Features of Russian culture of the 13th-17th centuries briefly. Russian culture XIII - XVII centuries

The Dawes Plan was followed by French attempts to resolve the issue of a “guarantee” of its security. At one time, such an attempt failed due to the refusal of the United States of America to ratify the Versailles Peace Treaty and the Franco-American Guarantee Treaty concluded at the same time, in 1919.

The Herriot government, soon after the adoption of the Dawes Plan, put forward a proposal for an alliance between France, Belgium and England, containing guarantees against German attack. But the British government did not want to bind itself to an agreement directed against Germany, believing that this would prevent its involvement in the projected bloc of capitalist states against the USSR.

On the advice of the British, the German Foreign Minister Stresemann took the initiative in concluding a pact that, while satisfying French aspirations, would at the same time correspond to German imperialist interests and encourage the French government to agree to the withdrawal of Allied troops from the occupied Rhineland.

Wanting to make its partners more accommodating, Germany hinted to them that if they did not meet it halfway, it would be forced to establish closer relations with the Soviet Union.

The British government advocated an agreement with Germany on the basis of the proposals made by Stresemann. France, interested in obtaining a guarantee not only for itself and Belgium, but also for its allies Poland and Czechoslovakia, sought the conclusion of a single pact covering both the western and eastern borders of Germany. However, the British and German governments categorically opposed such a solution to the issue, and France had to give in.

The United States did not officially participate in these negotiations, but exerted financial pressure on France and its junior partners. Subsequently, Stresemai admitted that in carrying out its foreign policy plans, Germany “nowhere found such sincere recognition as in the United States.”

The policy of the American financial oligarchy was determined by its interest in strengthening its own positions in Europe and in weakening the positions of England and France, as well as calculations for the future use of Germany against Soviet Union.

On October 5-16, 1925, an international conference was held in Locarno (Switzerland). She concluded the discussion on the issue of the guarantee deed. Here the general guarantee agreement between Germany, France, Belgium, England and Italy (the so-called Rhine Guarantee Pact), the Franco-German, German-Belgian, German-Polish and German-Czechoslovak arbitration treaties, as well as the Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee agreements.

Under the Rhine Pact, Germany, France and Belgium pledged to maintain intact the borders between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and France established by the Treaty of Versailles, and to comply with the provisions of this treaty regarding the demilitarized Rhineland.

England and Italy acted as guarantors of compliance with the provisions of the Rhine Pact and, in the event of their violation, had to immediately provide support to the country against which such a violation would be directed. It was envisaged that Germany would be admitted to the League of Nations. The official signing of the Locarno Treaties took place in London on December 1, 1925.

Bourgeois politicians and publicists loudly claimed that Locarno was giving Europe long-awaited pacification. In fact, the Locarno Treaties did not lead to peace, but to the deepening of inter-imperialist contradictions.
They dealt a serious blow to the system of European alliances created by France after Versailles.

France had to finally abandon hopes of weakening Germany by seizing territories from it in the west, and also come to terms with the fact that Germany was considered at Locarno and then at the League of Nations as a politically equal power.

Now France was forced even more than before to seek the favor of England, the guarantor of the Rhine Pact. France's allies, Poland and Czechoslovakia, did not receive guarantees of their borders and, therefore, found themselves under the constant threat of German aggression.

German imperialism benefited most from the Locarno Agreements. Playing on the contradictions between England and France and at the same time intimidating these countries either with the bogeyman of the “communist threat” or with the possibility of a German-Soviet union, Germany extracted from them serious concessions that weakened the Versailles system. Locarno legitimized Germany's position in international relations as a great power, opened up a legal path for it to expand to the east.

The leading role in concluding the Locarno Agreements was played by the British imperialists. The British Ambassador in Berlin, d'Abernon, wrote in his diary: “Without English influence, manifested in the strongest possible way, there would have been neither the Dawes Plan, nor, especially, Locarno.”

The American imperialists were also quite satisfied. Secretary of State Kellogg, in one of his speeches, characterized the decisions taken at the Locarno conference as “outstanding.”

Satisfying American and English ruling circles was based on the fact that, according to their calculations, Locarno was supposed to bind Germany with certain obligations towards the Western powers and at the same time provide conditions for its use against the Soviet Union.

Germany's admission to the League of Nations was considered by the organizers of Locarno as payment for joining the anti-Soviet front.

LOCARN TREATIES OF 1925 - a number of agreements on the creation of a European system of security, guarantees of the western borders of Germany NI and INTERNATIONAL AR-BIT-RA.

Pa-ra-fi-ro-va-ny on October 16, 1925 at the international conference that took place in the city of Lo-kar-no (Shve- kingdom) October 5-16; under-pi-sa-ny in London 12/1/1925. In-house for convening a conference, in which we are studying before the Sta-vi-te-li of Belgium, Vel-li -ko-bri-ta-nia, Germany, Italy, Poland, France, Che-ho-slo-va-kii, has become a proposal about the West European Ga-ran-tiy pak-te, made by Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany G. Stre-se-man 01/20/1925 of the year. The German ambassador in Paris re-gave the official draft of the ga-ran-tiy-no-go pact of the French. gov-tel-st-vu 02/09/1925. Plan pre-du-smat-ri-val co-storage ter-ri-to-ri-al-no-go status-quo (including the Rhine de-mi-li-ta- ri-zo-van-nu-nu-nu) and confirmed articles 42 and 43 of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 about non-pri-cos -no-ven-no-sti of the German-French and German-Belgian borders. Germany, France and Belgium have taken upon themselves the obligation not to attack each other and to allow troubles the current disputes between the people's ar-bit-ra-zha or the su-deb-no-go decision. At the same time, Germany would enter into agreements with Poland and Che-ho-slo-va-ki-ey , which, one-on-one, do not pre-do-smat-ri-va-li ga-ran-tii their borders with Germany. First of all, France will do its best to reach the western and eastern borders of Germany. nii, co-creating a single whole, one-on-one, received from Germany from-kaz, supported by the Great sha-ni-ee, removed her conditions. The only indispensable requirement of the Western powers at the conclusion of the Locarno Treaties was the entry of Germany -nii in Li-gu Nations.

The Locarno treaties consisted of the following agreements: General agreement between Ger-ma-ni-ey, Fran -tsi-ey, Bel-gi-ey, Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and Ita-li-ey (Rhine Ga-ran-tiy Pact), French-German, Ger-ma-no-Belgian, Ger-ma-no-Polish and Ger-ma-no-che-hoslovak do-go-vo-ry about ar-bit-ra-zhe, as well as Fran-co-Polish and French-Che-Khoslovak ga-ran-ti-nye do-go-vo-ry. The Rhineland Pact re-echoed the proposal of G. Stre-se-man (preservation of the territory -ri-al-no-go status-quo on the western borders of Germany, maintaining the status of Versailles before-go-vo-ra 1919 about the Rhine de-mi-li-ta-ri-zo-van-noy zone, mutual obligations not to attack each other and solve all the issues by ar-bit-ra-zha or su-deb-no-go decision). In the ka-che-st-ve ga-ran-tov not-on-pa-de-niya of Germany, Belgium and France, you-stu-pi-li We-li -ko-bri-ta-nia and Italy. In the event of a sta-tus-quo ga-ran, you should have provided support to the suffering sta-ro-not. Do-go-vor ras-smat-ri-val any of the-me-not-the-same about the Rhine-de-mi-li-ta-ri-zo-van-noy zone not as an act of ag-res-siia, while leaving the ure-gu-li-ro-va-nie of the emergence of a conflict in this case -nii Li-gi Nations. The pact came into force after Germany entered the League of Nations and its Council (September 1926).

Ga-ran-tiy do-go-vo-ry of France with Poland and Che-ho-slo-va-ki-ey pre-do-smat-ri-va-li help them with a hundred -rons of France only after the approval of the League of Nations, where the adoption of decisions was largely due to Ve- Li-ko-bri-ta-nii, not connected with these countries in any way. This is the os-lab-la-lo position of France in Europe and yes-va-possibility Ve-li-ko-bri-ta- nii play the role of ar-bit-ra in the European po-li-ti-ke. The USA did not formally participate in the work of the Locarno Treaties, but in fact provided them with support, t ... because the Locarno treaties were closely linked with the Dau-essa plan.

One of the objectives of the Locarno Treaties was to bring Germany into the anti-Soviet world of the Western powers. However, her pre-sta-vi-te-li, pa-ra-fi-ro-vav Locarno Treaties, did not undertake obligations from-but-si-tel-but its direct participation in an-ti-so-vet-skih ak-tsi-yah. Germany strived to provide itself with the opportunity to pro-de-de-de-not-be-for-my-externally -ki and in connection with this, do not break away from the USSR, warehouses located on the basis of Rapalla -year 1922. With the development of this course in 1926, a Soviet-German agreement on friendship and neutrality was concluded.

The Locarno treaties were valid until their dissolution by Ger-ma-ni-her in one-sided row and her entry of troops into the Rhine -sky de-mi-li-ta-ri-zo-van-nu-nu-nu-nu in March 1936. Li-ga Nations og-ra-ni-chi-la-form-mal-ny-mi de-la-ra-tsiya-mi, without applying anything to ag-res-so-ru some sanctions.

Sources:

Lo-Carn conference 1925. Do-ku-men-you. M., 1959;

Locarno: Eine Dokumen-ten-sammlung. B., 1962.

It began on October 5 of the same year in the Swiss city of Locarno. The conference was attended by: Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, Poland, Czechoslovakia. Initially, the corresponding initiative came from Germany, and then Ch. arr. from Great Britain. The meaning of L. s. the concept of their initiators was that they provided France and Belgium with a guarantee of their east. borders established by the Treaty of Versailles, and at the same time guaranteed Germany against possible attempts at forced expansion by France. With such a “balance” system, Great Britain hoped to oppose the French. hegemony restored Germany in order to play the role of arbiter and guarantor. The leaders of British politics hoped to use their growing influence, in particular, to create a Western-European bloc directed against the USSR. powers under British leadership, which was the goal of the then British Conservative cabinet. France tried to extend the international collective guarantee also to the borders of its Eastern European allies, Poland and Czechoslovakia. However, she did not receive support from Great Britain on this issue. France was only able to confirm at the Locarno Conference its alliances with Poland and Czechoslovakia in the form of bilateral agreements with them, not included in unified system with the Western-European guarantee pact.

Entry into force of L. p. was associated with Germany's entry into the League of Nations, and Germany was particularly interested in ensuring that this did not entail an obligation for it to participate in the international sanctions established by Article 16 of the League's statute. The then German government, entering into a guarantee agreement with Western Europe. states, at the same time did not want to give up politics in their relations with the USSR. line established by the Treaty of Rapallo (see) 1922, and did not want to be involved in the anti-Soviet combination of European powers. After the entry into force of the L. s. and Germany’s entry into the League of Nations, this was confirmed in the Soviet-German non-aggression treaty concluded in Berlin on April 24, 1926.

As a result of the conference in Locarno, nine documents were signed: 1) the final act of the conference; 2) an agreement between Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Italy (Rhine Pact); 3) arbitration convention between Germany and Belgium; 4) arbitration convention between Germany and France; 5) arbitration agreement between Germany and Poland; 6) arbitration agreement between Germany and Czechoslovakia; 7) letter from Germany from other conference participants; 8) agreement between Poland and France; 9) agreement between France and Czechoslovakia. The main provision of the main document developed by the Locarno Conference, the Rhine Guarantee Pact, was the individual and collective guarantee by the contracting parties of the territorial status quo and the inviolability of the German-Belgian and German-French borders; the pact also guaranteed compliance with articles 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Versailles concerning the Rhine demilitarized zone (see) (Article 1). Compliance with this regulation was one of the foundations of the Locarno Guarantee Pact.

Germany-Belgium and Germany-France mutually pledged (Article 2) not to attack each other and not resort to war, with the exception of specially specified cases (resistance to the aggressor, violation of the demilitarized zone, military actions as sanctions). The treaty established (Article 3) the principle of compulsory arbitration in disputes between Germany and Belgium and Germany and France; this principle has found its implementation in the Belgian-German and Franco-German arbitration conventions. Each of the powers that signed the treaty assumed the obligation, in the event of direct aggression or violation of the Rhineland demilitarized zone, to provide assistance to the power against which it would be directed. The Locarno Agreement specifically stated that all provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, the London Agreement of 1924 on the entry into force of the Dawes Plan and the statute of the League of Nations remain in force (Articles 6-7). The treaty provided that it would come into force only after Germany had joined the League of Nations, and thus established unbreakable bond between these moments. As for the arbitration agreements of Germany with Poland and Czechoslovakia, these agreements basically coincided with Western arbitration conventions. A special letter from Germany from other participants in the conference established that when applying Article 16 of the League of Nations statute, both the geographical and military position of a given state must be taken into account. In the introduction to the Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak agreements, which were completely identical in content, it was stated that they were concluded within the framework of the statute of the League of Nations and the treaties existing between the contracting parties (i.e., the alliance treaties of France with Poland and France with Czechoslovakia). In the event that one of the contracting parties violates the obligations to protect peace mutually accepted by it and Germany, and if such a violation is accompanied by unprovoked military actions, the other party undertakes to provide it with assistance and support.

L.S. remained in force for 10 years. They were destroyed by German fascism, which sought to eliminate all obstacles to the development of its aggression in both the east and west of Europe. In October 1933, Nazi Germany left the League of Nations; on March 16, 1935, it terminated the restrictions on its armaments established by the Treaty of Versailles by a unilateral act. Finally, on March 7, 1936, the ambassadors of France, Great Britain, Italy and Belgium were presented with a German memorandum. fascist government, announcing the termination of the Rhine Guarantee Pact. At the same time, German troops were brought into the Rhineland demilitarized zone, etc. Not only the Locarno, but also the Versailles treaties were grossly violated. To justify his act, Herm. The government hypocritically and falsely referred to the fact that the obligations of the Locarno Treaty were incompatible with the Franco-Soviet Pact of Mutual Assistance, signed on May 2, 1935, a pact hated by the Germans. fascism, because it is an obstacle to the implementation of its aggressive plans. Meanwhile, such an interpretation of both treaties was categorically rejected by the “guarantors” of the Locarno Pact - Great Britain and even Italy, as well as Belgium, who stated (in memoranda dated July 5, 15 and 19, 1935) that the Franco-Soviet Pact does not contradict the Locarno Treaty and does not changes its regulations. Indeed, the obligations of the Franco-Soviet Pact come into force only subject to preliminary discussion of a specific case of aggression against any of the contracting parties in the Council of the League of Nations. France, moreover, specifically stipulated in the annex to the pact the inviolability of its obligations under the Locarno Treaty. The Franco-Soviet Pact, therefore, is directed exclusively against the aggressor violating the statute of the League of Nations, and in no case contradicts either the spirit or the letter of the Locarno Treaty, but, on the contrary, like the agreements concluded simultaneously with this treaty between France and Poland and Czechoslovakia, supplements this treaty, strengthening the guarantees it establishes. But for German fascism it was not the legal aspect that was important. the validity of his statements, which were nothing more than empty pretexts, and the implementation of his political. and military purposes. At the session of the Council of the League of Nations, held in London in March 1930, sufficiently radical decisions were not made that could stop the German action. Great Britain, contrary to the provisions of the Locarno Treaty itself, opposed the use of economics. sanctions against Germany, which France initially insisted on. True, Great Britain confirmed its obligations under the Locarno Treaty in relation to France and Belgium in return for mutual assurances on their part (March 13, 1936). These temporary security guarantees remained in force during negotiations on the conclusion of new agreements between the Western powers to replace the terminated L. p. However, in the future, fascist Germany actually avoided, under various pretexts, from conducting these negotiations, repeating its false argument regarding the Franco-Soviet Pact. At the same time, it was rapidly strengthening the former Rhineland demilitarized zone and increasing its military forces in this zone. Fascist Italy went political in 1936. rapprochement with Germany, in solidarity with its position and in this issue. The significance of the remaining guarantee obligations between Great Britain, France and Belgium was undermined by a sharp change in the latter's foreign policy line. On October 14, 1936, the Belgian King Leopold III announced Belgium’s refusal of any obligations of mutual assistance in relation to other countries and its intention to henceforth pursue a policy “exclusively and entirely Belgian,” that is, a policy of neutrality similar to that which it had pursued before. first imperialist war 1914-18. Great Britain and France retained (identical notes dated April 24, 1937) their obligations to guarantee the Belgian borders against German aggression in a unilateral form. As for Belgium, the latter, without bearing the corresponding specifics. obligations towards France and Great Britain, retained at the same time its general obligations under the statute of the League of Nations and undertook to prevent the use of its territory by other powers for military purposes. On October 13, 1937, an exchange of notes took place between Germany and Belgium, according to which Germany “guaranteed” the territorial integrity of Belgium. The real purpose of this "assurance" on the part of German fascism is to further weaken the ties connecting Belgium with France and Great Britain, as well as Belgium's obligations as a member of the League of Nations.

Volume 37 - M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1938, art. 353-356

LOCARNO AGREEMENTS 1925- agreements concluded as a result of negotiations between Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland; had the goal of regrouping the imperialist forces. powers to create an anti-Soviet bloc and prepare for a new world war. L.S. were the result of lengthy negotiations that ended on October 5-16. 1925. The United States, although not formally represented at the conference, actually took an active and leading part in the negotiations both on the eve and during the conference itself. L.S. were initialed on October 16. 1925 in Locarno and signed 1 December. 1925 in London. The main document from among the L. s. was the so-called The Rhineland Guarantee Pact, according to which Germany, France and Belgium pledged to maintain the inviolability of the German-French and German-Belgian borders established by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, as well as to comply with the provisions of Articles 42 and 43 of this treaty regarding the demilitarization of the Rhineland, violation of the regime of the zone must was seen as aggression; The pact provided for the preservation of all obligations under both the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and additional agreements, including agreements on the implementation of the Dawes Plan (see Dawes Plan). England and Italy acted as guarantors of the implementation of the Rhine Guarantee Pact. In addition to the pact, bilateral arbitration agreements were concluded between Germany and, respectively, France, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia on the procedure for resolving conflicts. During the Locarno conference, Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak treaties were signed, which provided for assistance and support “in relation to Art. 16 of the Charter of the League of Nations,” which obligated the application of sanctions against a state committing an act of aggression. The last two agreements were not included in the L. s. Germany declared in Locarno its readiness to join the League of Nations (entered the League of Nations in 1926). The Guarantee Pact equalized the legal status of France and Germany, which indicated the strengthening of the position of Germany and the weakening of the position of France, which had failed in its claims to hegemony in Europe. L.S. did not extend guarantees to Germany’s borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia. The lack of guarantees for the borders of Germany's neighbors in eastern Europe meant the desire of the main inspirers of the LS—the imperialists of the USA and England—to direct the aggression of the resurgent Germany. imperialism against the USSR, as well as against Poland and Czechoslovakia.

During the implementation of the Locarno conspiracy, the imperialists of the USA, England and France sought to promote the restoration of the German positions. imperialism, but at the same time maintain the balance of forces established on the basis of the Versailles-Washington system (see). Organizers L s. and their accomplices from the 2nd International tried to portray the matter in such a way that the Locarno conference supposedly eliminated all contradictions between the victors and the vanquished. In fact, the conference not only did not eliminate the contradictions, but exacerbated them; “The “spirit of war,” stated J.V. Stalin, “is the main content of the “spirit of Locarno”” (Works, vol. 10, p. 281). L.S. were a plan for the alignment of forces for new war. HP, adopted in the development of the Dawes Plan, which revived the military-industrial potential of Germany. imperialism, had the goal of creating an anti-Soviet bloc with the participation of Germany.

Soviet diplomacy was able to significantly weaken the anti-Soviet orientation of the Soviet Union. Even during the Locarno Conference, on October 12, 1925, a Soviet-German economic agreement was signed in Berlin. treaty, and a little later, on April 24, 1926, the Soviet-German treaty on non-aggression and neutrality.

Subsequently, imperialist Germany, strengthened with the help of Amer. and English imperialists, withdrew from the League of Nations (1933), and then, in March 1936, dissolved the League of Nations. and sent troops into the Rhineland demilitarized zone. This act of aggression by the Germans. imperialism did not cause any opposition from other members of the Labor Union, who, together with the US imperialists, pursued a policy of “pacification” of the aggressor, a policy of non-intervention (see), which accelerated the outbreak of the Second World War of 1939-45.

Volume 25 - M.: Big Sov. encyclopedia, 1954, pp. 361-362

LOCARNO TREATIES 1925- treaties between Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, France and Czechoslovakia. Their content was agreed upon at the Locarno Conference in 1925. They included: a general guarantee agreement - between Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium and Italy; German-Belgian, French-German, as well as German-Polish and German-Czech. arbitration agreements. Basic The document among L.D. was initialed on October 16. in Locarno and signed 1 Dec. 1925 in London general guarantee deed, so-called. Rhine guarantee pact on state inviolability. borders between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and France established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and maintaining the demilitarization of the Rhineland. The guarantors of this pact were Great Britain and Italy. East The borders of Germany (unlike the Western ones) were not subject to a guarantee; they were, according to the plans of the ruling circles of Great Britain and other imperialists. powers were supposed to become a gateway for German aggression. imperialism against the USSR and the countries of the East. Europe. France capitulated to England, abandoning its demand to guarantee the borders of its allies - Poland and Czechoslovakia; it signed separate guarantee agreements in Locarno with Poland and Czechoslovakia, under which the Crimea undertook to provide assistance to these countries in the event of a violation of the inviolability of their borders, if the League of Nations itself did not resolve the issue of accepting the c.-l. collective measures. The signing of the Liberal Democratic Party meant the unification of the imperialist. powers - both former victors and defeated Germany - on the basis of creating a united anti-Soviet front. LD led to a change in the balance of power in Europe. They testified to the weakening position of France. The powers that benefited from the LD were England - Ch. organizer and guarantor of L. d. and Germany, considered from now on to be Western. powers as an “equal partner”. The LD came into force after Germany was admitted to the League of Nations (September 1926). March 7, 1936 Fasc. Germany, by a unilateral act, terminated the LD and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhine zone. Despite Germany's obvious violation of the L.D., other members of the L.D. - in the hope of a clash between Hitler's Germany and the USSR - did not take any measures against their violator.

V. L. Israelyan. Moscow.

Volume 8 - M.: Soviet encyclopedia, 1965, art. 762

LOCARNO TREATIES 1925 about the guarantee western borders Germany and arbitration - initialed on October 16 in Locarno (Switzerland), signed on December 1 in London.

The immediate reason for opening negotiations on the LD was the proposal for a Western European guarantee pact made to England by the German Foreign Minister Stresemann
Gustav
STRESEMANN
(1878 - 1929)
German politician, Reich Chancellor and Foreign Minister of the Weimar Republic (1923-1929).
(See: Biography) January 20, 1925. This step was suggested to the Germans by the British ambassador in Berlin, Lord d'Abernon. Under the cover of the guarantee pact, imperialist circles in England planned to create an anti-Soviet bloc with the participation of Germany. On February 9, 1925, Stresemann handed over to the French government the official draft of the guarantee pact. Germany pledged to maintain the status quo on its western borders and confirm Art. 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Versailles on the demilitarization of the Rhineland, but at the same time emphasized its reluctance to give any obligations regarding its eastern borders. The German government limited itself to the proposal to conclude arbitration agreements with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which, however, did not provide for guarantees of their borders with Germany. This fully corresponded to the political guidelines of the British imperialists, who also refused to guarantee the eastern borders of Germany, clearly indicating to the reviving German imperialism the direction of future German aggression.

France, supporting anti-Soviet plans related to the guarantee pact, limited itself to the demand that the treaties in the West and the East form a single whole. However, this demand was decisively rejected by Germany, which was supported by England. Moreover, the German government directly stated its revanchist position, indicating that it would seek a revision of Germany's eastern borders “peacefully.” Under cross Anglo-German pressure, France abandoned its demands, considering it more important to draw Germany into the anti-Soviet bloc.

Instead of demanding a guarantee of the eastern borders, France and England demanded that Germany, as an indispensable condition for concluding a guarantee agreement, join the League of Nations. Considering that the struggle against the USSR was most conveniently carried out through the League of Nations, which was obedient to them, the Western powers sought to attract Germany to active participation in anti-Soviet actions.

On October 5-16, 1925, a conference took place in Locarno to discuss the terms of the guarantee pact. The anti-Soviet intentions of the Western powers are evidenced by the recordings of the secret meetings of the Locarno Conference. At these meetings three possible options German participation in anti-Soviet actions of the League of Nations:

1) direct participation in the war;

2) indirect participation (passage of troops through German territory);

3) participation in economic sanctions, i.e. Germany’s participation in the economic blockade of the USSR.

At the same time, the Western powers were ready to provide Germany with all possible assistance, and even arm it.

However, the German government, although it agreed to conclude the Liberal Democratic Party and the associated entry into the League of Nations, showed a certain caution and did not give any definite obligations about Germany’s participation in anti-Soviet actions. This provided Germany with the opportunity to conduct an independent foreign policy, made it possible to maintain peaceful relations with the USSR and develop mutually beneficial trade and economic ties with it. On October 16, the L.D. was initialed, consisting of the following documents: the general guarantee agreement between Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy (Rhine Guarantee Pact), the Franco-German, German-Belgian, German-Polish and German-Czechoslovak agreements on arbitration. In addition, Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee agreements were concluded in Locarno.

According to the Rhine Guarantee Pact, Germany, France and Belgium pledged to maintain the territorial status quo, i.e. the inviolability of the borders between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and France, as they were established by the Treaty of Versailles, and also to comply with the provisions of Art. 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany, France and Belgium pledged not to resort to attacks on each other and to resolve all disputes through peaceful settlement (through arbitration or a court decision). The Pact of the Rhine provided for the continuation of all obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The pact must be formally signed in London and come into force after Germany is admitted to the League of Nations.

As for the guarantee agreements of France with Poland and Czechoslovakia, they made France's active actions in providing assistance to these countries dependent on the League of Nations, where decision-making depended primarily on England, which was not bound by any obligations in relation to Czechoslovakia and Poland. This weakened France's continental alliances and reduced its political influence in Europe.

Liberal movements meant a regrouping of forces in an environment of aggravated imperialist contradictions. They testified to the weakening of France, the collapse of the broad expansionist plans of French imperialism in European continent.

The United States did not take part in the Liberal Movement, but actually provided them with support. US President Coolidge approved L.D.'s conclusion. The “pacification” of Western Europe created a favorable environment for American economic expansion.

The main goal of the Locarno policy was the desire to destroy the friendly relations between Germany and the USSR, which had developed on the basis of the Treaty of Rapallo, by involving Germany in the anti-Soviet front, as well as isolating the Soviet Union and preparing the conditions for a new anti-Soviet intervention.

The LDs helped strengthen Germany's position in Europe and opened the way for it to change borders in the East, since German imperialism refused to guarantee the borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia. Germany took advantage of the contradictions between the victorious powers: with the support of England, it got rid of the threat of French hegemony in Europe. She also used the bogeyman of the “communist threat” to extract more and more concessions from the victorious powers.

The anti-Soviet orientation of the Liberal Democratic Party was significantly weakened as a result of the conclusion of the Soviet-German treaty on neutrality and non-aggression in 1926. Soviet Union proposals for the conclusion this kind Treaties with capitalist countries pursued the goal of creating the necessary prerequisites for the peaceful coexistence of the USSR with the states of the capitalist world, and contributed to strengthening the cause of peace and security in Europe.

L. d. existed for 10 years. On March 7, 1936, Nazi Germany, by a unilateral act, dissolved the Liberal Democratic Party and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhine Zone.

Despite Germany's obvious violation of the LD, England and France did not take any measures against Germany. Soviet proposals regarding effective measures against aggression were ignored by the Western powers; instead of organizing a European security system to protect against aggression, they pursued a policy of pandering to the aggressive powers, which accelerated the outbreak of the Second World War.

Volume 2 - M.: Politizdat, 1971, pp. 205-207

Locarno Treaties 1925, a number of treaties on guaranteeing Germany's western borders and arbitration; were initialed on October 16 at the Locarno Conference of 1925 and signed in London on December 1, 1925. The main document of the LD was the Rhine Pact - a general guarantee agreement between Germany, Belgium, France, Italy and Great Britain, under the cover of which Great Britain and France planned to create an anti-Soviet bloc with the participation of Germany; that is why the eastern German borders did not fall under the system of guarantees developed at Locarno. This pact provided for the maintenance of the territorial status quo (including the demilitarized Rhineland) and the inviolability of the German-French and German-Belgian borders, as they were defined by the Treaty of Versailles 1919, as well as the obligation of Germany, France and Belgium not to attack each other and to resolve emerging disputes are resolved peacefully - through arbitration or a court decision. The treaty came into force after Germany became a member of the League of Nations (September 1926) and received a permanent seat on the League Council as a great power. Arbitration treaties concluded separately by Germany with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia supplemented the Rhine Pact. In addition, the Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee treaties were also signed, under which France pledged to provide assistance to these two countries in the event of a violation of their borders if the League of Nations did not resolve the issue of taking any collective measures. The adoption of the Liberal Democratic Party indicated a certain weakening of the position of France, since after Locarno its main enemy, Germany, began to be viewed in the West as an “equal partner,” as well as a significant gain for Great Britain, which stubbornly pursued its traditional policy of creating two opposing forces on the European continent.

After the Nazis came to power, Germany, by a unilateral act, dissolved the LD (March 7, 1936) and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhine Zone.

D. Asanov.

Volume 14. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1973, p. 617, art. 1837

LOCARNO TREATIES 1925

on the guarantee of the western borders of Germany and arbitration - initialed on October 16 in Locarno (Switzerland), signed on December 1 in London.

The immediate reason for opening negotiations on the L.D. was the proposal for a Western European Pact made to England by the German Foreign Minister Stresemann on January 20, 1925. On January 9, 1925, Stresemann handed over to the French government an official draft guarantee pact. Germany committed to maintaining the status quo on its western borders, but at the same time emphasized its reluctance to make any commitments regarding its eastern borders. This was fully consistent with the political guidelines of the British imperialists, who also refused to guarantee the eastern borders of Germany, clearly indicating to the reviving German imperialism the direction of future German aggression desired by England.

France, supporting the anti-Soviet plans associated with the guarantee pact, limited itself to the demand that the treaties in the West and the East form a single whole and that France retain freedom of action in relation to Germany if it has to provide assistance to Poland and Czechoslovakia (note dated 4.VI 1925). England accepted this proposal, and on June 16, a response to the German project agreed upon by both powers was sent.

At the end of September, Germany agreed to accept the Anglo-French proposals as a basis for negotiations.

5-16. X 1925 a conference took place in Locarno to discuss the terms of the guarantee pact. 16. X L. were concluded, consisting of the following documents: a general guarantee agreement between Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy (Rhine Guarantee Pact), Franco-German, German-Belgian, German-Polish and German-Czechoslovak treaties about arbitration. In addition, Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee agreements were concluded in Locarno.

Under the Rhine Guarantee Pact, Germany, France and Belgium pledged to maintain the territorial status quo, i.e. the inviolability of the borders between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and France, as they were established by the Treaty of Versailles, and also to comply with the provisions of Articles 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Versailles regarding demilitarized Rhine zone. Germany, France and Belgium pledged not to resort to attacks on each other and to resolve all controversial issues through the usual diplomatic channels or through arbitration. England and Italy acted as guarantors.

In the event of a violation of the status quo, the guarantors, i.e. England and Italy, were to immediately provide support to the side against which this violation would be directed. Violation of the provisions of the demilitarized Rhineland was considered an act of aggression. At the same time, the pact stated that after the Council of the League of Nations makes its decision on the issue of the conflict that has arisen, the contracting parties undertake to act in accordance with the proposal of the Council of the League of Nations, adopted unanimously, not counting the votes of representatives of the parties to the conflict. The Rhine Pact provided for the continuation of all obligations under the Treaty of Versailles, as well as additional agreements, including agreements on the implementation of the Dawes Plan. A special clause of the pact stated that it did not impose any obligations on the British dominions and India. The pact was to be formally signed in London and would come into force once Germany was admitted to the League of Nations.

The agreements were finally signed in London on December 1, 1925. A year later, Germany joined the League of Nations and received a permanent seat on the Council. Following Germany's entry into the League of Nations, the evacuation of Allied troops from the Rhineland began. Conclusion L.d. accompanied by great pacifist uproar. Locarno was declared the beginning new era in Europe and around the world. The "Spirit of Locarno" became a symbol of bourgeois peacemaking. International social democracy became the main troubadour of Locarno.

In reality L.d. did not mean the “triumph of peace,” but a regrouping of forces for a new war. They testified to the weakening of France and the collapse of the broad expansionist plans of French imperialism on the European continent. L.d. personified France's fear of the rising German imperialism and its growing dependence on England.

England now became the arbiter in European affairs. Since the British guarantees were also limited, “appeasement” Western Europe freed England's hands for an active world policy and, first of all, for a policy aimed at isolating and hostilely encircling the Soviet Union.

The United States did not take part in the L.D., but actually provided them with support. The “pacification” of Western Europe created a favorable environment for American economic expansion. L.d. not only confirmed the Dawes plan, but to a certain extent served as a political superstructure over this plan. At the same time, the American imperialist bourgeoisie fully sympathized with the LD as an instrument of anti-Soviet policy.

The main goal of the Locarno policy was to involve Germany in the anti-Soviet front. The “Concert of European Powers” that Germany joined was synonymous with the anti-Soviet bloc. The general line of Locarno policy was to isolate the Soviet Union and prepare the preconditions for a new anti-Soviet intervention.

The leaders of this policy rejoiced over the LD, but the real winner in Locarno was German imperialism, which was shaking the entire system of the post-war regime of the world and clearing the way for new aggression. Stresemann wrote to the Crown Prince that “the renunciation of a military conflict with France over Alsace-Lorraine is theoretical, since it is still not possible to wage war with France” (in other words, when Germany becomes stronger militarily, the question of these guarantees will also be placed differently). Germany took advantage of the contradictions between the victorious powers: with the support of England, it got rid of French hegemony in Europe. She also used the bogeyman of the “communist threat” to seek more and more concessions from the victorious powers in order to undermine the Versailles system. Germany's entry into the League of Nations and its receipt of permanent place in the League Council legitimized its position as a great power. Finally, the fact that Germany did not give any obligations regarding the eastern borders opened up a legal path for her to change the borders in the east, the path of aggression.

J.V. Stalin, speaking about the Locarno policy in a report at the XIV Congress of the CPSU(b), indicated: “...Locarno is fraught with a new war in Europe.

British conservatives are thinking of maintaining the “status quo” against Germany and using Germany against the Soviet Union. Didn’t they want too much?” J.V. Stalin further emphasized that “Locarno is a continuation of Versailles”, that L.D. represent “a plan for the alignment of forces for a new war, and not for peace.”

L.d. lasted 10 years. 7. III 1936 Nazi Germany, by a unilateral act, dissolved the Liberal Democratic Party and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhine Zone.

Despite Germany’s obvious violation of the LD, England resolutely refused to accept any sanctions, including economic ones, against Germany. The extraordinary session of the League of Nations, which met in London in mid-May 1936, was limited to the adoption of empty declarations. Soviet proposals for effective measures against aggression were ignored by the Western powers. The entire balance of forces established by the Liberal Democratic Party was by this time radically disrupted. Italy was already getting closer to Germany and soon made a deal with it. agreement on the creation of the Rome-Berlin axis. Belgium abandoned the policy of military alliances and soon returned to the policy of “neutrality,” which was extremely beneficial at that time for Hitler’s imperialism. England, like France and the United States, pursued a policy of non-intervention and appeasement of aggressors, which accelerated the outbreak of the Second World War.

Diplomatic Dictionary. - M.: State Publishing House of Political Literature. A. Ya. Vyshinsky, S. A. Lozovsky. 1948 .

See what the "LOCARN TREATIES OF 1925" are in other dictionaries:

Initialed on October 16 in Locarno after discussion at the Locarno Conference (October 5-16, 1925; Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland participated); signed on December 1 in London. The main document concluded... encyclopedic Dictionary

Locarno Treaties 1925- A number of agreements on guaranteeing Germany's western borders. They were initialed on October 16, 1925 at the Locarno Conference and signed in London on December 1, 1925. They provided for the maintenance of the territorial status quo (including the Rhineland demilitarized zone) ... Encyclopedia of the Third Reich

Treaties between Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, France and Czechoslovakia. Their content was agreed upon at the Locarno Conference in 1925. They included: a general guarantee agreement between Germany, France, Great Britain, ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

A number of treaties on guaranteeing Germany's western borders and arbitration; were initialed on October 16 at the Locarno Conference of 1925 (See Locarno Conference of 1925) and signed in London on December 1, 1925. The main document of the Locarno Conference was the Rhine Pact... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

1925 initialed 16 Oct. in Locarno after discussion at the Locarno Conference. (5 10/16/1925; Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland participated); signed 1 Dec. in London. The main document concluded... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The former Grand Hotel in Locarno, where the Locarno Conference took place. Now the cantonal police department ... Wikipedia

Locarno Treaties- (Locarno, Treaties of) (1925), int. agreements concluded at the Locarno Conference 5 16 Dec. 1925; their goal is to alleviate tensions by guaranteeing the inviolability of Germany’s borders with Belgium and France, established by the Treaty of Versailles... ... The World History

The former Grand Hotel in Locarno, where the Locarno Conference took place. Now the cantonal police department, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 are seven treaties that were the result of negotiations held in Locarno, Switzerland, from October 5 to October 16, 1925 and... ... Wikipedia

Years 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 Decades 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s ... Wikipedia

The Locarno Conference was one of the most important diplomatic events in Western European history. On the one hand, it consolidated the existing situation established after the signing of the peace that determined the post-war structure of Europe, and on the other hand, it significantly changed the position of the parties that took part in it and signed a number of agreements during its work.

The situation in Germany

The Locarno Conference took place as a result of the desire of leading Western European countries to come to agreement on a range of controversial issues regarding territories, borders, trade and weapons after the end of the First World War. The situation on the continent in the first decade was quite tense, despite the fact that the warring parties came to an agreement and established a new political order. Germany, which was among the losers, was in a very difficult situation.

The country was actually disarmed, its economy and trade were limited, and the Rhineland was demilitarized. Under these conditions, revanchist sentiments in the country were quite strong: nationalist political forces insisted on revising the terms of the Versailles Peace and withdrawing the state from the disadvantageous position in which it found itself. Finding itself virtually in international isolation, Germany moved towards rapprochement with Russia, concluding the Rapallo Peace Treaty with the Bolshevik leadership. This agreement turned out to be beneficial for both sides at the time, since these states had almost no recognition on the world stage and therefore needed each other.

Situation in Europe

The Locarno Conference was held on the initiative of other Western European powers. Great Britain was interested in creating some counterbalance to its old rival, France, on the mainland. The fact is that after the end of the war, the latter, as the most affected party, received great benefits and found itself in an advantageous position compared to its neighbors. In the League of Nations, this state occupied a leading position, which could not but worry other European governments.

Security problem

France and Italy pursued interests of a slightly different kind. The first cared primarily about the security of its borders. The territory of this state, as mentioned above, suffered the most from the German attack during the war. Now it wanted to maintain the status quo. The Italian government felt disadvantaged by the establishment of the new order, and its participation in the work of this diplomatic meeting increased its international prestige. Poland and Germany, in fact, found themselves in opposite camps. The first sought to ensure the security of its eastern borders, while the German government, on the contrary, did not exclude the possibility of an armed conflict.

Goals

However, despite the indicated difference in approaches, all participants were one way or another united by one thing: common feature: This is an anti-Soviet orientation. Many European leaders were concerned about the signing of the treaty between the Bolshevik leadership and the German government. The Locarno Conference was largely designed to include Germany in the system of European relations and, if possible, bring discord into its relations with Soviet power. However, the German Foreign Minister skillfully maneuvered between the two European diplomats, trying to extract the greatest benefit from the current situation. He did not want to completely break with the Soviet government, but at the same time he sought to enlist the support of European countries in order to ease the economic situation of his state. The main goal of the European bloc was, by including Germany in the League of Nations, to bind it to such conditions as to exclude it from cooperation with our country.

Negotiation

The work took place from October 5 to October 16. The following states took part in it: Great Britain, France, Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Italy and Germany. Before that, the German leadership presented two statements to the European authorities, which were to be read out during the conference. The first point concerned the very sore and controversial issue of responsibility for the start of the war. The German government insisted that the international community remove the language that the German people were the culprits of the war, while maintaining that there were other participants and interested parties. The second question concerned the problem of evacuating Cologne, but the German leadership was refused on both counts.

Poland and Germany, in fact, found themselves in a rather difficult position: the first due to the fact that it was unable to obtain guarantees for the protection of its eastern borders, and the second due to the fact that it was forced to maneuver between the two sides. It was required to accept the conditions of Article 16 of the Charter of the League of Nations, which provided for the implementation of active measures against an aggressor country, a violator of peace. This violator very clearly meant the USSR. The German leadership had to either participate directly in military operations, or allow troops to pass through its territory, or, finally, join the economic blockade. In response, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of this country stated that, being demilitarized and economically disadvantaged, it would not be able to fully fulfill its obligations. In response, the ministers objected that even in the current situation the state could be a full party.

Territorial issue

The borders of European countries were the focus of attention of the participating countries. During the work, the French and Belgian delegations managed to ensure the safety of their eastern borders, and the British and Italian governments acted as guarantors. However, the Polish leadership was unable to achieve the same success: although it entered into an agreement with the German leadership, it did not achieve guarantees. As a result, this country found itself in an extremely difficult situation, since it had every reason to fear for its territorial integrity. France and Italy also failed to count the results of the conference among their successes. The position of the first was greatly undermined after the German side participated in the negotiations on equal terms, and was then introduced into the League of Nations and became a member of its permanent council. The Italian delegation only acted as a guarantor of one of the agreements. The signed Rhine Pact can be considered one of the most significant agreements, since, in addition to guaranteeing the inviolability of the French and Belgian borders, it confirmed the fact of demilitarization of the zone of the same name.

Results

The conference significantly changed the balance of power on the European continent. First of all, this affected the position of Germany, which achieved significant concessions for itself. It emerged from a state of international isolation and acted as an equal party in the negotiations. Secondly, the French position was undermined. Great Britain achieved its goal by opposing it new strength. The Locarno Conference of 1925 and its results, despite the anti-Soviet orientation, nevertheless temporarily stabilized the situation, but the inevitability of a new war was obvious.