the second most important. The Evens change their clothes, introducing Russian style.

Yukaghirs. The main occupation remains reindeer herding and dog breeding. Semi-nomadic lifestyle. The Yukaghirs have two types of housing:

1. winter (dugout)

2. hut - summer housing.

There were no fundamental changes in customs and culture.

Gradually, not only fur trade, but also cash trade was established among the peoples of the Lena region.

References:

1. Alekseev A.N. The first Russian settlements of the 17th-18th centuries. in the North-East of Yakutia. - Novosibirsk, 1996.

2. Argunov I.A. Social development of the Yakut people. - Novosibirsk, 1985

3. Bakhrushin S.V. Historical destinies of the peoples of Yakutia: Collection of articles “Yakutia”.-L., 1927.

4. Basharin G.P. History of agriculture in Yakutia (XVII century - 1917). T.1. - Yakutsk, 1989; T.2. 1990.