Report on the life and customs of peasants in the 17th century. Division of peasants into groups

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

ROSTOV STATE ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Law

course: “National History”

topic: “Life of the Russian people of the 16th - 17th centuries”

Completed by: 1st year student, group No. 611 full-time study

Tokhtamysheva Natalia Alekseevna

Rostov-on-Don 2002

1. Social and political situation in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.

2.Culture and life of the Russian people in the 16th century.

3. Culture, life and social thought in the 17th century.

Literature.

1. Social and political situation in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.

To understand the origins of the conditions and reasons that determine the way of life, way of life and culture of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider the socio-political situation in Russia at that time.

By the middle of the 16th century, Rus', having overcome feudal fragmentation, turned into a single Moscow state, which became one of the largest states in Europe.

Despite the vastness of its territory, the Moscow state in the middle of the 16th century. It had a relatively small population, no more than 6-7 million people (for comparison: France at the same time had 17-18 million people). Of the Russian cities, only Moscow and Novgorod the Great had several tens of thousands of inhabitants; the share of the urban population did not exceed 2% of the total population of the country. The vast majority of Russian people lived in small (several households) villages spread across the vast expanses of the Central Russian Plain.

The formation of a single centralized state accelerated the socio-economic development of the country. New cities arose, crafts and trade developed. There was a specialization of individual regions. Thus, Pomorie supplied fish and caviar, Ustyuzhna supplied metal products, salt was brought from Sol Kama, and grain and livestock products were brought from the Trans-Oka lands. In different parts of the country, the process of establishing local markets was underway. The process of forming a single all-Russian market also began, but it lasted for a long time and was formed in its main features only by the end of the 17th century. Its final completion dates back to the second half of the 18th century, when under Elizabeth Petrovna the still existing internal customs duties were abolished.

Thus, unlike the West, where the formation of centralized states (in France, England) went parallel to the formation of a single national market and, as it were, crowned its formation, in Rus' the formation of a single centralized state occurred before the formation of a single all-Russian market. And this acceleration was explained by the need for the military and political unification of Russian lands in order to free themselves from foreign enslavement and achieve their independence.

Another feature of the formation of the Russian centralized state in comparison with Western European states was that from the very beginning it arose as a multinational state.

Rus''s lag in its development, primarily economic, was explained by several unfavorable historical conditions for it. Firstly, as a result of the disastrous Mongol-Tatar invasion, material assets accumulated over centuries were destroyed, most Russian cities were burned, and most of the country’s population died or was taken captive and sold on slave markets. It took more than a century just to restore the population that existed before the invasion of Batu Khan. Rus' lost its national independence for more than two and a half centuries and fell under the rule of foreign conquerors. Secondly, the lag was explained by the fact that the Moscow state was cut off from world trade routes and above all sea. Neighboring powers, especially in the west (Livonian Order, Grand Duchy of Lithuania) practically carried out an economic blockade of the Moscow state, preventing its participation in economic and cultural cooperation with European powers. The lack of economic and cultural exchange, isolation within its narrow internal market concealed the danger of growing lag behind European states, which was fraught with the possibility of becoming a semi-colony and losing its national independence.

The Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other Russian principalities on the Central Russian Plain became part of the Golden Horde for almost 250 years. And the territory of the Western Russian principalities (former Kyiv State, Galicia-Volyn Rus', Smolensk, Chernigov, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk lands), although they were not included in the Golden Horde, were extremely weakened and depopulated.

The Principality of Lithuania, which arose at the beginning of the 14th century, took advantage of the vacuum of power and authority that arose as a result of the Tatar pogrom. It began to rapidly expand, incorporating Western Russian and Southern Russian lands. In the middle of the 16th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a vast state stretching from the shores of the Baltic Sea in the north to the Dnieper rapids in the south. However, it was very loose and fragile. In addition to social contradictions, it was torn by national contradictions (the overwhelming majority of the population were Slavs), as well as religious ones. The Lithuanians were Catholics (like the Poles), and the Slavs were Orthodox. Although many of the local Slavic feudal lords became Catholic, the bulk of the Slavic peasantry staunchly defended their original Orthodox faith. Realizing the weakness of the Lithuanian statehood, the Lithuanian lords and gentry sought outside support and found it in Poland. Already from the 14th century, attempts were made to unite the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Poland. However, this unification ended only with the conclusion of the Union of Lublin in 1569, as a result of which the united Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed.

Polish lords and gentry rushed to the territory of Ukraine and Belarus, seizing lands inhabited by local peasants, and often expelling local Ukrainian landowners from their possessions. Large Ukrainian magnates, such as Adam Kisel, Vishnevetsky, etc., and part of the gentry converted to Catholicism, accepted Polish language, culture, renounced their people. The movement to the East of Polish colonization was actively supported by the Vatican. In turn, the forced imposition of Catholicism was supposed to contribute to the spiritual enslavement of the local Ukrainian and Belarusian population. Since the overwhelming mass of it resisted and steadfastly adhered to the Orthodox faith in 1596, the Union of Brest was concluded. The meaning of the establishment of the Uniate Church was to subordinate this new church to the Vatican, and not to the Moscow Patriarchate (Orthodox Church), while maintaining the usual architecture of churches, icons and services in the Old Slavonic language (and not in Latin, as in Catholicism). The Vatican had special hopes for the Uniate Church in promoting Catholicism. IN early XVII V. Pope Urban VIII wrote in his message to the Uniates: “Oh my Rusyns! Through you I hope to reach the East...” However, the Uniate Church spread mainly in the west of Ukraine. The bulk of the Ukrainian population, and above all the peasantry, still adhered to Orthodoxy.

Almost 300 years of separate existence, the influence of other languages ​​and cultures (Tatar in Great Russia), Lithuanian and Polish in Belarus and Ukraine, led to the isolation and formation of three special nationalities: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. But unity of origin, common roots ancient Russian culture, a single Orthodox faith with common center- The Moscow Metropolitanate, and then from 1589 - the Patriarchate played a decisive role in the desire for the unity of these peoples.

With the formation of the Moscow centralized state, this craving intensified and the struggle for unification began, which lasted about 200 years. In the 16th century, Novgorod-Seversky, Bryansk, Orsha, and Toropets became part of the Moscow state. A long struggle began for Smolensk, which changed hands several times.

The fight for reunification unified statehood three fraternal peoples went with varying degrees of success. Taking advantage of the severe economic and political crisis that arose as a result of the loss of a long Livonian War, the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible and the unprecedented crop failure and famine of 1603, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth put forward the impostor False Dmitry, who seized the Russian throne in 1605. With the support of the Polish and Lithuanian gentry and gentry. After his death, the interventionists nominated new impostors. Thus, it was the interventionists who initiated the civil war in Rus' (“ Time of Troubles"), which lasted until 1613, when the highest representative body - the Zemsky Sobor, which assumed supreme power in the country, elected Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom. During this civil war, an open attempt was made to re-establish foreign domination in Rus'. At the same time, this was an attempt to “break through” to the East, to the territory of the Moscow State of Catholicism. It was not for nothing that the impostor False Dmitry was so actively supported by the Vatican.

However, the Russian people found the strength, rising in a single patriotic impulse, to promote such folk heroes, like the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin and the governor Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, organize a nationwide militia, defeat and throw out foreign invaders from the country. At the same time as the interventionists, their servants from the state political elite were thrown out, who organized the boyar government (“seven boyars”), for the sake of protecting their narrow selfish interests, they called the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne and were even ready to give the Russian crown to the Polish king Sigismund III. The largest role in preserving independence, national identity and restoring Russian statehood was played by the Orthodox Church and its then head, Patriarch Hermogenes, who set an example of perseverance and self-sacrifice in the name of his beliefs.

2.Culture and life of the Russian people in the 16th century.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Christianity played a decisive role in influencing the culture and life of the Russian people. It played positive role in overcoming harsh morals, ignorance and wild customs of ancient Russian society. In particular, the norms of Christian morality had a huge impact on family life, marriage, and raising children. Is it true. theology then adhered to a dualistic view of the division of the sexes - into two opposite principles - “good” and “evil”. The latter was personified in a woman, determining her position in society and family.

For a long time, the Russian peoples had a large family uniting relatives along the direct and lateral lines. Distinctive features of a large peasant family was collective farming and consumption, common ownership of property by two or more independent married couples. Among the urban (posad) population, families were smaller and usually consisted of two generations of parents and children. The families of feudal lords were, as a rule, small, so the son of a feudal lord, having reached the age of 15, had to serve the sovereign and could receive both his own separate local salary and a granted estate. This contributed to early marriages and the formation of independent small families.

With the introduction of Christianity, marriages began to be formalized through a church wedding ceremony. But the traditional Christian wedding ceremony (“fun”) was preserved in Rus' for about six to seven centuries. Church rules did not stipulate any obstacles to marriage, except one: the “possession” of the bride or groom. But in real life, the restrictions were quite strict, primarily in social terms, which were regulated by customs. The law did not formally prohibit a feudal lord from marrying a peasant woman, but in fact this happened very rarely, since the feudal class was a closed corporation where marriages were encouraged not just with people in their own circle, but with peers. A free man could marry a serf, but had to obtain permission from the master and pay a certain amount as agreed. Thus, both in ancient times and in the cities, marriages, basically, could only take place within one class-estate.

Divorce was very difficult. Already in the early Middle Ages, divorce (“dissolution”) was permitted only in exceptional cases. At the same time, the rights of the spouses were unequal. A husband could divorce his wife if she cheated, and communication with strangers outside the home without the permission of the spouse was equated to betrayal. In the late Middle Ages (from the 16th century), divorce was permitted with the condition that one of the spouses was tonsured a monk.

The Orthodox Church allowed one person to marry no more than three times. Solemn ceremony Weddings were usually performed only during the first marriage. A fourth marriage was strictly prohibited.

A newborn child had to be baptized in church on the eighth day after baptism in the name of the saint of that day. The rite of baptism was considered by the church to be a basic, vital rite. The unbaptized had no rights, not even the right to burial. The church forbade burying a child who died unbaptized in a cemetery. The next rite - "tonsuring" - was carried out a year after baptism. On this day, the godfather or godmother (godparents) cut a lock of the child’s hair and gave a ruble. After the tonsures, they celebrated the name day, that is, the day of the saint in whose honor the person was named (later it became known as the “day of the angel”), and the birthday. The Tsar's name day was considered an official public holiday.

All sources indicate that in the Middle Ages the role of its head was extremely great. He represented the family as a whole in all its external functions. Only he had the right to vote at meetings of residents, in the city council, and later in meetings of Konchan and Sloboda organizations. Within the family, the power of the head was practically unlimited. He controlled the property and destinies of each of its members. This even applied to the personal lives of children, whom he could marry off or marry against their will. The Church condemned him only if he drove them to suicide. The orders of the head of the family had to be carried out unquestioningly. He could apply any punishment, even physical. "Domostroy" - an encyclopedia of Russian life of the 16th century - directly indicated that the owner should beat his wife and children for educational purposes. For disobedience to parents, the church threatened with excommunication.

In-house family life was relatively closed for a long time. However simple women- peasant women, townspeople - did not lead a reclusive lifestyle at all. Testimonies from foreigners about the seclusion of Russian women in the chambers relate, as a rule, to the life of the feudal nobility and eminent merchants. They were rarely allowed even to go to church.

There is little information left about the daily routine of people in the Middle Ages. The working day in the family began early. Ordinary people had two obligatory meals - lunch and dinner. At noon, production activity was interrupted. After lunch, according to the old Russian habit, there was a long rest and sleep (which greatly amazed foreigners). then work began again until dinner. With the end of daylight, everyone went to bed.

With the adoption of Christianity official holidays The days of the church calendar became especially revered: Christmas, Easter, Annunciation, Trinity and others, as well as the seventh day of the week - Sunday. According to church rules, holidays should have been dedicated to pious deeds and religious rites. working on holidays was considered a sin. However, the poor also worked on holidays.

The relative isolation of domestic life was diversified by receptions of guests, as well as festive ceremonies, which were held mainly during church holidays. One of the main religious processions was held for Epiphany - January 6th Art. Art. On this day, the patriarch blessed the water of the Moscow River, and the population of the city performed the Jordan ritual (washing with holy water). On holidays, street performances were also organized. Traveling artists, buffoons, are known back in Ancient Rus'. In addition to playing the harp, pipes, and songs, the buffoons' performances included acrobatic performances and competitions with predatory animals. The buffoon troupe usually included an organ grinder, a gayer (acrobat), and a puppeteer.

Holidays, as a rule, were accompanied by public feasts - fraternities. However, popular ideas about the supposedly unrestrained drunkenness of Russians are clearly exaggerated. Only during the 5-6 major church holidays were the population allowed to brew beer, and taverns were state monopoly. The maintenance of private taverns was strictly persecuted.

Social life also included games and fun - both military and peaceful, for example, the capture of a snowy city, wrestling and fist fights, small towns, leapfrog, etc. . Among gambling games, dice became widespread, and from the 16th century, cards, brought from the West. The favorite pastime of kings and nobles was hunting.

Thus, although the life of a Russian person in the Middle Ages, although it was relatively monotonous, was far from being limited to the production and socio-political spheres, it included many aspects of everyday life, to which historians do not always pay due attention

In historical literature at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries. rationalistic views on historical events. Some of them are explained by causal relationships caused by the activities of people themselves. Authors historical works(for example, “Tales of the Princes of Vladimir,” late 15th century) sought to affirm the idea of ​​​​the exclusivity of the autocratic power of the Russian sovereigns as the successors of Kievan Rus and Byzantium. Similar ideas were expressed in chronographs - summary reviews of general history, in which Russia was considered as the last link in the chain of world-historical monarchies.

It was not only the historical ones that expanded. but also the geographical knowledge of people of the Middle Ages. In connection with the complication of administrative management of the growing territory of the Russian state, the first geographical maps ("drawings") began to be drawn up. This was also facilitated by the development of Russian trade and diplomatic ties. Russian navigators made a great contribution to geographical discoveries in the North. By the beginning of the 16th century, they had explored the White, Icy (Barents) and Kara Seas, discovered many northern lands - the islands of Medvezhiy, Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, Vygach, etc. The Russian Pomors were the first to penetrate the Arctic Ocean, created the first handwritten maps of the explored northern seas and islands. They were among the first to explore the Northern Sea Route around the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Some progress was observed in the field of technical and natural scientific knowledge. Russian craftsmen learned to make quite complex mathematical calculations when constructing buildings and were familiar with the properties of basic building materials. Blocks and other construction mechanisms were used in the construction of buildings. To extract salt solutions, deep drilling and laying of pipes were used, through which the liquid was distilled using a piston pump. In military affairs, the casting of copper cannons was mastered, and battering and throwing weapons became widespread.

In the 17th century, the role of the church in influencing the culture and life of the Russian people intensified. At the same time, state power penetrated more and more into the affairs of the church.

The purpose of penetration of state power into church affairs was to be served by church reform. The tsar wanted to obtain the sanction of the church for state reforms and at the same time take measures to subordinate the church and limit its privileges and lands necessary to provide for the energetically created army of the nobility.

All-Russian church reform was carried out at the Stoglav Cathedral, named after the collection of its decrees, which consisted of one hundred chapters ("Stoglav").

In the works of the Stoglavy Council, issues of internal church order were brought to the fore, primarily related to the life and everyday life of the lower clergy, with the administration of church service. The flagrant vices of the clergy, the careless performance of church rituals, moreover, devoid of any uniformity - all of this aroused a negative attitude among the people towards the ministers of the church and gave rise to freethinking.

In order to stop these dangerous phenomena for the church, it was recommended to strengthen control over the lower clergy. For this purpose, a special institution of archpriests was created (the archpriest is the main priest among the priests of a given church), appointed “by royal command and with the blessing of the saint, as well as priestly elders and tenth priests.” All of them were obliged to tirelessly ensure that ordinary priests and deacons regularly performed divine services, “stood with fear and trembling” in churches, and read the Gospels, Zolotoust, and the lives of the saints.

The Council unified church rites. He officially legitimized, under penalty of anathema, the double-fingered sign of the cross and the “great hallelujah.” By the way, these decisions were later referred to by the Old Believers to justify their adherence to antiquity.

The sale of church positions, bribery, false denunciations, and extortion became so widespread in church circles that the Council of the Hundred Heads was forced to adopt a number of resolutions that somewhat limited the arbitrariness of both the highest hierarchs in relation to the ordinary clergy, and the latter in relation to the laity. From now on, taxes from churches were to be collected not by foremen who abused their position, but by zemstvo elders and tenth priests appointed in rural areas.

The listed measures and partial concessions could not, however, in any way defuse the tense situation in the country and in the church itself. The reform envisaged by the Stoglavy Council did not set as its task a deep transformation of the church structure, but only sought to strengthen it by eliminating the most blatant abuses.

With its decrees, the Stoglavy Council tried to put the stamp of churchliness on all folk life. Under pain of royal and church punishment, it was forbidden to read the so-called “renounced” and heretical books, that is, books that then made up almost all secular literature. The Church was ordered to interfere in the everyday life of people - to turn them away from barbering, from chess, from playing musical instruments, etc., to persecute buffoons, these carriers of folk culture alien to the church.

The time of Grozny is a time of great changes in the field of culture. One of the most significant achievements of the 16th century was printing. The first printing house appeared in Moscow in 1553, and soon books of church content were printed here. The earliest printed books include the Lenten Triodion, published around 1553, and the two Gospels, printed in the 50s. 16th century.

In 1563, the organization of the “sovereign Printing House” was entrusted to an outstanding figure in the field of book printing in Russia, Ivan Fedorov. Together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets, on March 1, 1564, he published the book “Apostle”, and the following year “The Book of Hours”. We also associate the name of Ivan Fedorov with the appearance in 1574 in Lvov of the first edition of the Russian Primer.

Under the influence of the church, such a unique work as “Domostroy” was created, which was already noted above, the final edition of which belonged to Archpriest Sylvester. "Domostroy" is a code of morals and everyday rules intended for the wealthy strata of the urban population. It is permeated with sermons of humility and unquestioning submission to authorities, and in the family - obedience to the householder.

For the increased needs of the Russian state, literate people were needed. At the Council of the Stoglavy, convened in 1551, the question of taking measures to spread education among the population was raised. The clergy were offered to open schools to teach children to read and write. Children were educated, as a rule, in monasteries. In addition, home schooling was common among rich people.

The intense struggle with numerous external and internal enemies contributed to the emergence of extensive historical literature in Russia central theme which was the question of the growth and development of the Russian state. The most significant monument of historical thought of the period under review was the chronicle vaults.

One of the major historical works of this time is the Litseva (i.e., illustrated) chronicle collection: it consisted of 20 thousand pages and 10 thousand beautifully executed miniatures, giving a visual representation of various aspects of Russian life. This code was compiled in the 50-60s of the 16th century with the participation of Tsar Ivan, Alexei Alexei Adashev and Ivan Viskovaty.

The achievements in the field of architecture were especially significant in the late 15th and 16th centuries. In 1553-54, the Church of John the Baptist was built in the village of Dyakovo (not far from the village of Kolomenskoye), exceptional in the originality of its decorative decoration and architectural design. an unsurpassed masterpiece Russian architecture is the Church of the Intercession on the Moat (St. Basil's Church), erected in 1561. This cathedral was built to commemorate the conquest of Kazan.

3. Culture, life and social thought in the 17th century.

The culture and life of the Russian people in the 17th century experienced a qualitative transformation, expressed in three main trends: “worldliness,” the penetration of Western influence, and ideological split.

The first two trends were to a significant extent interconnected, the third was rather a consequence of them. At the same time, both “worldliness” and “Europeanization” were accompanied by the movement social development to a split.

Indeed, the 17th century was an endless chain of unrest and riots. And the roots of the unrest were not so much in the economic and political planes, but, apparently, in the socio-psychological sphere. Throughout the century, there was a breakdown in social consciousness, familiar life and everyday life, and the country was pushed towards a change in the type of civilization. The unrest was a reflection of the spiritual discomfort of entire sections of the population.

In the 17th century, Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established very close trade and diplomatic relations with it, and used European achievements in science, technology, and culture.

Until a certain time, this was precisely communication; there was no talk of any kind of imitation. Russia developed completely independently, the assimilation of Western European experience proceeded naturally, without extremes, within the framework of calm attention to the achievements of others.

Rus' has never suffered from the disease of national isolation. Until the mid-15th century, there was intense exchange between Russians and Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbs. The eastern and southern Slavs had a common literature, writing, and literary (Church Slavonic) language, which, by the way, was also used by the Moldovans and Wallachians. Western European influence penetrated into Rus' through a kind of filter of Byzantine culture. In the second half of the 15th century, as a result of Ottoman aggression, Byzantium fell, the southern Slavs lost their state independence and complete religious freedom. The conditions for cultural exchange between Russia and the outside world have changed significantly.

Economic stabilization in Russia, development commodity-money relations, the intensive formation of the all-Russian market throughout the 17th century - all this objectively required turning to technical advances West. The government of Mikhail Fedorovich did not make a problem out of borrowing European technological and economic experience.

The events of the Time of Troubles and the role of foreigners in them were too fresh in people’s memories. The search for economic and political solutions based on real possibilities was characteristic of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich . The results of this search were quite successful in military affairs, diplomacy, construction of state roads, etc.

The situation in Muscovite Rus' after the Time of Troubles was in many respects better than the situation in Europe. The 17th century for Europe was the time of the bloody Thirty Years' War, which brought ruin, hunger and extinction to the people (the result of the war, for example, in Germany was a reduction in the population from 10 to 4 million people).

There was a flow of immigrants to Russia from Holland, the German principalities, and other countries. Emigrants were attracted by the huge land fund. The life of the Russian population during the reign of the first Romanovs became measured and relatively orderly, and the wealth of forests, meadows and lakes made it quite satisfying. The Moscow of that time - golden-domed, with Byzantine pomp, brisk trade and cheerful holidays - amazed the imagination of Europeans. Many settlers voluntarily converted to Orthodoxy and took Russian names.

Some emigrants did not want to break with habits and customs. The German settlement on the Yauza River near Moscow became a corner of Western Europe in the very heart of Muscovy." Many foreign novelties - from theatrical performances to culinary dishes - aroused interest among the Moscow nobility. Some influential nobles from the royal circle - Naryshkin, Matveev - became supporters of the spread of European customs, arranged their homes in an overseas manner, wore Western dress, and shaved their beards. At the same time, Naryshkin, A.S. Matveev, as well as prominent figures of the 80s of the 17th century Vasily Golitsyn, Golovin, were patriotic people and they were alien to the blind worship of everything Western and the complete rejection of Russian life, so inherent in such ardent Westerners of the beginning of the century as False Dmitry I, Prince I.A. Khvorostinin, who declared: “In Moscow, the people are stupid,” as well as G. Kotoshikhin, a clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, who refused to fulfill his demands and fled in 1664 to Lithuania, and then to Sweden. There he wrote his essay on Russia, commissioned by the Swedish government.

Such statesmen, as the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz A.L. Ordin-Nashchokini, the closest adviser to Tsar Alexei F.M. Rtishchev, they believed that much should be remade in the Western style, but not everything.

Ordyn-Nashchokin, saying, “A good person is not ashamed to learn from strangers,” stood for the preservation of Russian original culture: “Land dress... is not for us, and ours is not for them.”

In Russia, the 17th century, compared to the previous one, was also marked by an increase in literacy among various segments of the population: among landowners, about 65% were literate, merchants - 96%, townspeople - about 40%, peasants - 15%. Literacy was greatly promoted by the transfer of printing from expensive parchment to cheaper paper. The Council Code was published in a circulation of 2,000 copies, unprecedented for Europe at that time. Primers, ABCs, grammars and other educational literature were printed. Handwritten traditions have also been preserved. Since 1621, the Ambassadorial Prikaz compiled "Courants" - the first newspaper in the form of handwritten reports on events in the world. Handwritten literature continued to prevail in Siberia and the North.

Literature of the 17th century is largely freed from religious content. We no longer find in it various kinds of “trips” to holy places, holy teachings, even works like “Domostroya.” Even if individual authors began their work as religious writers, the majority of their work was represented by literature of secular content. So written out for Bible translation from Greek language into Russian (we note in passing that such a need was caused by the fact that the ancient Russian hierarchs, who raised a dispute over the spelling of the name Jesus, because of how many times to say “Hallelujah,” did not even have at their disposal a correct text of the Bible and for centuries managed well without him) from the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, monks E. Slavinetsky and S. Satanovsky not only coped with their main task, but also went much further. By order of the Moscow Tsar, they translated “The Book of Medical Anatomy”, “Citizenship and Teaching Children’s Morals”, “On the Royal City” - a collection of all sorts of things, compiled from Greek and Latin writers in all branches of the then circle of knowledge from theology and philosophy to mineralogy and medicine .

Hundreds of other essays were written. Books containing various scientific and practical information began to be published. Natural scientific knowledge was accumulated, manuals on mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, medicine, and agriculture were published. Interest in history increased: the events of the beginning of the century, the establishment of a new dynasty at the head of the state, required comprehension. Numerous historical stories appeared in which the material presented served to draw lessons for the future.

The most famous historical works of that period, “The Legend” by Avramy Palitsyn, “Vremennik” by clerk I. Timofeev, “Words” by Prince. I.A. Khvorostinina, "Tale" book. THEM. Katyrev-Rostovsky. The official version of the events of the Time of Troubles is contained in the “New Chronicler” of 1630, written by order of Patriarch Philaret. In 1667, the first printed historical work, “Synopsis” (i.e., review), was published, which outlined the history of Rus' from ancient times. The "State Book" was published - a systematized history of the Moscow state, the "Royal Book" - an eleven-volume history and illustrated history of the world, "Azbukovnik" - a kind of encyclopedic dictionary.

Many new trends have penetrated into literature; fictional characters and stories began to spread satirical writings on everyday topics "The Tale of Shemyakin court", "The Tale of Ersha Eroshovich", "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" and others. The heroes of these stories are trying to free themselves from religious dogmas, and at the same time, the worldly wisdom of “Domostroy” remains irresistible.

The work of Archpriest Avvakum is folk-accusatory and at the same time autobiographical. “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself,” with captivating frankness tells about the ordeals of a long-suffering man who devoted his entire life to the struggle for the ideals of the Orthodox faith. The leader of the schism was an exceptionally talented writer for his time. The language of his works is surprisingly simple and at the same time expressive and dynamic. “Archpriest Avvakum,” L. Tolstoy would later write, “burst into Russian literature like a storm.”

In 1661, the monk Samuil Petrovsky-Sitnianovich came from Polotsk to Moscow. He becomes a teacher of the royal children, the author of odes to the glory of the royal family, original plays in Russian "The Comedy Parable of prodigal son", "Tsar New Hudonnezzar". This is how Russia found its first poet and playwright Semeon of Polotsk .

Literature.

1. Taratonenkov G.Ya. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the 19th century century. M.1998

2. A course of lectures on the history of the fatherland. Ed. prof. B.V. Lichman, Ekaterinburg: Ural.gos.tekh. univ. 1995

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Formation and basic principles of education in Russia in the 17th century. The state of folklore and literature, their characteristics. Scientific knowledge Slavs Development of business writing, handwritten books. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia.

course work, added 05/27/2009


Description of the formation of a unified Russian state after the pogrom of Batu in the 13th century. Formation of the appanage Moscow principality and its subsequent strengthening. Religious activities and political role of Sergei of Radonezh; generalization of the Russian people.

abstract, added 11/10/2015


Enlightenment and science. M.V. Lomonosov and Russian science. Russian literature and art. Protective ideas of the ruling class. Advanced social thought in Russia. Formation of Russian enlightenment. Revolutionary views.

thesis, added 04/09/2003


Russian culture during the formation of a centralized state from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Formation of a cultural and economic center around the Moscow Principality (XIV-XV centuries). Architecture and fine arts of Russia in the second half of the 15th – 17th centuries.

abstract, added 04/29/2011


The decline of Russia in the 17th century due to the invasions of the Mongol-Tatars, the despotism of Ivan the Terrible and the discontent and unrest generated by these factors. The reign of the kings of the Romanov dynasty, their contribution to the development of the country as the basis for the “giant breakthrough” of Peter the Great.

presentation, added 05/06/2011


A study of the peculiarities of the organization of the management system of Siberia, its role and place in the development of the entire history of Russia. Identification of the shortcomings of this system that developed in the 17th century. Characteristics of the functions and powers of central and local government bodies.

Here you can find information about the arrangement of the house, clothing and food of the peasants.

Knowledge folk life, traditions, customs gives us the opportunity to preserve historical memory, to find those roots that will nourish new generations of Russians.

A peasant dwelling is a courtyard where residential and outbuildings, a garden and a vegetable garden were built.

The roofs of the buildings were thatched or wooden; often wooden figures of heads of various birds and animals were attached to the roofs.

The buildings themselves were made of wood, mainly pine and spruce. They literally chopped with an axe, but later saws also became known.

For the construction of even the largest buildings, no special foundation was built. But instead, supports were laid in the corners and middles of the walls - stumps, large boulders.

The main buildings of a peasant yard were: a hut and a cage, an upper room, tumbleweeds, a hay barn, a barn, and a shed. A hut is a common residential building. The upper room is a clean and bright building built above the lower one, and here they slept and received guests. The dumps and the hay barn were cold storerooms and served as living quarters in the summer.

The most important component of a peasant home was the Russian stove. They baked bread in it, cooked food, washed, and slept on the upper wall.

The main decoration of the house were images (icons). The icon was placed in the upper corner of the chambers and covered with a curtain - a dungeon.

Wall paintings and mirrors were banned by the Orthodox Church. Only small mirrors were brought from abroad and were components of the women's toilet.

In the household structure of the Russians, there was a noticeable custom of covering and covering everything. The floors were covered with carpets, matting, felt, benches and benches were covered with shelf covers, tables were covered with tablecloths.

The houses were illuminated with candles and torches.

The houses of poor and rich people had the same names and structures, differing only in size and degree of decoration.

The cut of the clothes was the same for both kings and peasants.

Men's shirts were white or red, they were sewn from linen and canvas fabric. The shirts were belted low with straps with a weak knot.

The clothes they wore at home were called zipun. It was a narrow, short white dress.

Women's clothing was similar to men's, only longer. The pilot wore a long shirt. It had a slit in the front that fastened with buttons all the way down to the throat.

All women wore earrings and headdresses.

The peasants' outerwear was a sheepskin coat. The sheepskin coats were altered for children.

For footwear, the peasants had bast shoes, shoes made of vine twigs and leather soles, which were tied to the feet with belts.

Peasant cuisine was Russian, national. The best cook was considered to be the one who knew how other housewives cooked. Changes in food were introduced quietly. The dishes were simple and not varied.

According to the Russian custom of sacredly maintaining fasts, the table was divided into two parts: fast and fast, and according to supplies, the dishes were divided into five: fish, meat, flour, dairy and vegetable.

Floury foods included rye bread - the head of the table, various pies, loaves, casseroles, rolls; for fish - fish soup, baked dishes; for meat - side dishes, quick soups, pates and many others.

The drinks were: vodka, wine, juices, fruit drinks, Berezovets, kvass, tea.

The sweets were natural: fresh fruits, fruits cooked in molasses.

I hope that my small contribution to the promotion of folk culture and way of life will partly contribute to the fact that this culture will be preserved, knowledge of it will strengthen the mind and soul of growing citizens and patriots of our Fatherland.

LIFE OF RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY

LIFE OF BOYARS AND NOBLEMS

• Wealthy people lived in wooden and stone mansions. The windows in such houses were covered with mica, or less often with glass; in noble and merchant houses candles were used for lighting.

AMONG THE INNOVATIONS IN THE USAGE OF THE NOBLE, MIRRORS AND CLOCKS APPEARED. ON THE WALLS YOU COULD SEE PICTURES, ENGRAVINGS, AND GEOGRAPHICAL MAPS. FOREIGN FURNITURE WAS IN FASHION.

CLOTHES OF RICH PEOPLE

• The clothing of men and women was an undershirt - a chemise. The man on top put on trousers, a zipun and a caftan. Caftans varied in cut. The clothes of the rich were decorated with embroidery and precious stones.

Life of peasants and townspeople

• The bulk of peasants and townspeople lived in chicken huts. Chicken hut - this is a hut with a stove without a chimney. In such a hut, the smoke from the fire comes out through a window, an open door or through a chimney in the roof. The houses were illuminated by a torch. The windows were filled with bullish bubbles.

The life of the peasants was simple. It consisted mainly of the most necessary things without frills.

Clothes of peasants and townspeople

• Ordinary townspeople wore caftans more modest than those of the boyars and nobles. In winter, they wore fur coats and hats of various shapes, depending on their income. The peasant's wardrobe included bast shoes, trousers, a shirt; in winter - a fur coat and three fur coats.

Food of Russian people

• The food of Russian people was not very diverse. They had to fast 200 days a year; on these days they were content with bread and grain products, vegetables, and fish. The usual drink was bread kvass.

traditions

• FAMILY.

• The head of the family is a man. The younger ones did not dare to contradict the elders and obeyed them. Women's lives took place at home. We visited church. On Saturdays we washed in the bathhouse; on Sundays and holidays we did not work.

• WEDDING RITE.

• The girl was strictly supposed to guard her honor. Before the wedding, she often did not even see her groom. Marriage was allowed no more than three times. Church marriage did not recognize divorce. Duty to family was considered the main duty of a person

As a rule, the dwellings of rich and poor peasants in villages practically differed in the quality and number of buildings, the quality of decoration, but they consisted of the same elements. The presence of such outbuildings as a barn, barn, barn, bathhouse, cellar, stable, exit, moss barn, etc. depended on the level of development of the economy. All buildings were literally chopped with an ax from the beginning to the end of construction, although longitudinal and transverse saws were known and used. The concept of “peasant yard” included not only buildings, but also the plot of land on which they were located, including a vegetable garden, orchard, threshing floor, etc.

The main building material was wood. The number of forests with excellent “business” forests far exceeded what is now preserved in the vicinity of Saitovka. Pine and spruce were considered the best types of wood for buildings, but pine was always given preference. Oak was valued for its strength, but it was heavy and difficult to work with. It was used only in the lower crowns of log houses, for the construction of cellars, or in structures where special strength was needed (mills, wells, salt barns). Other tree species, especially deciduous (birch, alder, aspen), were used in construction, usually of outbuildings

For each need, trees were selected according to special characteristics. So, for the walls of the log house, they tried to select special “warm” trees, covered with moss, straight, but not necessarily straight-layered. At the same time, not just straight, but straight-layered trees were necessarily chosen for roofing. More often, log houses were assembled in the yard or near the yard. We carefully chose the location for our future home.

For the construction of even the largest log-type buildings, a special foundation was usually not built along the perimeter of the walls, but supports were laid in the corners of the huts - large boulders or so-called “chairs” made of oak stumps. In rare cases, if the length of the walls was much greater than usual, supports were placed in the middle of such walls. The very nature of the log structure of the buildings allowed us to limit ourselves to support on four main points, since the log house was a seamless structure.

Peasant huts

The main structural types of log-built peasant residential buildings were “cross”, “five-walled”, and a house with a log. For insulation, moss mixed with tow was laid between the crowns of the logs.

but the purpose of the connection was always the same - to fasten the logs together into a square with strong knots without any additional joining elements (staples, nails, wooden pins or knitting needles, etc.). Each log was strictly specific place in the design. Having cut down the first crown, a second was cut on it, a third on the second, etc., until the frame reached a predetermined height.

The roofs of the huts were mainly covered with thatch, which, especially in lean years, often served as feed for livestock. Sometimes wealthier peasants erected roofs made of planks or shingles. The tes were made by hand. To do this, two workers used tall sawhorses and a long rip saw.

Everywhere, like all Russians, the peasants of Saitovka, according to a widespread custom, when laying the foundation of a house, put money under the lower crown in all corners, with the red corner receiving more large coin. And where the stove was placed, they did not put anything, since this corner, according to popular belief, was intended for the brownie.

In the upper part of the log house across the hut there was a matka - a tetrahedral wooden beam that served as a support for the ceilings. The matka was cut into the upper crowns of the log house and was often used to hang objects from the ceiling. So, a ring was nailed to it, through which the ochep (flexible pole) of the cradle (shaky pole) passed. In the middle, to illuminate the hut, a lantern with a candle was hung, and later - a kerosene lamp with a lampshade.

In the rituals associated with the completion of the construction of a house, there was a mandatory treat, which was called “matika”. In addition, the laying of the womb itself, after which a fairly large amount of construction work still remained, was considered as a special stage in the construction of the house and was furnished with its own rituals.

IN wedding ceremony For successful matchmaking, matchmakers never entered the house for the queen without a special invitation from the owners of the house. In the popular language, the expression “to sit under the womb” meant “to be a matchmaker.” The womb was associated with the idea of ​​the father's house, good luck, and happiness. So, when leaving home, you had to hold on to your uterus.

For insulation along the entire perimeter, the lower crowns of the hut were covered with earth, forming a pile in front of which a bench was installed. In the summer, old people whiled away the evening time on the rubble and on the bench. Fallen leaves and dry soil were usually placed on top of the ceiling. The space between the ceiling and the roof - the attic - in Saitovka was also called the stavka. It was usually used to store things that had outlived their useful life, utensils, dishes, furniture, brooms, tufts of grass, etc. Children made their own simple hiding places on it.

A porch and a canopy were always attached to a residential hut - a small room that protected the hut from the cold. The role of the canopy was varied. This included a protective vestibule in front of the entrance, additional living space in the summer, and a utility room where part of the food supplies were kept.

The soul of the whole house was the stove. It should be noted that the so-called “Russian”, or more correctly oven, is a purely local invention and quite ancient. It traces its history back to Trypillian dwellings. But during the second millennium AD, very significant changes occurred in the design of the oven itself, which made it possible to use fuel much more fully.

Building a good stove is not an easy task. First, a small wooden frame (opechek) was installed directly on the ground, which served as the foundation of the furnace. Small logs split in half were laid on it and the bottom of the oven was laid on them - under, level, without tilting, otherwise the baked bread would turn out lopsided. A furnace vault was built above the hearth from stone and clay. The side of the oven had several shallow holes, called stoves, in which mittens, mittens, socks, etc. were dried. In the old days, huts (smoking houses) were heated in a black way - the stove did not have a chimney. The smoke escaped through a small fiberglass window. Although the walls and ceiling became sooty, we had to put up with it: a stove without a chimney was cheaper to build and required less firewood. Subsequently, in accordance with the rules of rural improvement, mandatory for state peasants, chimneys began to be installed above the huts.

First of all, the “big woman” stood up - the owner’s wife, if she was not yet old, or one of the daughters-in-law. She flooded the stove, opened the door and smoker wide. The smoke and cold lifted everyone. The little kids were sat on a pole to warm themselves. Acrid smoke filled the entire hut, crawled upward, and hung under the ceiling taller than a man. An ancient Russian proverb, known since the 13th century, says: “Having not endured smoky sorrows, we have not seen warmth.” The smoked logs of the houses were less susceptible to rotting, so the smoking huts were more durable.

The stove occupied almost a quarter of the home's area. It was heated for several hours, but once warmed up, it kept warm and warmed the room for 24 hours. The stove served not only for heating and cooking, but also as a bed. Bread and pies were baked in the oven, porridge and cabbage soup were cooked, meat and vegetables were stewed. In addition, mushrooms, berries, grain, and malt were also dried in it. They often took steam in the oven that replaced the bathhouse.

In all cases of life, the stove came to the aid of the peasant. And the stove had to be heated not only in winter, but throughout the year. Even in summer, it was necessary to heat the oven well at least once a week in order to bake a sufficient supply of bread. Using the ability of the oven to accumulate heat, peasants cooked food once a day, in the morning, left the food inside the oven until lunch - and the food remained hot. Only during late summer dinners did food have to be heated. This feature of the oven had a decisive influence on Russian cooking, in which the processes of simmering, boiling, and stewing predominate, and not only peasant cooking, since the lifestyle of many small nobles did not differ much from peasant life.

The oven served as a lair for the whole family. Old people slept on the stove, the warmest place in the hut, and climbed up there using steps - a device in the form of 2-3 steps. One of the obligatory elements of the interior was the floor - a wooden flooring from the side wall of the stove to the opposite side of the hut. They slept on the floorboards, climbed out of the stove, and dried flax, hemp, and splinters. Bedding and unnecessary clothes were thrown there for the day. The floors were made high, at the same level as the height of the stove. The free edge of the floors was often protected by low railings-balusters so that nothing would fall from the floors. Polati were a favorite place for children: both as a place to sleep and as the most convenient observation point during peasant holidays and weddings.

The location of the stove determined the layout of the entire living room. Usually the stove was placed in the corner to the right or left of front door. The corner opposite the mouth of the stove was the housewife's workplace. Everything here was adapted for cooking. At the stove there was a poker, a grip, a broom, and a wooden shovel. Nearby there is a mortar with a pestle, hand millstones and a tub for leavening dough. They used a poker to remove the ash from the stove. The cook grabbed pot-bellied clay or cast iron pots (cast iron) with her grip and sent them into the heat. She pounded the grain in a mortar, clearing it of husks, and with the help of a mill she ground it into flour. A broom and a shovel were necessary for baking bread: a peasant woman used a broom to sweep under the stove, and with a shovel she planted the future loaf on it.

There was always a cleaning bowl hanging next to the stove, i.e. towel and washbasin. Under it stood a wooden tub for dirty water. In the stove corner there was also a ship's bench (vessel) or counter with shelves inside, used as a kitchen table. On the walls there were observers - cabinets, shelves for simple tableware: pots, ladles, cups, bowls, spoons. The owner of the house himself made them from wood. In the kitchen one could often see pottery in “clothes” made of birch bark - thrifty owners did not throw away cracked pots, pots, bowls, but braided them with strips of birch bark for strength. Above there was a stove beam (pole), on which kitchen utensils were placed and various household supplies were placed. The eldest woman in the house was the sovereign mistress of the stove corner.

Stove corner

During matchmaking future bride had to be in the stove corner all the time, being able to hear the entire conversation. She emerged from the corner of the stove, smartly dressed, during the bride's ceremony - the ceremony of introducing the groom and his parents to the bride. There, the bride awaited the groom on the day of his departure down the aisle. In ancient wedding songs, the stove corner was interpreted as a place associated with the father's house, family, and happiness. The bride's exit from the stove corner to the red corner was perceived as leaving home, saying goodbye to it.

At the same time, the corner of the stove, from which there is access to the underground, was perceived on a mythological level as a place where a meeting of people with representatives of the “other” world could take place. According to legend, a fiery serpent-devil can fly through a chimney to a widow yearning for her dead husband. It was generally accepted that on particularly special days for the family: during the baptism of children, birthdays, weddings, deceased parents - “ancestors” - come to the stove to take part in an important event in the lives of their descendants.

The place of honor in the hut - the red corner - was located diagonally from the stove between the side and front walls. It, like the stove, is an important landmark of the interior space of the hut and is well lit, since both of its constituent walls had windows. The main decoration of the red corner was a shrine with icons, in front of which a lamp was burning, suspended from the ceiling, which is why it was also called “saint”.

Red corner

All significant events of family life were noted in the red corner. Here, as the main piece of furniture, there was a table on massive legs on which runners were installed. The runners made it easy to move the table around the hut. It was placed near the stove when baking bread, and moved while washing the floor and walls.

It was followed by both everyday meals and festive feasts. Every day at lunchtime the whole peasant family gathered at the table. The table was of such a size that there was enough space for everyone. In the wedding ceremony, the matchmaking of the bride, her ransom from her girlfriends and brother took place in the red corner; from the red corner of her father's house they took her to the church for the wedding, brought her to the groom's house and took her to the red corner too. During the harvest, the first and last compressed sheaf was solemnly carried from the field and placed in the red corner.

"The first compressed sheaf was called the birthday boy. Autumn threshing began with it, straw was used to feed sick cattle, the grains of the first sheaf were considered healing for people and birds. The first sheaf was usually reaped by the eldest woman in the family. It was decorated with flowers, carried into the house with songs and placed in the red corner under the icons." Preservation of the first and last ears of the harvest, endowed, according to popular beliefs, magical power promised well-being for the family, home, and entire household.

Everyone who entered the hut first took off his hat, crossed himself and bowed to the images in the red corner, saying: “Peace to this house.” Peasant etiquette ordered a guest who entered the hut to remain in half of the hut at the door, without going beyond the womb. Unauthorized, uninvited entry into the “red half” where the table was placed was considered extremely indecent and could be perceived as an insult. A person who came to the hut could only go there at the special invitation of the owners. The most dear guests were seated in the red corner, and during the wedding - the young ones. On ordinary days, the head of the family sat at the dining table here.

The last remaining corner of the hut, to the left or right of the door, was the workplace of the owner of the house. There was a bench here where he slept. A tool was stored in a drawer underneath. In his free time, the peasant in his corner was engaged in various crafts and minor repairs: weaving bast shoes, baskets and ropes, cutting spoons, hollowing out cups, etc.

Although most peasant huts consisted of only one room, not divided by partitions, an unspoken tradition prescribed certain rules of accommodation for members of the peasant hut. If the stove corner was female half, then in one of the corners of the house there was a special place for the older married couple to sleep. This place was considered honorable.

Shop

An integral attribute Almost every Saitovka hut had a pole - a beam embedded in the opposite walls of the hut under the ceiling, which in the middle, opposite the wall, was supported by two plows. The second pole rested with one end against the first pole, and with the other against the pier. In winter, this structure served as a support for the mill for weaving matting and other auxiliary operations associated with this craft.

spinning wheel

Peasants kept their clothes in chests. The greater the wealth in the family, the more chests there are in the hut. They were made of wood and lined with iron strips for strength. Often chests had ingenious mortise locks. If in peasant family As the girl grew up, from an early age her dowry was collected in a separate chest.

A poor Russian man lived in this space. Often in the winter cold, domestic animals were kept in the hut: calves, lambs, kids, piglets, and sometimes poultry.

In decorating the hut they affected artistic taste and the skill of the Russian peasant. The silhouette of the hut was crowned with a carved

ridge (ridge) and porch roof; the pediment was decorated with carved piers and towels, the planes of the walls were decorated with window frames, often reflecting the influence of city architecture (Baroque, classicism, etc.). The ceiling, door, walls, stove, and less often the outer pediment were painted.

Utility room

Separate from the house, they usually built a bathhouse, a well, and a barn. It is unlikely that the baths of that time were very different from those that can still be found now - a small log house,

sometimes without a dressing room. In one corner there is a stove-stove, next to it there are shelves or shelves on which they steamed. In another corner is a water barrel, which was heated by throwing hot stones into it. Later, cast iron boilers began to be installed in stoves to heat water. To soften the water, wood ash was added to the barrel, thus preparing lye. The entire decoration of the bathhouse was illuminated by a small window, the light from which was drowned in the blackness of the smoky walls and ceilings, since in order to save wood, the bathhouses were heated “black” and the smoke came out through the slightly open door. On top, such a structure often had an almost flat pitched roof, covered with straw, birch bark and turf.

The barn, and often the cellar underneath it, was placed in plain sight opposite the windows and away from the dwelling, so that in the event of a hut fire, a year's supply of grain could be preserved. A lock was hung on the barn door - perhaps the only one in the entire household. In the barn, in huge boxes (bottom boxes), the main wealth of the farmer was stored: rye, wheat, oats, barley. It’s not for nothing that they used to say in the villages: “What’s in the barn is what’s in the pocket.”

To arrange the cellar, they chose a higher and drier place that was not flooded with hollow water. The pit for the cellar was dug deep enough so that the vegetables stored in the cellar would not freeze during severe frosts. Halves of oak logs were used as the walls of the cellar - tyn. The ceiling of the cellar was also made from the same halves, but more powerful. The top of the cellar was filled with earth. There was a hole leading into the cellar, which was called tvorilami and in winter, as always, was insulated from above. In the cellar, as in the barn, there were also pits for storing potatoes, beets, carrots, etc. In the summer, the cellar was used as a refrigerator in which milk and perishable foods were placed.

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Life in Russia in the 17th century

Noticeable shifts in all areas of Russian culture had little effect on the overall cultural panorama of the country.
New trends in everyday life affected only the top of the city - royal court, boyars, rich townspeople. Gradually, the European model of life penetrated into the financially secure Russian environment. The main feature of these innovations was concern for comfort. Cutlery and napkins appeared at the table. Tablecloths and individual dishes were used. A separate room was allocated for each family member. People used individual toiletries. Rich families used earthenware, tin and copper dishes. Drinks were abundantly presented at the feast - beer, kvass, berry honey, imported wines.
In the large stone houses of the boyars Golitsyn, Naryshkin, Odoevsky, Morozov and others, the walls were covered with expensive wallpaper, fabrics, leather, and carpets. Mirrors and paintings hung in the walls. The rooms had beautiful furniture. Chandeliers and many candles illuminated the rooms. Separate rooms were allocated for libraries.
The clothes of the owners and servants of such houses were in the Western style, short and light, made of expensive fabrics, decorated with gold and silver embroidery and precious stones. European dress was supposed to become the norm for Russian society, but this trend did not gain its strength immediately; it had to make its way through the strong foundations of the age-old traditions of the people. However, pan-European fashion, dictated by the generally recognized leader - Paris, in the first half of the 18th century. was already accepted by the privileged classes of Russia.
The carriages were light, on springs, with servants at the back. Concerts, various entertainments, and chess became elements of the everyday life of rich people. IN chess game The Russians easily beat the Europeans. Europeanized people did their hair, shaved their faces, and some used wigs.
Representatives of the townsfolk elite lived more modestly (cloth clothes, modest furniture and dishes). But among them there was also a desire for comfort.
In the 17th century The royal way of life changed. The king's guard numbered up to 2000 people. Special sleeping servants, stablekeepers, falconers, and carriage servants helped him throughout the day. Royal palaces in the 17th century. were distinguished by great splendor. Permanent summer residences appeared - Kolomenskoye and Izmailovskoye.
Paintings, clocks, and mirrors appear in the rooms. The main halls are used to receive guests. At feasts, tables were often set for several thousand guests. The king's main entertainment was hound and falconry.
The mansions of the nobles were a copy of the royal chambers in miniature. They consisted of a complex of wooden and stone structures. There was a stove in the center. Mica, or fish bladders, were inserted into the windows. The furniture was made from carved wood. The floors were made of wood and often covered with carpets. The dishes were gold and silver. Glassware was rare.

The life of the townspeople was more modest. The farmstead included a residential building and outbuildings. The basis of the furniture were tables, benches, and chests. The main decoration was considered a red corner with icons. In the 17th century townspeople began to build brick houses, but only wealthy townspeople could afford such housing.
The peasant yard included a hut, a stable, and a barn. The huts were heated in black, stoves were rare. A torch was used for lighting. The furniture included tables and benches. We slept on the stove and beds near it. The dishes were wooden and clay. The basis of nutrition was grain crops, rye, millet, oats, wheat, and peas. Meat was prepared for major holidays. In the north and in the Center they collected mushrooms and berries. The family consisted of no more than 10 people. Boys were married at the age of 15, and girls at the age of 12. Marriages could take place up to 3 times. Since the 17th century Church weddings became mandatory. Clothes were made from homespun canvas and animal skins. Shoes were bast bast shoes or leather morshni.
All new phenomena of everyday life were a drop in the ocean of old Russian customs. Millions of people lived in smoking huts, with a torch in the common room. Peasant and townsfolk families ate from a common bowl with wooden spoons. They wore clothes made of homespun canvas or coarse cloth, bast shoes in summer, felt boots in winter, and slept on benches in common rooms. On rare days of rest, people enjoyed dressing up, doing fortune telling, dancing with pleasure and singing songs and ditties.
New trends remained elitist. They only emphasized the huge gap between the life of the broad masses of the people (peasants and townspeople) and the extremely narrow layer of representatives of the upper classes of society who were drawn to education and culture. And yet the temples and houses stood in plain sight, the entrance to the churches was open to all parishioners. This left a civilizational stamp on the appearance of the people’s consciousness.
Compared to the 16th century, the 17th century had at least some changes in everyday life. Indeed, in the 16th century, the life of various strata of the people changed slowly. Life in the vast expanses of Russia remained traditional, as it had been many centuries ago. The same long and heavy clothes remained. The same smoking huts, the same wooden dishes, the same entertainment. Only in large cities did some changes occur. In some places mica and glass windows appeared instead of the previous ones, covered with bullish bubbles.