Russian literary abroad, three waves of Russian emigration. Third wave

The third wave of Russian emigration (1966-1985) was the largest since 1917. Among the emigrants of this wave, a significant part were the intelligentsia. So, only in the early 70s. More than 50 thousand representatives of the intelligentsia left the USSR abroad. During this period, completely new processes appeared in the sociocultural phenomenon of emigration - forced deprivation of citizenship and dissidence. ( Dissident(apostate, dissident) - a person who defends views that radically diverge from generally accepted ones. Often this conflict of personal beliefs with prevailing doctrine leads to persecution, persecution and repression from the official authorities.)

Journalist A. Nezhny wrote very figuratively about the third wave of emigrants: “They left and are leaving not from Russia - it is generally impossible to leave it. They are fleeing from the state, whose heavy carcass covers the skies; they are running away from the government, which has nothing sacred; they are fleeing from the house administration, the district committee, the regional committee, radio broadcasting, from seksots, queues, camps, from shameless lies and cold cruelty, from monstrous lack of culture and victorious rudeness - they are fleeing to save their mortal bodies and immortal souls from the monster, they are fleeing, cursing and crying." .

The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the “sixties” generation, quite a few important role For this generation, the fact of its formation in war and post-war times played a role. “Children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s "thaw", however, it soon became obvious that fundamental changes in life Soviet society The “thaw” does not promise. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when a visit took placeN.S. Khrushchev exhibitions of avant-garde artists in Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

In the early 1970s, the intelligentsia and writers began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived Soviet citizenship(A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the third wave of emigration, the following are leaving abroad: Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu. Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, etc. Most writers emigrate to the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora is being formed (Brodsky, Korzhavin, Aksenov, Dovlatov, Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (Sinyavsky, Rozanova, Nekrasov, Limonov, Maksimov, N. Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (Voinovich, Gorenshtein).

Unlike the emigrants of the first and second waves, they They did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages prevented the formation of connections between generations. The Russian language in the USSR and abroad has undergone significant changes over 50 years, the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 1960s, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov.One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction toto the avant-garde , postmodernism . At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), and anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

Two major writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates an epic novel in exileRed wheel , which addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes a novelGeneral and his army , which also touches on a historical theme: at the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. Dedicates his novel to the fate of the peasant familySeven days of creation V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novelIn the trenches of Stalingrad , publishes after departureNotes from an onlooker , A little sad story .

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950–1970s, the evolution of his generation. Novel Burn gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in Moscow saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare, not typical for Russian literature, combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral conclusions. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. Written in exileForeign woman Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street Queens, pictured inForeign woman , – a gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich is trying his hand at the dystopian genre abroad - in a novel Moscow 2042, which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes in exile Walking with Pushkin, In the shadow of Gogol.

TO postmodern traditions attribute their creativity to Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov. Sokolov's novels School for fools, Between a dog and a wolf, Rosewood are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in Mamleev’s prose, in currently regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown my head, Eternal Home, Voice from nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story We had a wonderful era, denies the establishment in the books It's me – Eddie, Diary of a Loser, Teenager Savenko, Young scoundrel.

A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to Brodsky, who received theNobel Prize for "the development and modernization of classical forms." In exile, he publishes poetry collections and poems.

Limonov

IN 1975 - 1976 worked as a proofreader in New York newspaper « New Russian word " In the Russian emigrant press he wrote accusatory articles against capitalism and the bourgeois way of life. Took part in activities Socialist Workers Party USA . In this regard, he was summoned for interrogation by FBI .

In May 1976, he handcuffs himself to a building. New York Times ”, demanding the publication of their articles. In 1976, the Moscow newspaper Nedelya reprinted Limonov’s article “Disappointment” published in September 1974 from the New Russian Word. In connection with the publication of this article in the USSR, dismissal from the New Russian Word follows. This was Limonov's first (and only until 1989) publication in the USSR.

19. Post-war literary situation.

By lectures:

- Achievements of Russian literature during the Second World War

During the Second World War, literature began to restore a universal system of values.

- The first post-war literary discoveries (Nekrasov’s novel and Platonov’s story)

The desire of military prose for poetics

1946 – Nekrasov’s autobiographical novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad” 1947 – Stalin Prize, but criticism - the determining role of the party in the “Stalin Battle” is not shown

1946 – Platonov “Return”

- Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad” (1946)

“...many unprincipled and ideologically harmful works have appeared.

Resolution of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party (Bolsheviks) on the magazines “Zvezda” and “Stalingrad”

Zoshchenko is alien Soviet literature– empty and vulgar things that poison the mind. "The Monkey's Adventure" Against Akhmatova. Although she already wrote “Courage” in Pravda. But she, they say, does not keep pace with her people, salon and decadent art for the sake of art.

Then there was Zhdanov’s report. Zoshchenko is remembered by the Serapion brothers. Akhmatova – Acmeists, bourgeois.

Khazin is a parody of Onegin. Slanderer.

Zoshchenko and Akhmatova had their food cards taken away (in 1946 there was a bad harvest, by the way). Zoshchenko is a disabled person of the First World War. Civil penalty: you can’t publish, there’s no work. Akhmatova translated interlinearly from Korean poetesses.

- Theory of non-conflict

Requirements for literature on the theory of conflictlessness:

Limits ideas about literary conflict

Unambiguity in the assessment of heroes

Non-conflict theory:

1) limitations in depicting life conflicts. Conflicts of the type should be resolved peacefully by a wise boss. Ovechkin "District everyday life"

2) unique character series, heroes. Either good or bad. Vsevolod Kochetov “Zhurbiny”

3) stylistic uniformity. Swearing and slang are not allowed. Dialects are limited. Distilled language. Purely standardized language.

This theory proposed to abandon the invaluable experience from books. And from the development of the artistic form.

- Abramov’s article “People of a collective farm village in post-war literature as a summary and programmatic”

You need to write for the people so that they understand their strengths and weaknesses

Ch. the task of art is enlightenment

Increasing goodness on earth and beauty

With our tickets:

Veil of soldier's egoism (Platonov “Return”)- the son (little man) teaches his father forgiveness. They return to meet the children along the sandy road. Existential problems show that war is inhuman, contrary to the idea that man was created for love.

Plot: http://briefly.ru/platonov/vozvrashenie/- read

We won in the name of the future - Nekrasov “In the trenches of Stalingrad”

Plot: http://briefly.ru/nekrasovvp/v_okopah_stalingrada/

The story “In the Trenches of Stalingrad” is dedicated to heroic defense of the city in 1942-1943. This work was first published in 1946 in the magazine “Znamya”. But it was immediately prohibited, since it showed the author as a “real person” war with all the defeats and failures. But the most important thing was that in this work Victor Nekrasov told at what cost did the Russian people achieve the long-awaited Victory! This story is very easy to read. It is written in an ordinary, simple language.

But this is typical of the author. It is impossible not to say that the author wrote this work in the first person, and one of the main characters - Lieutenant Kerzhentsev - is the author himself, who nobly defended Stalingrad . The story “In the Trenches of Stalingrad” is the author’s front-line diary, in which from beginning to end he describes heavy battles and the difficulties that soldiers faced during the war. There is one more feature of this work: if you read carefully, you will notice that it openly opposed the laws of the time when the state was ruled by Stalin. In the story there are no generals, no political workers, no “leading role of the party,” but there are only soldiers and their commanders, there is a Stalingrad trench, courage, heroism and patriotism Russian people. The commander and his soldiers are the main characters, all without exception.

They are all different, but united by one goal - to protect the Motherland! The soldiers who heroically defended Stalingrad are not fictional people, but front-line comrades of the author himself. Therefore, the entire work is permeated with love for them. Creating the image of Kerzhentsev and other heroes, Viktor Nekrasov is trying to tell us how war changed the destinies, the characters of people, that they will no longer be the same people they were before, before the war. The author writes with deepest regret about the death of his hometown, in which he grew up, which he dearly loved. Viktor Nekrasov sought to convey to readers that only thanks to the patriotism of the Russian people was this war won! And even though the German troops were more prepared for military action, even if they had everything necessary for this, Victory remained with us!

“We will fight until the last soldier. Russians they always fight like this,” until the final victory. This thought runs through the entire story and is the main idea of this work. This story became an invaluable gift that Viktor Platonovich Nekrasov left behind.

The goal that he set for himself - to depict the war as it is - was completely fulfilled by him. In our country, for a long time, people who told people the truth have not been liked. Therefore, his fate was determined, and he had no choice but to go abroad, where he could write his works and give them to people.

Vera F. Panova “Companions”, novel. The film "For the rest of my life" is a film adaptation. Hospital train. Stalin Prize.

1945-1955 – Pasternak works on Doctor Zhivago.

By the end of the 40s, it was indecent to be proud of your front-line past. The feat now had to be forgotten (until the “thaw”).

Beginning of 1954 - Abramov’s article “People, collective farms, villages in post-war literature.” Three criteria:

1) literature should be truthful, but it is not. It is necessary to include documents, naturalism, and autobiography in the text. This did not happen.

2) the character of the central characters. It's hard to believe in their existence. They are ideal and similar to the scheme of the conflict-free theory

3) the language is distilled due to the theory of non-conflict. Without jargon, dialects, swearing, special vocabulary. Inanimate language.

The answer to his program was “thaw” literature.

20. “Thaw” literature.

It was a response to Abramov’s article.

1953-1965 – Khrushchev’s thaw (during his reign)

1953 – Stalin died

20th Party Congress, report from the Central Committee: condemnation of Stalin’s personality cult, proclamation of the democratization of public life. Khrushchev is the head of state and the head of the party - a combination strategy. Voluntarism is a philosophy that considers will as the basis of existence. This is also an activity that does not take into account the laws of social development.

Situation:

Censorship ceases to be so strict, openness to the Western world, an attempt to change the system of government.

The subject of our research is the history and main patterns of Christian activity of the Russian emigration after 1917. The process of emigration proceeded unevenly; in certain periods of time, significant masses of people left for permanent residence abroad; in other periods, the emigration flows “dried up” for various reasons. Let us take a closer look at these flows (waves of emigration), turning Special attention on their attitude to Christian life.

It is customary to distinguish four waves of Russian post-revolutionary emigration:

First (1920s);

Second (1940s);

Third (1970s);

Fourth (late 1980s - early 1990s).

However, before moving on to more detailed consideration of these emigration flows, it is necessary to mention pre-revolutionary emigration, which had a significant influence on the religious activities of the Russian emigration in the post-revolutionary period.

Before the revolution, there were two main streams of Russian emigration: in Western Europe and to the USA and Canada; In the second stream, Ukrainians should be especially noted.

a) Representatives of the Russian aristocracy and bourgeoisie who left Russia for various reasons and remained abroad after 1917. Very few clergy came from this environment, but they could and often exerted significant financial assistance church communities abroad and were engaged in other types of church charitable activities (in particular, helping poor Russian emigrants in the process of their adaptation to a new life abroad).

b) Emigrants of Jewish origin (mainly from the western and southern regions of the Russian Empire) fleeing pogroms. This part of the emigrants, as a rule, professed Judaism to one degree or another and therefore is not directly related to the subject of our study.

c) Emigrants from Ukraine (mainly from the western part and the so-called Carpathian Rus). The main reason for their emigration is usually considered to be the economic desire to acquire land in Canada and the United States, but there were also certain political and religious reasons for their emigration. Among the political reasons we can name opposition to Polonization on the one hand and Russification on the other (since this part of the population had a certain national (in particular, linguistic, ritual, etc.) identity and sought to preserve it). By religious affiliation, these Ukrainian emigrants were partly Orthodox, partly Catholics of the Eastern Rite (Uniates). The former often came into conflict with the Catholic environment, the latter - both with the Orthodox (since they were officially considered Orthodox, but refused to accept the sacraments of the Orthodox Church), and with the Latin Catholic hierarchy, since not all representatives of traditional (Latin) Catholicism recognized the legitimacy of both the use of the Eastern rite, as well as some of its features (in particular, married clergy). Arriving in the USA and Canada, they also met with rejection from the local hierarchs Catholic Church, which became one of the reasons for the mass conversion of this part of the emigration to Orthodoxy. Another, more important reason The conversion was prompted by the great missionary work carried out by the Orthodox in America. This work was given special assistance by the then ruling bishops in America, Bishop of Aleutian and Alaskan Vladimir (Sokolovsky, in America from 1887/1888 to 1891), who accepted this group of believers into Orthodoxy, and Bishop Nikolai (Ziorov, 1891–1898) who succeeded him in this department ) and Archbishop of Aleutian and North American Tikhon (Belavin, future His Holiness Patriarch Moscow and All Rus', later canonized; 1898–1907). Having settled in America, this group of emigrants greatly contributed to the formation of Orthodox communities in the USA and Canada. From its midst came many prominent bishops, priests and theologians of the Orthodox Church in America, who to this day play a leading role in the leadership of this Church. As examples modern descendants these emigrants can be called the primates of this Church, His Eminence Theodosius and Herman, the metropolitans of all America and Canada, the head of the office of the Orthodox Church in America, Protopresbyter Daniil Gubyak (who was later rector of the Moscow metochion of the Orthodox Church in America, a student and follower of the prominent American Orthodox theologian Protopresbyter Alexander Schmemann) and Rodion Kondratik, executive secretary of the Orthodox Church in America for public relations, Archpriest Grigory Gavrilyak and many others.

d) Russian Doukhobors who left for America at the request of L.N. Tolstoy. The Doukhobors, as a rule, tried to preserve the traditions and rituals they had adopted in emigration, lived very separately and, in general, did not have a significant influence on the spiritual life of the Russian emigration.

e) Revolutionaries, supporters of various Russians political parties and movements hiding from persecution by the authorities (mainly in Western Europe), a small part of which, for various reasons, remained in exile after the revolution. This group, as a rule, was atheistic, and only a few of them subsequently came to the Church.

First wave Russian emigration, as we noted above, dates back to the 1920s. The Civil War was lost by the White Army, and many Russians, for one reason or another fearing persecution by the Bolsheviks, were forced to emigrate.

The following main flows can be distinguished as part of the Russian emigration of the first wave:

a) Emigrants from the South of Russia (together with the retreating units of the army of General P. N. Wrangel). Their route, as a rule, lay through Constantinople to the Balkans (to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria). Then many representatives of this current of Russian emigration moved to Western Europe (mainly France), and some settled in the USA. A similar path was followed, for example, by the prominent Russian hierarch Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov, who, however, returned to Russia at the end of his life) and many others.

b) Emigrants from the East of Russia (together with the retreating units of the army of Admiral A.V. Kolchak). Many of them ended up in China, and after the Chinese revolution they were forced to leave for Australia. A small part of this flow remained in Australia, and the majority moved to America.

c) Emigrants from the West of Russia, many of whom unwittingly found themselves in emigration due to the change state borders(Poland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia became independent states, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus became part of Poland, etc.). Some of them remained in place, while others proceeded through Eastern Europe to Western Europe; some of them then went further to the USA and Canada.

The emigration routes for a number of representatives of this wave were also different, but they were not of a massive nature.

The religious activities of the first wave of emigration had a huge impact on the spiritual life of not only Russians abroad, but also the population of the countries themselves in which Russian exiles found themselves. Examples include the creation and activities of the Russian Student Christian Movement (RSCM), the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, the Institute named after. N.P. Kondakova in Prague, St. Vladimir Orthodox Theological Seminary in Crestwood (USA), Holy Trinity Orthodox Theological Seminary in Jordanville (USA) and many others.

Let us give some milestones in the development of religious activity of the first wave of emigration.

In the early 1920s, the Russian Student Christian Movement (RSCM) was created. The beginning of the organized Movement was laid on October 1–8, 1923 at the First General Congress of the RSHD in the town of Psherov near Prague (Czechoslovakia).

In 1925, the St. Sergius Theological Institute in Paris began its work, whose teachers were different years there were leading Orthodox theologians and religious figures of the Russian diaspora: Bishop (later Metropolitan) Veniamin (Fedchenkov), Protopresbyters Boris Bobrinskoy, Vasily Zenkovsky, Alexy Knyazev, Archimandrite Cyprian (Kern), Archpriests Sergius Bulgakov, Georgy Florovsky; A. V. Kartashev, G. P. Fedotov and others. Metropolitan Nikolai (Eremin), Archbishops George (Wagner), Nikon (Greve), Pavel (Golyshev), Seraphim (Dulgov), Seraphim (Rodionov), Bishops Alexander (Semyonov Tian-Shansky), Dionysius (Lukin) graduated from or studied at the institute ), Konstantin (Essensky), Methodius (Kulman), Theodore (Tekuchev), protopresbyters Alexander Schmemann and John Meyendorff, archpriests Nikolai Ozolin, Mikhail Fortunato, hieromonk Savva (Struve), one of the leaders of the Russian Student Christian Movement K. A. Elchaninov, prominent Orthodox theologians P. N. Evdokimov and I. M. Kontsevich and others.

In November 1927, the first liturgy was celebrated in the Church of St. Sergius Metochion in Paris. French, and at the end of 1928 - beginning of 1929 the first French-speaking Orthodox parish of St. Genevieve (Genovefa of Paris) was born, of which Fr. Leo (Gillet). The first services were held in the premises of the RSHD at 10 Montparnasse Boulevard, and then, thanks to the assistance of P. N. Evdokimov, the parish was given the former Lutheran Church of the Holy Trinity in the 13th arrondissement of Paris.

The brotherhood of St. Photius, which operated under the omophorion of the Moscow Patriarchate, also played a significant role in the spiritual life of the Russian diaspora. This brotherhood included brothers Evgraf, Maxim and Pyotr Kovalevsky, V.N. Lossky and others.

The first wave of emigration included representatives of the aristocracy, bourgeoisie, army, creative intelligentsia, as well as many people from the people - peasants and workers. The social composition of this wave of emigration is of interest for studying the religious activities of the Russian diaspora, primarily in connection with the significant social stratification of the emigrant masses (especially at first). People from similar social strata tried to stick together, and, as Metropolitan Eulogius noted, the described social stratification sometimes left a significant imprint on the structure of church life of entire parishes.

So, in 1925, the Gallipoli society in Paris (which united many representatives of the military emigration who were involved in this military campaign) rented premises for its meetings and built a church there in the name of St. Sergius Radonezh. In the spiritual life of this parish there was disorder for a long time, until Father Viktor Yuryev (future protopresbyter), himself a former Gallipolian, was appointed its rector. Representatives of the Russian aristocracy (member of the founding committee of the St. Sergius metochion in Paris, Count K. A. Butenev-Khreptovich, princes Trubetskoy, Lopukhin, etc.) gathered in another Orthodox parish in the city of Clamart near Paris. The spiritual life of this parish began to revive after the appointment of the elderly priest Mikhail Osorgin, a relative of the Trubetskoys, a former cavalry guard and then governor, as rector there. As Metropolitan Evlogy wrote, Father Mikhail Osorgin was “among his many relatives in Clamart<…>like a patriarch over the entire clan association: he judges and reconciles, denounces and encourages, and also baptizes, crowns, and buries. Good shepherd, evangelical.”

Second wave Russian emigration (1940s) had one main direction: from the occupied territories of the western USSR to Germany and Austria (in accordance with the retreat German army), and from there to South America (Argentina, etc.), the USA and Canada, but, like the first emigration, many people were involved in it. Its representatives were mainly people interned by Nazi Germany from Russia during the Second World War. Another part of this wave consisted of people who, for various reasons, left the Soviet Union with the retreating by German troops. And finally, the third, less numerous, part of this wave voluntarily, for one reason or another, decided to cooperate with Germany in its war against the Soviet Union, including persons united in the so-called “Russian Liberation Army” (ROA) under the leadership of General A. A. Vlasov (“Vlasovites”). All of them were rightly afraid of returning to the USSR, where they high probability brutal reprisals were expected.

After the end of the war, some of these individuals, by agreement between the victorious powers, were expelled to the USSR and repressed. Wanting to avoid repatriation, representatives of the second wave of emigration left Europe and eventually settled in South America(Argentina, Chile and other countries), in the USA and Canada.

The spiritual state of the second wave of emigration was very peculiar. On the one hand, the second wave of emigrants lived for a long time under the Soviet atheistic system. On the other hand, many of them still remembered religious life in pre-revolutionary Russia and sought to restore religious foundations. The second emigration gave the Russians abroad not many priests and theologians, but a significant mass of believers who replenished the composition of Orthodox parishes in the South and North America(primarily under the omophorion of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (ROCOR)). Among the most prominent religious figures of the second wave are Archbishop Andrei (Rymarenko) and Archpriest Dimitry Konstantinov.

Comparing the first and second waves of emigration, Archpriest Dimitry Konstantinov notes that the latter, “settled for a number of reasons not so much in Europe as on other continents, became emigration<…>temple-building." At the same time, he emphasizes that representatives of the spiritual elite of the first wave of emigration treated the second wave with a certain disdain, as “something of little value, “Soviet”, incomprehensible, ignorant and almost half-wild.”

Third wave emigration (1970s) was predominantly political in nature. It was based on faces Jewish nationality who emigrated to Israel, a number of human rights activists and dissidents who were subjected to repression in the USSR (including those persecuted for their faith), as well as the so-called “defectors”. Some of them remained in Israel, others moved from there to the United States. Very few were sent directly to the United States, and a few to Western Europe.

The spiritual level of the Christian part of this wave of emigration was very low, but during the emigration, some of its representatives came to God and became priests and theologians. Among the religious figures of the third wave, we can mention, for example, the priests Ilya Shmain, who served in the Holy Land and France and then returned to his homeland, and the rector of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in New York, priest Mikhail Aksenov.

Fourth wave emigration began after perestroika in the late 1980s. It was predominantly economic in nature. Emigrants of the 80s went to the USA, Canada, Western Europe (mainly Germany) and, according to established tradition, to Israel.

Some went abroad to receive a serious classical theological education. Examples of religious figures of the fourth wave include the famous theologian Hieromonk Nikolai (Sakharov), researcher spiritual heritage Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov), and the rector of the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles in Bridgeport (USA), priest Vadim Pismenny.

In general, the spiritual level of the representatives of this wave approximately corresponded to the level of the third wave. Just as then, people who are far from the faith, finding themselves in exile, alone and separated from their usual way of life, often strive for Russian-language communication. Orthodox church often becomes not only a spiritual center, but also a place of regular meetings of the Russian community. Gradually people come to God and join the spiritual rhythm of Orthodox worship.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note a general trend for Russians abroad. Many descendants of Russian emigrants in the second and especially in the third generation cease to speak Russian and, while remaining Orthodox, largely lose their spiritual connection with the homeland of their ancestors. One of the prominent shepherds of the Russian emigration, Archpriest Boris Stark (1909–1996), a representative of the first wave, recalls, in particular: “I knew one family in Paris, where the children were raised by perfect Frenchmen. Everything Russian was banned, even the language. Parents, who had experienced the grip of nostalgia, did not want the same torment for their children<…>I don’t presume to condemn these people. They wished only good things for the children, they wanted to protect them from bitter tossing, so that they would not rush to the lost Russian shore. Almost all the children who were my pupils at the Russian House in Paris and who remained there now recognize themselves as Russians to the smallest extent. And what can we say about their children!” . At the same time, as noted above, new emigrants from Russia are arriving in the West, replenishing the Russian community (although initially they are generally very far from religion), and some of them in emigration gradually find their way to God and to the Church.

Thus, one can see that representatives of all waves of Russian emigration found their place in religious life Russian abroad. Religious activity has always been and remains important integral part life of the Russian emigration.

Ber-Sizhel E. The first French-speaking Orthodox parish // Alpha and Omega. 2002. No. 3(33). pp. 326, 330, 332.

Konstantinov D. V. Through the 20th Century Tunnel / Edited by A. V. Popova. (Materials on the history of Russian political emigration. Issue III). M., 1997. P. 363.

Interview with Archpriest Boris Stark // Correspondence to historical topics. Sat. articles. M., 1989. P. 324.

The development of literature of the first wave of emigration can be divided into two periods:

1920 - 1925 - the period of formation of literature of emigration, hope for return. Anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik themes predominate, nostalgia for Russia, the civil war is depicted from an anti-revolutionary position.

1925 - 1939 - intensive development of publishing activities, formation of literary associations. Hopes of return are lost. Becomes of great importance memoir literature, designed to preserve the aroma of a lost paradise, pictures of childhood, folk customs; historical, as a rule, based on the understanding of history as a chain of accidents depending on the will of man; the revolution and civil war are depicted from a more balanced position, the first works about the Gulag and concentration camps appear (I. Solonevich “Russia in a concentration camp”, M. Margolin “The Journey and Country of Ze-Ka”, Y. Bessonov “26 Prisons and Escape from Solovki” ").

In 1933, recognition of the Russian foreign literature Bunin received the Nobel Prize "for the truthful artistic talent with which Bunin recreated the Russian character."

The second wave of Russian emigration was generated by the Second World War. It consisted of those who left the Baltic republics, annexed to the USSR in 1939; from prisoners of war who were afraid to return home, where Soviet camps could await them; from Soviet young people deported to work in Germany; one of those who committed themselves to collaboration with the fascists. The place of residence for these people was first Germany, then the USA and Great Britain. Almost everyone now famous poets and the prose writers of the second wave began their literary activity already in emigration. These are the poets O. Anstey, I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, I. Chinnov, T. Fesenko, Y. Ivask. As a rule, they began with social themes, but then moved on to lyrical and philosophical poems. Writers V. Yurasov, L. Rzhevsky, B. Filippov (Filistinsky), B. Shiryaev,

N. Narokov talked about the life of the Soviet Union on the eve of the war, about repressions, general fear, about the war itself and the thorny path of an emigrant. What all writers of the second wave had in common was overcoming the ideological orientation of their creativity and acquiring universal morality. Until now, the literature of the second wave remains little known to readers. One of the best available works is the novel “Imaginary Values” by N. Narokov, which tells about the fate of Soviet intellectuals living according to Christian laws of conscience during the Stalin years.

The third wave of emigration is associated with the beginning of the dissident movement in the late 1960s and for purely aesthetic reasons. Most of the third wave emigrants were formed as writers during the period of Khrushchev’s “thaw” with its condemnation of Stalin’s personality cult and the proclaimed return to “Leninist norms of life.” The writers breathed in the air of creative freedom: they could turn to previously closed topics of the Gulag, totalitarianism, and the true price of military victories. It has become possible to go beyond the norm socialist realism and develop experimental, conditional forms. But already in the mid-1960s, freedoms began to curtail, ideological censorship intensified, and aesthetic experiments were criticized. The persecution of A. Solzhenitsyn and V. Nekrasov began, I. Brodsky was arrested and exiled to forced labor, A. Sinyavsky was arrested, the KGB intimidated V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, V. Voinovich. Under these conditions, these and many other writers were forced to go abroad. The writers Yuz Aleshkovsky, G. Vladimov, A. Zinoviev, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, Sokolov, Dina Rubina, F. Gorenshtein, E. Limonov ended up in exile; poets A. Galich, N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, I. Guberman, playwright A. Amalrik.

A characteristic feature of the third wave of literature was the combination of stylistic trends of Soviet literature with the achievements of Western writers, and special attention to avant-garde movements.

The largest writer of the realistic movement was Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who during his emigration wrote the multi-volume epic “The Red Wheel”, reproducing the most important “knots” of Russian history. TO realistic direction One can also include the works of Georgy Vladimov ("Faithful Ruslan", "The General and His Army"), Vladimir Maksimov ("Seven Days of Creation", "Looking into the Abyss", autobiographical novels "Farewell from Nowhere" and "Nomadism to Death"), Sergei Dovlatov (stories from the cycles “Suitcase”, “Ours”, etc.). Friedrich Gorenstein's existential novels "Psalm" and "Atonement" fit into the religious and philosophical mainstream of Russian literature with its ideas of suffering and redemption.

Satirical, grotesque forms are characteristic of the work of Vasily Aksenov ("Island of Crimea", "Burn", "In Search of the Sad Baby"), although the trilogy "Moscow Saga" about the life of the generation of the 1930-40s is a purely realistic work.

Modernist and postmodernist poetics are clearly manifested in Sasha Sokolov’s novels “School for Fools,” “Between a Dog and a Wolf,” and “Rosewood.” In line with metaphysical realism, as the writer defines his style, and essentially in line with surrealism, Yuri Mamleev writes, conveying the horror and absurdity of life in the stories of the series “Drown My Head”, “Russian Fairy Tales”, in the novels “Connecting Rods”, “Wandering Time” .

The third wave of Russian emigration produced numerous and varied works in terms of genre and style. With the collapse of the USSR, many writers returned to Russia, where they continue their literary activities.

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The first wave of Russian emigration- the most widespread and significant contribution to world culture of the 20th century. In 1918-1922, more than 2.5 million people left Russia - people from all classes and estates: the clan nobility, government and other service people, the petty and large bourgeoisie, the clergy, the intelligentsia - representatives of all art schools and movements (symbolists and acmeists, cubists and futurists). In the Czech Republic, Germany, and France, they found jobs as drivers, waiters, dishwashers, and musicians in small restaurants, continuing to consider themselves bearers of the great Russian culture. Gradually, the specialization of the cultural centers of the Russian emigration emerged: Berlin was the publishing center, Prague - the scientific center, Paris - the literary, and more broadly - the spiritual capital of the Russian diaspora.

In 1921 -1952. More than 170 were produced abroad periodicals in Russian, mainly on history, law, philosophy and culture. In Paris Society of Russian Engineers had 3 thousand members, the Society of Chemists - more than 200 people. About 500 prominent scientists ended up abroad, heading departments and entire scientific directions(SYA. Vinogradsky, V.K. Agafonov, K.N. Davydov, P.A. Sorokin and etc.). An impressive list of literary and artistic figures who have left (F.I. Shalyapin, S.V. Rachmaninov, K.A. Korovin, Yu.P. Annenkov, I.A. Bunin etc.). Such a brain drain could not but lead to a serious decline spiritual potential national culture.

In the literary Abroad, experts distinguish two groups of writers - those who formed as creative personalities before emigration, in Russia, and those who have already gained fame abroad. The first includes the most prominent Russian writers and poets L. Andreev, K. Balmont, I. Bunin, 3. Gippius, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, Sasha Cherny.

The most famous among them was, perhaps, I.A. Bunin(1870-1953) - honorary academician St. Petersburg Academy Sciences (1909), laureate Nobel Prize(1933). Emigrated from Russia in 1920. Continuing the classical traditions of Turgenev, Chekhov, Bunin in his stories and stories shows impoverishment noble estates (“Antonov apples”), disastrous oblivion moral principles life ("Mr. from San Francisco"). Bunin wrote his most significant works in exile: "Mitya's love"(1925), "The Life of Arsenyev"(1930), collection of short stories "Dark alleys"(1946).

The second group consisted of writers who had published nothing or almost nothing before emigrating to Russia. This V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, G. Gazdanov, A. Ginger, B. Poplavsky. The most prominent among them was V.V. Nabokov(1898-1977), emigrated from Russia in 1919, first to Europe, and then (1940) to the USA. Nabokov had an excellent command of both Russian literary and English languages. In novels "Luzhin's Defense"(1930), "Gift"(1937), "Invitation to Execution"(1936), "Pnin"(1957) the writer reveals the conflict of a spiritually gifted loner with the world of “vulgarity” - “philistine civilization”, where lies and social fictions reign. In the famous "Lolita"(1955) shows the erotic experience of a refined European.

Not only writers, but also outstanding Russians ended up in exile philosophers; I. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, S. Frank, A. Izgoev, P. Struve, N. Lossky and others. One of the last Russian philosophers enjoyed worldwide recognition silver age. BUT. Lossky(1870-1965), largest representative intuitionism and personalism, who lectured at Russian universities in Czechoslovakia for several years. The government of this country, headed by the prominent historian of social thought T. Masaryk, provided benefits and scholarships to Russian emigrants. One of the centers of Russian philosophical Abroad, where the traditions of the philosophy of the “Silver Age” continued, was Prague. In 1922, the Russian Faculty of Law at Karpov University was organized here. Among the Russian teachers were P. Struve, P. Novgorodtsev, S. Bulgakov, V. Vernadsky, I. Lapshin, N. Lossky, G. Florovsky, V. Zenkovsky.

The most productive and popular thinker in Europe was ON THE. Berdyaev(1874-1948), who had a huge influence on the development of European philosophy. Berdyaev belonged to a noble military noble family. He studied at Kiev University (1894-1898) at the natural sciences, then at the law faculties. In 1894 he joined Marxist circles, for which he was expelled from the university, arrested and exiled to Vologda for 3 years. In 1901 -1902, Berdyaev experienced an evolution characteristic of the ideological life of Russia in those years and called the “movement from Marxism to idealism,” that is, from economic determinism and crude materialism, he moved to philosophy of personality and freedom in the spirit of religious existentialism and personalism. Along with S.N. Bulgakov, P.B. Struve, SL. Frank Berdyaev becomes one of the leading figures of this movement, which announced itself with a collection "Problems of Idealism"(1902) and marked the beginning of a religious and philosophical revival in Russia. In 1904 in St. Petersburg, where Berdyaev headed the magazines "New way" And "Life Questions" he is getting closer to D.S.’s circle. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.V. Rozanov, in the depths of which arose a movement called the “new religious state.” In 1908 in Moscow he joined the Religious and Philosophical Society in Memory of Vl. Solovyov, participates in the preparation of the famous “Vekhi”. At his home, Berdyaev holds weekly literary and philosophical meetings, organizes Free Academy of Spiritual Culture(1918), gives public lectures and becomes a recognized leader of the non-Bolshevik public. He was arrested twice and in the fall of 1922 he was deported to Germany as part of a large group of figures of Russian science and culture. In Berlin, Berdyaev organizes the Religious and Philosophical Academy, participates in the creation of the Russian scientific institute, promotes the formation Russian student Christian movement(RSHD).

In 1924 he moved to France, where he became editor of the magazine he founded. "Path"(1925-1940), the most important philosophical organ of the Russian emigration. Wide European fame allowed Berdyaev to fulfill a very specific role - to serve as a mediator between Russian and Western cultures. He met leading Western thinkers (M. Scheler, Keyserling, J. Maritain, G. O. Marcel, L. Lavelle, etc.), organized interfaith meetings of Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox Christians (1926-1928), regular interviews with Catholic philosophers (30s), participates in cultural and philosophical meetings and congresses.

Berdyaev is the author of about 40 books, including "The Meaning of Creativity"(1916), "Russian idea"(1948), "Self-Knowledge"(1949), etc., translated into many languages of the world. Freedom, spirit and creativity are contrasted with necessity and the world of objects, where evil, suffering and slavery reign. The meaning of history, according to Berdyaev, is mystically comprehended in the world of the free spirit, outside of historical time. His book "The origins and meaning of Russian communism" went through eight editions in France. Through his books, the Western intelligentsia became acquainted with Russian Marxism and Russian culture.

The theoretical result of the stay of Russian thinkers in the West was an original doctrine - Eurasianism. Among its supporters and authors are linguists N. Trubetskoy and R. Jacobson, philosophers L. Karsavin, S. Frank, historians G. Vernadsky And G. Florovsky, lawyer N. Alekseev, religious writer V. Ilyin, scientists and publicists - P. Suvchinsky, D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, P. Savitsky. In 1921, the first collective collection of Eurasianists appeared "Exodus to the East." The ideas of Eurasianism, initially quite heterogeneous (1921 -1924), gradually, by the 30s, acquired a complete form. In France, Germany, England, Czechoslovakia, and China, Eurasian centers were formed that published collections, chronicles, monographs and articles. The concept of Eurasianism is closely related to the ideas of the Slavophiles and is rooted in the theory that emerged in the 16th century "Moscow- Third Rome".

Eurasianism, ideological, political and philosophical movement in the Russian emigration of the 1920s-1930s. The beginning of the movement was the publication of the collection “Exodus to the East” (Sofia, 1921) by young philosophers and publicists N.S. Trubetskoy, P.N. Savitsky, G.V. Florovsky and P.P. Suvchinsky. The historical, philosophical and geopolitical doctrine of Eurasianism, following the ideas of the late Slavophiles (N.Ya. Danilevsky, N.N. Strakhov, K.N. Leontyev), opposed historical destinies, tasks and interests of Russia and the West and interpreted Russia as “Eurasia”, a special middle continent between Asia and Europe and a special type of culture. At the first stage of the movement, the Eurasians carried out a number of fruitful historical and cultural developments, but then Eurasianism increasingly acquired a political overtones, inheriting the “smenovekhovstvo” in recognizing the laws of the Russian revolution and justifying Bolshevism. This trend, intensively pursued by the left wing of Eurasianism (Suvchinsky, L.P. Karsavin, P.S. Arapov, T.P. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, etc.), combined with the penetration of agents of the State Political Administration into the movement (N.N. Langovoi , S. Y. Efron, etc.), provoked a protest from another part of the Eurasians, and after a series of splits on the verge of the 20-30s, Eurasianism began to decline.

The first wave of Russian emigration, having experienced its peak at the turn of the 20s and 30s, came to naught in the 40s. Its representatives proved that Russian culture can exist outside of Russia. Russian emigration committed real feat- preserved and enriched the traditions of Russian culture in extremely difficult conditions.

The third wave of emigration. (1948-1989/1990)

The third wave of Russian emigration occurred during the Cold War era. Dissident movement And cold war became the reason that many people voluntarily left the country, although everything was quite limited by the authorities. At this time, Aksyonov, Dovlatov, Brodsky and many other famous writers, artists and scientists were among those who had to leave their homeland. Before 1990, more than 1 million people went abroad.

In December 1966, while in Paris, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin said: “If there are families separated by the war who would like to meet their relatives outside the USSR or even leave the USSR, we will do everything to help them solve this problem.” This event is considered the beginning of legal emigration from the USSR.

The departure was mainly carried out under family reunification programs. At least in the official published documents regulating the entry and exit of Soviet citizens from the USSR, there is not a word that certain ethnic (or other) groups have the right to emigrate. Of particular note is the signing of the Helsinki Act by the USSR in 1975. It was from this moment that citizens of the Soviet Union had legal grounds to leave the country, justifying this not on family or ethnic grounds. It must be said that there were not many people capable of challenging the state. In general, it should be noted that there is a complete legal vacuum in the Soviet Union on the issue of emigration, and consequently, the actual non-recognition of the right to emigrate its citizens.

It is obvious that decisions on departure were made by the authorities quite voluntaristically and were determined by opportunistic political considerations. Most likely they were associated with some kind of bargaining with governments Western countries or with pressure from Western countries, primarily

USA (for example, the same Jackson-Vanik amendment), to the Soviet government. At the same time, one cannot help but notice that in a number of cases Western diplomacy was not as effective as is commonly believed, since the second period of relatively active emigration gave way to the third, during which only limited emigration was observed, which was associated with increased internal political control. And only when the Soviet government, already during perestroika, lifted restrictions on exit, the flow of emigrants increased significantly again.

Moscow began allowing Soviet Jews, Germans and Pontic Greeks to leave for the purpose of family reunification. From 1970 to 1990, 576 thousand people took advantage of the opportunity, with half occurring in two last year. According to other sources, during this period of time the Soviet Union lost 1,136,300 of its citizens. 592,300 Jews, 414,400 Germans, 84,100 Armenians, 24,300 Pontic Greeks, 18,400 Evangelicals and Pentecostals and 2,800 people of other nationalities left

Sometimes people left at the call of distant relatives, leaving their parents in the USSR, but everyone understood the rules of the game.

Unlike emigrants of the first and second waves, representatives of the third left legally and were not criminals in the eyes of Soviet state and could correspond and call back with family and friends. However, the principle was strictly observed: a person who voluntarily left the USSR could not subsequently come even to his mother’s funeral.

For the first time, economic motives played a significant role in emigration. A favorite reproach against those leaving was that they went “to buy sausage.”

The head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, and some other members of the leadership sought a complete stop to emigration, since the very fact that so many people were “voting with their feet” for “decaying capitalism,” in their opinion, undermined the “moral and political unity of Soviet society.” In addition, the third wave of emigration included prominent dissidents of the time, most notably Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Of the three components of this wave of emigration: “defectors”, a new flow of emigration of scientists and cultural figures in search of freedom of creativity and better conditions for him, as well as the forced emigration of Soviet dissidents, the latter two often merged. The motives for the departure of prominent figures of Soviet culture were complex in composition: they included political, creative, and economic reasons. Less often people left for at will, more often - at the request to “leave the country” coming from the “competent authorities”. As for “purely political” dissidents, in terms of social composition they were most often representatives of technical specialties, less often - students, people with secondary education, and even less often - specialists in the field of humanities.

“They left and are leaving not from Russia - it is generally impossible to leave it. They are fleeing from the state, whose heavy carcass covers the skies; they are running away from the government, which has nothing sacred; they are fleeing from the house administration, the district committee, the regional committee, radio broadcasting, from seksots, queues, camps, from shameless lies and cold cruelty, from monstrous lack of culture and victorious rudeness - they are fleeing to save their mortal bodies and immortal souls from the monster, they are fleeing, cursing and crying.”

The third wave of emigration was highly fruitful in the region fiction and journalism. Among its most prominent representatives are I. Brodsky, V. Aksenov, N. Korzhavin, A. Sinyavsky, B. Paramonov, F. Gorenshtein, V. Maksimov, A. Zinoviev, V. Nekrasov, S. Davlatov. The figures of the third wave devoted a lot of effort and time to expressing, through publishing houses, almanacs, and magazines that they led, various points of view on the past, present and future of Russia that did not have the right to expression in the USSR. The main printed organs of the third wave of Russian emigration were the almanacs “Apollo-77”, “Part of Speech”, “Housewarming”, “Almanac-80 of the Russian Writers Club”, “Ardis”, “New Journal”. A significant number of publications were carried out by publishing houses named after. A.P. Chekhov, “Ardis” and YMCA-Press.

The third wave was received best in the West; former Soviet citizens as political refugees were immediately assigned numerous social benefits, which they were deprived of previous generations emigrants. The intellectual level of this wave was very high. Mostly people came from higher education. People of working professions were a rare occurrence among dissidents. During the third wave, up to 2 million people left. During this period, I, Joseph Brodsky, S. Dovlatov, M. Baryshnikov, S. Kramarov and others left; the third wave became one of the reasons for the crisis of Soviet civilization. The image of foreign countries paradise, the general approval of the proverb “see Paris and die” led to the fact that Soviet citizens began to dream of a wonderful life in the West and refused to be builders of a socialist future. In the 1980s more and more people began to leave who were not dissidents, but rather willing to go abroad due to fashion. So we left famous actor O. Vidov and director A. Konchalovsky

The third wave is associated with the phenomenon of “defectors,” which meant Soviet citizens who went abroad for work or leisure and then refused to return to their homeland. This is exactly how they ran: the outstanding ballet soloist M. Baryshnikov, and the hockey player A. Mogilny.

The third emigration is the longest of all outcomes. S. Heitman divides this rather long period of time into four stages: 1948-1970; 1971-1980; 1981-1986 and 1987-1989 (Heitman 1991: 4, 8). The first period is characterized by the relatively irregular departure of “selected” Jews, Germans and Armenians to Israel, Germany and France due to the direct influence of these governments in favor of emigration. The second period already covers significant and regular emigration as a result of the weakening of internal political control within the Soviet Union and the improvement of relations between Western countries and the USSR. The third stage is marked by a weakening of the emigration flow due to strengthening of internal control over emigration and a new aggravation of relations between Soviet Union and Western countries.

The main distinctive features characterizing the third emigration are the following:

* The predominance of the economic nature of emigration (with the exception of representatives of the dissident movement).

* Legitimate nature of migration. The Soviet regime “released” emigrants voluntarily, although emigration was carried out according to the Soviet “rules of the game” and under the control of the Soviet regime. This was not a flight or retreat and did not involve a risk to life.

* Absence legal framework for emigration. Selectivity of emigrants and emigrant groups.

* The third wave did not consist of convinced political

opponents of the regime, but only those dissatisfied with the regime. The overwhelming majority of the third emigration recognized the legitimacy of the Soviet regime and did not want to actively fight it (with the exception of the dissident movement).

* Lack of own political movements and parties.

* Leaving for “internal” emigration. Representatives of the third wave prepared themselves in advance for actual emigration, and for many years they lived in anticipation of departure and preparation for departure. In other words, emigration did not occur “suddenly” due to external circumstances (defeat in the Civil War, German occupation), but was planned.

* Ethnic character emigration, i.e. the possibility of emigration only for certain ethnic (or religious) groups.

* The third emigration was Soviet not only from a legal, but also from a cultural point of view. The carriers of Soviet culture, different from the culture in which the first and, partly, the second emigration were brought up, left.