Traditions of Asia briefly. Traditions and customs of Central Asia, culture, folk holidays

South Asia includes the Hindustan Peninsula, the island of Sri Lanka (until 1972 Ceylon), the Lyccadive, Amyndive, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The population of South Asia is about 800 million people. IN politically it includes the Republic of India (about 650 million), the People's Republic of Bangladesh (about 87 million), the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (79.9 million), the Republic of Sri Lanka (about 15 million), the Kingdom of Nepal (over 13.7 million), the Kingdom of Bhutan (1.3 million) and the Republic of Maldives (144 thousand).

To the north, South Asia is framed by the world's highest mountain system The Himalayas and Karakoram, from the north-west - the Balochistan Plateau and the Hindu Kush, in the north-east rise the Burma-Assam Mountains. The south of the Hindu subcontinent and the islands of South Asia are washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean, the Arabian and Andaman seas, and the Bay of Bengal.

Most of southern Asia consists of vast plateaus and lowlands. Thus, a significant part of the Hindustan Peninsula is occupied by the Deccan Plateau with the Western and Eastern Ghats. In the south of the plateau rise the Nilgiri and Cardamom mountains and the Animalalai mountains. The Indo-Gangetic Plain occupies a huge area. The lowlands on the island of Sri Lanka are significant in area.

Great rivers flow in South Asia: the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jumna and many others, irrigating vast alluvial valleys.

Despite the enormous diversity of the natural environment of South Asia, in all its areas, except for the highlands, mainly tropical climatic conditions prevail, and in the foothills subtropical climatic conditions. As a result, much of the region receives a lot of rainfall. There are three or two seasons per year (hot, rainy, cool, or dry and rainy). However, in the north-west and west of the subcontinent in Balochistan, Sindh, Rajasthan, there are arid, desert areas.

The flora and fauna of South Asia are exceptionally rich. Once its plains and foothills were covered with continuous tropical jungle forests, which have now thinned out significantly as a result of human activity. But even now there are still many in the forests valuable species trees (teak, sal, etc.). Large areas are occupied by evergreen “rain” forests. Ficus trees, various kinds of palms and shrubs, and tree ferns are common. In the coastal zone, in the tidal zone, mangrove forests grow.

There is an assumption, first expressed by the leading Soviet biologist N.I. Vavilov, that many important agricultural plants were cultivated in South Asia. Several millennia BC, rice, wheat, sugar cane, legumes, oilseeds and a variety of industrial crops, including Asian cotton, were grown there. Later, banana and coconut palms and tea bushes, borrowed from other countries, became widespread.

The fauna is rich, although last millennia he became noticeably weaker. Indian humpback zebu and Indian buffalo are bred as domestic animals. In dry areas they keep camels, sheep, goats, and horses.

Ethnogenesis and ethnic history. The question of whether South Asia was one of the areas where anthropogenesis took place has not yet been resolved. At the same time, it has been established that tens of millions of years ago, Dryopithecus monkeys, considered the ancestors of hominids, lived there. About ten million years BC, the region was inhabited by Ramapithecines, the possible ancestors of humans. But in South Asia, bone remains of the most ancient and ancient people (archaeoanthropes and paleoanthropes) have not yet been found, although tools of labor of cultures have been repeatedly discovered early paleolithic. There is an opinion that people lived in the south of the Hindu subcontinent already 1 million years BC. It has also been suggested that South Asia was part of the area of ​​formation of modern humans (Homo sapiens). Numerous cultures are known Late Paleolithic and subsequent eras of the Stone Age.

There is no direct evidence of the ethnic composition of the population of South Asia in the early stages of the development of modern humans (Paleolithic - Mesolithic times). Moreover, it is believed that the population of this region was then small. There are hypotheses that a significant part of the population of the Hindustan Peninsula and the island of Sri Lanka in those eras was Vedda-Id on an anthropological basis. As for languages, it is even more difficult to judge, and only hypothetically could they be similar to the languages ​​of the Australoids of the Asia-Pacific zone, with which the descendants show similarities based on anthropological characteristics ancient population South Asia - Veddas and Andamanese.

Many scientists believe that in 3-2 millennia BC. e. Tribes speaking Dravidian and Munda languages ​​began to penetrate and settle in the areas under consideration. At the same time, the Dravidians, anthropologically southern Caucasians, were the creators of the first civilization in the Indus Valley, from where they could settle to the east and south. During their migrations, the Dravidians and Mundas encountered the Veddoids and for the most part assimilated them. One of the consequences of this process was the formation of the South Indian Dravidoid racial group.

The ancestors of the Munda, who belonged to the Australoid and Mongoloid racial types, mixed with the local Veddoid population, which resulted in the formation of the Munda peoples of Central India.

In the 2nd millennium BC. e. groups of southern Caucasian Aryans who spoke Indo-Aryan languages ​​began to settle in Northern India. They partially penetrated far to the south, where they were assimilated by the Dravidians.

Population groups speaking Indo-European (Iranian, Tocharian) languages ​​entered South Asia from the north and northwest and later, in particular at the turn of our era, in the Indo-Scythian era.

Settled in the 2nd and early 1st millennium BC. e. in northern South Asia, the Indo-Aryans were pastoralists and settled farmers. Their history is known from archaeological data, as well as collections of hymns, sacrificial and magical formulas, descriptions of ritual, interpretations and commentaries on sacred texts, united by the concept of “Vedas”. The oldest of the Vedas is the Rig Veda (Veda of Hymns). The Aryans founded several early class states, which were characterized by a complex class and class (varna-caste) division of society. The Aryans mixed with the local Dravidian and Mundu-speaking populations, leading to an intense exchange of cultural values.

In the northeast of the peninsula, already in ancient times, groups of Mongoloid anthropological type were formed, speaking the languages ​​of the Tibeto-Burman family. And the Indo-Aryans had an intensive cultural exchange with them.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The ancestors of modern Sinhalese, who spoke an Indo-Aryan language, moved to the island of Sri Lanka. Around the same time, the Dravidians, the ancestors of the Tamils, penetrated there. The settlers entered into close communication with the indigenous population of the island, the Veddas, who were largely assimilated by them.

In the 16th-17th centuries. European colonialists begin to penetrate South Asia: first the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, British, and French. In the middle of the 19th century. India turns into a British colony. The era of colonial dependence had an extremely bad influence on the socio-economic and cultural development of the peoples of South Asia. Colonial exploitation caused constant resistance from the oppressed peoples. In 1947, India and Pakistan achieved national independence. However, the British authorities drew the boundaries between the new states without taking into account ethnic, historical and economic factors, which led to long-term interstate and interethnic disagreements. Later, other countries in South Asia also gained national independence.

Modern ethnic composition. There are about 200 peoples in South Asia, most of which are small in number. Thus, out of 187 languages ​​spoken in India, 23 languages ​​are spoken by 97% of the total population. In the region under consideration, a number of nations have emerged, many ethnic groups are nationalities. But many small peoples of South Asia constitute the so-called “tribal” population, preserving, to varying degrees, remnants of primitive communal relations.

The population of South Asia speaks the languages ​​of the Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian and Dardic branches of the Indo-European family; in the languages ​​of the Dravidian, Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan families.

The most numerous peoples speak Indo-European languages ​​- they make up up to two-thirds of the total population of South Asia. The languages ​​of the Indian branch include Hindi (the official language of the Republic of India), Urdu (the official language of Pakistan), Bengali (the official language of the Republic of Bangladesh), Nepali (the official language of Nepal), Sinhala (the official language of Sri Lanka), Punjabi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Gujerati , Lakhda, Bihari, Oriya, Assamese, etc. The Iranian branch includes the languages ​​Pashto, Balochi (Balochi), etc. Dardic languages ​​are spoken by the majority of the population of Kashmir. English is temporarily the second official language of the Republic of India.

The Dravidian family is represented by many major and minor languages. The largest of them are Telugu, Tamil, Kannar, Malayali. Small Dravidian “tribal” languages ​​include Toda, Kadar, Kota, Irula, Chenchu ​​and many others.

The languages ​​of the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan families are spoken by a relatively small number of the population of South Asia. Among the representatives of the Austroasiatic language family may include the Santals, Hos, Corks, Mundas, Khasis, Nicobarese; to Sino-Tibetan - Dzongkha (the official language of Bhutan), Naga, Garo.

Intensive linguistic processes are taking place in South Asia, expressed, in particular, in the transition of many small peoples to the languages ​​of their more numerous neighbors, which is accompanied by their assimilation.

Anthropologically, the population of northern South Asia belongs to the southern Caucasians. The Dravidian anthropological type is unique, which, as noted, combines southern Caucasoid and Australoid features. Mongoloids settle in the north and northeast of South Asia. There are many mixed and transitional anthropological types. The Andamanese can be classified among the short Australoid pygmy peoples. Representatives of the Veddoid anthropological type of the Australoid race are Veddas. Veddoid traits are found in many modern anthropological groups of South Asia.

Farming. South Asia, judging by modern archaeological, paleobotanical and paleozoological data, was not part of the area of ​​the primary, most ancient domestication of plants and animals. Nevertheless, a productive agricultural and livestock farming economy began to emerge quite early. Characteristic feature In South Asia there was a strong unevenness in the economic, socio-economic and cultural development of different areas of this vast region. Until about 4 millennium BC. e. Occupations associated with the appropriating economy dominated everywhere. Gradually, settlements of ancient farmers and livestock breeders began to appear in the river valleys. Following this, the production economy began to spread more and more widely along the Indo-Gangetic interfluve, and then penetrate into the southern regions of India and Sri Lanka. In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. along the Indus, in the Mohenjo-Daro-Harappa region, the oldest civilization in South Asia is taking shape. But intensive economic, socio-economic and cultural development took place mainly in the relatively open spaces of alluvial valleys. The rare population of the endless jungle is still for a long time was weakly drawn into these processes, and only the inhabitants of the outskirts of the tropical forest experienced stronger influence from neighboring, more developed peoples. The consequence of this was the preservation of backward forms of economy and culture in many areas of South Asia, which was later facilitated by the conditions of the colonial regime.

Therefore, even at the end of the last century, in vast, sparsely populated tropical forests and mountainous areas, population groups with very backward forms of economy and culture remained. And only in the 20th century, especially after the peoples of South Asia gained national independence, these peoples began to gradually be drawn into modern development processes. Considerable progress has already been achieved in this regard. But due to certain social, economic and political conditions, even today there are still small tribal groups and tribes that either conduct an entirely appropriating economy or combine it with elements of a primitive producing economy.

The diversity of natural and geographical conditions of South Asia also determined the diversity of economic and cultural types and subtypes.

The peoples of South Asia are mostly farmers. A relatively small part of the population lives in cities and is employed in industry, trade, and the service sector.

Plow farming, combined with animal husbandry and handicraft production, became the most widespread economic and cultural type even before the beginning of our era. In late antiquity and early feudal times, this economic and cultural type became dominant. At the same time, both in ancient times and then up to the present, the economic and cultural type of plow farming included many varieties and subtypes. The differences between them consisted both in the level of economic development, since the number of plow farmers included both the most developed and the least developed developed nations, and in the maintenance of the economic complex (in the ratio individual species occupations, the importance of crafts, otkhodnichestvo, preservation of traditional types of occupations, etc.). These differences became especially noticeable in late colonial times, when the Indian national bourgeoisie and national industry began to take shape. Thus, if there is common features, characteristic of all representatives of the economic and cultural type of plow farmers, in different parts and regions of South Asia there are distinctive economic and cultural subtypes. At the same time, all peoples belonging to the economic and cultural type under consideration have developed class relations and have long lived under statehood.

Agricultural areas are located mainly along the fertile river valleys of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and along the foothills and valleys of Nepal. All major peoples who speak Indian languages ​​are long-standing farmers: Bengalis, Hindustani (Hindi, Urdu, etc.), Assamese, Gujerati, Marathi, Biharis, Oriya, Sinhalese, etc.; the large Dravidian peoples named above, as well as some smaller ethnic groups.

In the Republic of India, the main food crop is rice, and only in the northwest is wheat predominant. In second place after wheat are millet and legumes. Other cereals, various vegetables and fruits are grown. Industrial and plantation crops are of great importance in agriculture: cotton, sugar cane, jute, oilseeds, rubber, coconut palm.

Coffee, tobacco, and the well-known “Indian” tea from Assam are grown. A significant part of the crops is intended for export. India ranks first in the world in terms of cattle population. Livestock is considered sacred and traditionally should not be killed, so the number of unproductive animals is high, which creates difficulties for Agriculture. Goats and sheep are also raised in the foothills of the Himalayas. Elephants, donkeys, and camels in arid areas are used as transport and draft animals. Few horses are kept.

The appearance of agriculture in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka is quite similar to the Indian one.

Rice, wheat, millet, oilseeds, cotton, and sugarcane are grown in Pakistan. In northwestern Pakistan and Sindh, nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding is practiced. Small cattle, camels, and horses are bred.

Plow farming, as well as partly hoe farming, has been carried out in South Asia since ancient times in an irrigated form. But during the years of colonial dependence, irrigation systems fell into disastrous condition, which led to droughts and devastating floods. Only after the peoples of South Asia achieved independence did significant funds begin to be invested in irrigation structures. But even today, irrigation devices preserved from the Middle Ages in the form of water-lifting wheels, driven by animal power or manually, are still not uncommon.

The plow has been known in South Asia since ancient times. Although factory-made agricultural implements are becoming widespread these days, a considerable part of farmers continue to use, as thousands of years ago, traditional light wooden plows with iron coulters. Buffaloes or zebu are used as draft power. The plowed land is cultivated with a kind of harrow with a stop. The crops are leveled with a drag log. Sow by hand. They reap with sickles, or pluck the ears of corn with their hands. They thresh with flails or drive animals through sheaves. Grain is often ground in hand mills or pounded in stone mortars.

In recent decades, South Asian countries have carried out big job to boost agriculture. Its mechanization is gradually being carried out, experimental demonstration stations are being organized where peasants get acquainted with the latest achievements agricultural technicians, obtain varietal seeds, etc. Cooperative machine and tractor stations are being established. Peasants are supplied with mineral fertilizers. But modern technology Available for the most part only to wealthy owners.

Various household trades and crafts reached a high level of development among plow farmers in ancient times. They are extremely varied, and many of them have the character of an artistic cottage industry. Since ancient times, South Asia has produced silk, cotton, and in some areas woolen fabrics, much of which was exported. During the colonial era, many crafts fell into decline, but nowadays they are being revived again, for which various measures are being taken: cooperatives and artels are being set up to help artisans obtain raw materials and sell finished products. Metallurgy, iron processing, casting and minting of copper and bronze have ancient traditions. Jewelry art, wood and bone carving, carpet weaving and much more are famous.

Recent decades marked significant industrial growth in South Asia. Heavy metallurgy and mechanical engineering are developing, in which great help provided by socialist countries, and above all by the USSR (an example is the Bhilai metallurgical plant, built in the Republic of India with the participation of the USSR). The working class and the technical intelligentsia are growing.

In addition to the type of plow farming discussed in South Asia, there is a less developed subtype of it, which still exists today among part of the “tribal population”: the Santals of Bihar, the Gonds of Central India, etc. They use primitive irrigation systems and less advanced tools. Their economy has many extensive features; it has little marketability. Accordingly, many archaic features remain in the everyday life of this population.

At least from the turn of our era, and possibly from an earlier time, in the north-west of South Asia, in the arid semi-desert and desert regions, an economic and cultural type of nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists developed. This type of economy exists quite widely in our time among some groups of Baluchis and Pashtuns, as well as among other peoples. Their economy, based on the breeding of small cattle, horses, camels and seasonal migrations, is similar to that common among the nomads of Western Asia and has a patriarchal appearance. Nomads receive wheat, rice and other types of plant foods in exchange for livestock products. They are also engaged in the transportation of caravans and some other auxiliary economic activities. Like other pastoralists, the economy of the Pashtuns and Balochis is nomadic or semi-nomadic. The degree of mobility depends in most cases on the habitat and the prosperity of the farm. At the same time, any fundamental differences There are no specific multi-structured socio-economic relations between nomads and semi-nomads in the methods of conducting livestock farming, in the tribal organization and specific multi-structured socio-economic relations. There are some differences in the degree of mobility, in the importance of agriculture and auxiliary activities in the economic complex, as well as in the order of nomadism. Sometimes the ancient Aryans are called nomads during the era of their migration to South Asia. This is hardly fair, since the Aryans had deep traditions of agriculture, and animal husbandry only became their main occupation during long migrations. At the first opportunity they returned to settled life.

In conditions of nomadism, there was significant property and social differentiation. Nomads were subordinate to the states on whose lands they lived, but often nominally. Developed class relations began to arise among them only after the transition to settled life and agriculture. These processes are widely deployed in our time.

The most widespread economic and cultural type in the past was the hoe farmer, which has not lost its significance today. In contrast to the economic and cultural types considered, until relatively recently, hoe farmers were characterized by less developed socio-economic relations: from emerging class to last stages disintegration of the primitive communal system. Within the framework of this economic and cultural type, there are especially many subtypes associated both with the level of development of the economy and culture, and with local characteristics.

First of all, two main varieties can be distinguished: hoe farming using artificial irrigation, and more archaic farming in burnt areas of the forest. Some of the tribes engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture lived in the last century under conditions of primitive communal relations.

Hoe farmers leading irrigation farming often cultivate terraced fields (for example, the Bhotias of Nepal, part of the Khasis of Assam). Often, hoe farming is combined with plow farming. The Santals, Gonds, and Nagas cultivate rice, millet, legumes, and vegetables. Industrial crops are becoming increasingly widespread. The Khasis, Nagas and some other tribes have developed gardening.

Hoe farming in the slash-and-burn form is still preserved among some forest and mountain Gonds, mountain Mundas, Palayans and Uladans of South India, and mountain Bhotias of Nepal; parts of the Nagas and Khasis of Assam, etc. But if 100-150 years ago hoe farming in the slash-and-burn form was carried out over vast areas, then, due to the legislative prohibition of cutting down and burning forests, which was associated with environmental protection, areas where This economic type was widespread and began to decline rapidly.

In slash-and-burn farming, forested areas were cleared for fields at the beginning of the dry season. After the trees and bushes dried out, they were burned. Mineral fertilizers were formed - ash, weeds were burned. Mainly rice, millet, corn, and oilseeds were sown in such fields. The Naga also grow yams and taro.

Known value In the economy of the peoples under consideration, traditional appropriative types of occupations were retained for a long time: hunting, gathering and fishing, which have not completely lost their significance even now. So, until recently, hunting with a bow and arrow was common among the Khasis. Ancient weapons (bows and arrows, spears, etc.) are also used by some hoe farmers living in the jungle. Often, collecting is carried out in a specialized form. Rubber, camphor and other resins, valuable wood are sold to special buyers. Among the mountainous Nepalese peoples (mountain Bhotiyas, Kiratis), animal husbandry was somewhat widespread.

The legal prohibition of deforestation in many areas of South Asia has led to great changes in the lives of a large part of these peoples. They had to look for new sources of existence. At the same time, some turned to plow farming, which turned out to be a difficult process. Many began to be hired as farm laborers, seasonal workers, etc. And only a small number of them continue to lead traditional farming.

As an intermediate, but relatively widespread economic and cultural type in the past, we can distinguish the complex economy of rather backward forest peoples, based on primitive hoe farming and traditional appropriating industries: hunting, gathering, fishing. Nowadays, this economic and cultural type has almost disappeared.

Also of an intermediate nature is the economic and cultural type associated with coastal fishing; Usually this activity is supplemented by other means of earning a living.

A very peculiar, unique economic and cultural type, based on transhumance communal cattle breeding, existed until the recent past among the Todas of the Nilgiri Mountains. They raised large dairy cattle, which were communal property, and conducted dairy farming. The Todas live sedentary lives, their shepherds herd their cattle to seasonal pastures. In exchange for the products of their farm, they receive plant food and other goods they need from their neighbors. Currently, their communal farming is disintegrating and other types of occupations are becoming widespread.

Finally, the most ancient and archaic economic and cultural type of hunters, gatherers and fishermen, which has almost disappeared today, was once widespread in South Asia. The peoples who belonged to this economic and cultural type, and small groups in which it still exists today, stand on different levels primitive communal system. Within this type, subtypes can be distinguished: from specialized hunting, gathering and fishing to the most backward wandering economy. The last subtype includes small groups of people living in the most remote, geographically isolated areas of the tropical forest. By the beginning of our century, the number of wandering hunters, fishermen and gatherers included the Andamanese, most of the Veddas, part of the Chenchus and other small Munda and Dravidian-speaking peoples. Currently, most of them have switched to settled life and agriculture, and traditional occupation Only the Andamanese and part of the “mountain” Veddas remained faithful. All year round, day after day, they wander through certain areas of the tropical forest, where they collect everything edible, fish, hunt sea ​​turtles and other animals. Obtaining the goods of life was always not an easy task for these peoples, and they often suffered from hunger. Veddas and Andamanese hunt with bows and arrows. The S-shaped Andaman bow is especially unique. There is a complex range of arrows for different types hunting. When hunting and fishing, the Andamanese used land and sea harpoons. All the peoples of the type under consideration used spears, clubs, and knew how to make various kinds of traps. A common activity was collecting honey from wild bees. These peoples did not know how to extract and process metal using the hot method. They used it by obtaining it through “silent exchange” (i.e., without direct contact between the exchanging parties) or, like the Andamanese, by removing iron from shipwrecks and processing it in a cold “Neolithic” way. Material culture. A significant part of the population of South Asia lives in rural areas. The layout of farmers' settlements and the types of their dwellings are very different. In the Indo-Gangetic Plain, street-plan settlements of several dozen houses predominate. Most often they are made of adobe, with a flat roof. In the north of South Asia there are small brick houses of one or two rooms with a veranda. IN southern regions Stone and wood are used as building materials. The buildings in the Himalayan regions are unique, where it is common to build houses on pillars or high foundations. In the Ganges Valley there are also cumulus settlements and frame houses. Traditionally, members of different castes settle in different neighborhoods, with the poorest and most disadvantaged belonging to the lower castes and the “untouchables.”

In Pakistan, the Sindhis have large settlements consisting of small estates. Houses are made either of adobe or framed from wattle and daub coated with clay. The roofs are flat. The estate is surrounded by an adobe wall or wicker fence. Among the wealthy part of the population, houses are made of mud brick.

In Bengal and Bihar there are large settlements in which several thousand people live. In Bengal, farm settlements are also common, with estates scattered at a considerable distance from one another. The buildings are frame and adobe. Most often, residential buildings are one- and two-room. Only the wealthy segments of the population have houses with several rooms.

Settlements and dwellings are equally diverse in South India and Sri Lanka. Thus, the Andhras often have small settlements, while the Tamils ​​have large settlements. Andhra houses are built of adobe or frame, Tamils ​​- of brick or bamboo. Representatives lower castes They build huts from branches covered with palm leaves. In Sri Lanka there are both large villages and settlements of individual estates. Houses are most often built on a platform and consist of a wicker frame coated with clay. A veranda is attached to one side of the house. Property inequality is manifested in the size of houses, materials, outbuildings, and interior decoration.

Peasant houses usually have low trestle beds covered with mats on which they sit and sleep, and low carved furniture: stools, tables. In cities, along with national interiors, there are also items of European decoration. The contrasts in the cities of South Asia are very great. Their central part is usually built up with modern multi-storey buildings, where large shops, banks, institutions are located, and the rich and intelligentsia live. The outskirts consist of dirty, crooked streets and shacks where the poor live. Lots of homeless people.

The nomadic and semi-nomadic population of the western regions of South Asia, although they are gradually moving towards sedentism, the vast majority still live in temporary nomadic settlements on seasonal camps near water sources. The nomadic Pashtuns and Baluchis live in tents made of woolen cloth or canvas, stretched over poles. There is a fireplace in the middle of the tent. On the floor, depending on wealth, there are bedding or carpets. Saddle bags, weapons, and various household items are hung on poles.

Dwellings and settlements of plow and hoe farmers of tropical forests and mountain areas very diverse. For example, Nagas live mostly in large villages, divided into quarters and located on hills or on terraces along the mountainsides. Each village is fortified with a powerful fence and represents a real fortress. Their houses, like those of the Khasis, are built either from tree trunks on stilts, or small above-ground frame dwellings are built. Santals live in settlements, which usually consist of one street, along which there are huts made of bamboo or reeds, plastered with clay. The interior decoration of the houses is very simple. The Palayans, Uladans and other small peoples of South India live in small settlements scattered in the forests. The huts are usually lightweight and are often built on stilts. The Toda were characterized by small settlements of peculiar “beehive” houses made of branches and palm leaves, with a canopy, no windows and a narrow doorway. In ancient times, the Andamanese had settlements in the depths of the islands, consisting of one or several large houses, in each of which lived many dozens or even more than a hundred people who made up a clan or local group. The house, oval in plan, consisted of two rows of supporting pillars on which rested a roof made of palm leaves, which descended to the ground and formed the walls. Along the perimeter there was a raised platform on which the inhabitants of the house slept, in the middle of the hut there was a communal hearth, and closer to the exit there was a dance floor with a “musical board” (a hollowed-out tree trunk with holes). Near each sleeping place there was a separate family hearth. In more late time The Andamanese began to build settlements on the coasts from small wind barriers, each of which was inhabited by one paired family. At the same time, the layout of the settlement, the location of the fireplaces and the dance floor, repeated the structure of the old communal large hut. Many groups of Veddas lived in caves in the last century. During hunting expeditions, wind barriers were built on the ground or tree branches.

The colorful and distinctive clothing of the population of South Asia, despite its diversity, can be reduced to several main types. Stitched and unstitched clothing are common. The latter consists of a dhoti for men - a long or short loincloth, pants, shirt, jacket. Men wear caps on their heads. Bengalis and some Punjabis wear turbans. The ritual prohibits Hindus from wearing leather shoes, and now a large part of the rural population still walks barefoot. Cloth shoes are common. Women's unstitched clothing - a sari - is a long piece of fabric that is wrapped around the waist and legs. One end of the sari is thrown over the shoulder. Sometimes they also cover their heads. Sarees are complemented by blouses and shawls. There are also sewn types of clothing. For some peoples, women's costume consists of dresses, wide skirts, and trousers. This is the costume of women among nomads. All women wear a lot of jewelry: bracelets on their arms and legs, earrings in their ears, nose, rings on their fingers and toes, necklaces.

Traditional clothing is widely worn in South Asia even today. But in cities, especially among men, it is customary to combine items of national and European clothing. In cities they wear leather shoes, jackets, hats, and raincoats.

Nomadic herders wear the same clothing as their fellow tribesmen in Afghanistan and Iran.

Even more traditional are the clothing and jewelry of hoe farmers and wandering hunter-gatherers. Clothes are mostly light. Among the most developed tribes, for example among the Santals, it resembles the all-Indian one. Gond men wear a small dhoti and a turban. Women wear saris. Men of the Naga hill tribes are content with an unstitched loincloth or dhoti and an apron. Women wrap a piece of cloth around their body. Capes or scarves are thrown over the shoulders. The festive outfits of Naga men are very magnificent, complemented by complex headdresses. Toda clothing is unique, consisting of a kind of cloak or toga for men and women, one end of which is thrown over the shoulder. The Veddas once wore aprons made of bark, which were now replaced by cotton headbands. Women wrap a piece of cloth around their thighs to their knees, leaving the upper body exposed. Until recently, Andamans walked around in loincloths, grass skirts or naked.

The utensils of the population consist mainly of metal, clay, and wooden utensils. In villages, vessels made from dried pumpkin and bamboo are used. “Plates” made from leaves are used as utensils, from which people eat with their hands.

The food of most of the population of South Asia is vegetable and dairy. They eat a lot of vegetables, fruits, and fish on the coasts of the seas and rivers. Hindus do not eat meat, especially cow meat. Muslims do not eat pork.

Traditional vehicles- a heavy cart with a team of oxen or zebu, pack. In nomadic areas they use camels and horses for packs and riding. In the jungle, all heavy loads are transported on the backs of porters.

Spiritual culture. The spiritual culture of the peoples of South Asia has centuries-old traditions, enriched by new achievements. To this day, the ancient epic works Mahabharata, Ramayana, etc. They are read, recited, sung. Theatrical performances are based on their themes. A popular form of theatrical performance, Kathakali, is based on ancient folk traditions. There is a puppet theater.

Every holiday is accompanied by songs and dances. Magic performances are popular among the people.

The music of the peoples of Asia is diverse. There are various musical instruments, the most popular of which are plucked instruments (wine), bowed instruments, and drums.

Fine arts and architecture have reached a high level of development in South Asia. Famous architectural complex medieval Agra, which includes the world famous mausoleum of the Mughal era - the Taj Mahal. The temples of Benares and other monuments amaze with their beauty. There has been a tradition of painting since ancient times. The wall paintings of the Ajanta cave temples are famous. Woodcarving and miniatures are developed, which combine high professional skill and folk motifs.

Far beyond the borders of South Asia, its traditional medicine, based on natural medicines and effects on the human psyche, is famous. The teachings of yoga are widely known.

During the colonial era, education, science, and art fell into significant decline. The legacy of that time is millions of illiterates. With hard work this gap is gradually being overcome.

Various religious beliefs are common in South Asia. Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism have the largest number of followers. Individual groups The population professes Jainism, Sikhism and Christianity. There are a small number of followers of a variety of Mazdaism (Parsis). Hinduism has its roots in the religions of the ancient Aryans and local tribes. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. Of the deities in our time, Vishna and Shiva are most revered. Moreover, in each village, along with the main one, the local deity is also revered. The cult of ancestors has some significance in beliefs. Buddhism arose in Northern India around the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Its appearance was associated with a response to Brahmanism, to a rigid and widely ramified caste system. Buddhism recognizes everyone as equal. But along with this, he preaches a passive attitude towards life and injustice. Currently, it is distributed mainly in Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. There are several million Buddhists in India.

Jainism arose around the same time as Buddhism. Like Buddhism, Jainism does not recognize the caste system and calls for non-resistance to evil and self-improvement.

In the 16th -17th centuries. The Sikh religion emerged. Along with elements of Hinduism, Sikhism also contains features of Islam and other religions. Sikhs worship a single god and do not recognize castes, monasticism, or images of deities. This religion is widespread mainly in Punjab.

Tribal religions in South Asia are very diverse, and Hinduism has left a well-known imprint on the beliefs of many peoples. Small peoples of South Asia worship elemental forces - wind, thunderstorm, water, etc. According to religious beliefs, the world is inhabited by good and evil spirits. There are remnants of totemism. There is a belief in souls and their migration. The cult of ancestors is widespread.

Currently, there is a fairly intensive process of transition from tribal beliefs to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and other religions.

34.Family and social system. Family and family relationships vary in South Asia according to the level of socio-economic development of a particular population group, as well as affiliation with Hindu, Muslim or any other religion. Hindus and Muslims had large, patriarchal families in the past. Currently, small families predominate. Moreover, among Muslims they are built according to the norms of spiritual law - Sharia. Sharia law allows polygamy, but polygamy is common only among certain segments of the population: traders, moneylenders, small entrepreneurs. Marriages are traditionally negotiated by parents. However, until recently, marriages were only allowed between members of the same caste. Marriage outside the caste was considered shameful. In many areas of South Asia, very early marriages were practiced in the past: engagement at 2-4 years of age, marriage at 6-8 years of age. Now they are prohibited by law, but this phenomenon has not been completely eradicated, just like caste barriers between those entering into marriage. Among many peoples, especially in northern India, tradition prohibits a widow from remarrying, even if the “husband” died in the very early age. Some peoples of India, for example the Nairs, have strong matrilocal and matrilineal remnants in their family and marriage organization. The name and inheritance are conducted through the maternal line. Women have equal rights with men.

The marriage ceremony includes numerous rituals and mostly ends with the groom hanging a special medallion (tali) around the newlywed's neck. Nowadays, very serious changes are taking place in the field of family and marriage relations among the peoples of South Asia: caste barriers are being destroyed, marriage is being democratized, young people are winning the right to marry for love. But bride price is still firmly established among Muslims.

IN family and marital relations Small peoples (“tribal population”) are dominated by paired families and family forms transitional to monogamy. Paired families also exist among some Santals, Kurumbas, Nagas and many others. Among some small peoples, matrilocal features can be traced in marriage relations. So, among the Khasis, a young husband settles in his wife’s house, and the children inherit the mother’s name. Among the Garos, maternal childbirth existed. A peculiar form of polyandry in the form of fraternal and unrelated polyandry once existed among the Todas. This form of family developed as a consequence of the division of labor in specific living conditions.

Among the most backward peoples of South Asia - the Andamanese, Veddas and some others - the family is unstable, paired. They are characterized by an age-class system, in connection with which youth undergo age-specific initiations. At the same time, the young men are initiated into the secrets of the tribe, their hunting skills, stamina, and courage are tested. The girls get acquainted with their future responsibilities.

Most large nations South Asian class relations arose centuries and millennia ago. At the same time, the originality historical development and the development of socio-economic relations determined their greater diversity and originality. And in our time, not only feudal and patriarchal, but also primitive communal remnants are noticeable among some peoples. Among some small groups, primitive communal relations are still only in the stage of disintegration.

For the social order of the major nations of South Asia For a long time, community relations were characterized by exceptional vitality, which survived centuries and are only now being destroyed under the influence of capitalist orders.

The Indian community had several varieties. It was a closed community with communal land use and local government. The community was headed by its richest members and priests (brahmans). In the 16th century A large landownership of zemindari developed, strengthened during the colonial era. The growth of large land ownership was combined with a system of land tax farming.

Currently, land reform has been or is being carried out in the countries of South Asia, which has undermined the foundations of the landowner-feudal system and the class of landowners. However, in a number of countries the remnants of feudalism are still strong and the situation of the peasantry is quite difficult.

Another feature of the social system of a large part of the peoples of South Asia is caste system, the origins of which go back to the era of the decomposition of communal-tribal relations. The origin of the castes is very complex. Some castes go back to the ancient varnas, many appeared as a result of the development in ancient society division of labor. Many castes have ethnic origins. Finally, there are many professional castes. The caste system was sanctified by religion and became the basis of the social order for millennia.

In ancient times there were four “classical castes” (varnas): brahmans - priests,

Kshatriyas are warriors, Vaishyas are farmers, Shudras are servants. A significant number of the local population, once conquered by the Aryans, joined the Shudras. Nowadays there are many thousands of castes (jatis). Castes are endogamous. Some of them are considered inferior, especially some professional ones associated with “unclean” occupations (for example, tanners, scavengers, etc.). In addition, there are the so-called “untouchables” and the non-caste population, who have always stood at the lowest rung of the social ladder. According to tradition, “untouchables” do not have the right to live with people from higher castes, use their belongings, or take water from the same well. “Untouchables” must, by custom, do the hardest, dirtiest, and poorly paid work. The oppressed position of part of the castes and non-caste population explains the success of the propaganda of the Muslim religion in South Asia. By converting to Islam, a person breaks away from the caste system to some extent. But the Muslim population of South Asia also has certain caste restrictions. The constitution of the Republic of India and some other countries prohibits caste segregation. In reality, the caste system is still strong, and progressive forces have to fight a hard battle against everyday caste prejudices.

Today, most of the large nations of South Asia are characterized by capitalist relations, but in the villages there are still many feudal and patriarchal remnants that hamper the development of these peoples.

Some hoe farmers, especially those involved in slash-and-burn agriculture, retained strong tribal remnants for a long time, as, for example, among the Khasis, Nagas, etc. But in our time, tribal relations in their pure form are no longer found. As for the most socio-economically backward population - wandering hunters, gatherers, fishermen - their social relations, like a number of peoples of Southeast Asia with similar levels of development, are characterized by the absence of clan organization in the past. Public organization among the Veddas, Andamanese and a number of small groups of the population of Central and South India, they are lekal groups united into amorphous, poorly consolidated tribes.

National customs and Indian traditions.

National customs and traditions of Japan.

National customs and traditions of China.

Modern Chinese cities are becoming more and more similar to European ones, but in the countryside there is still a lot of originality inherited from ancient times.

Asian cultures is the collective name for traditional cultural communities countries and indigenous peoples in the geographical space of East, Southeast and South Asia, each of which is interpreted as relatively self-sufficient, but connected with others by a single cultural history And traditions of great culture.

Recognition of Asian cultures as a combination of several large cultural communities implies that the traditional cultures of the countries and peoples included in these cultural communities have common systems of worldview, values, ideas and behavioral stereotypes. The framework of these communities is outlined either very broadly - by inclusion in the cultural and historical spheres of the great Asian civilizations - Arab-Persian (Islamic), Indian (Hindu-Buddhist) and Chinese (Confucian), which actually leads to complete identity of the concept of Asian cultures with the concept of “ oriental cultures”, or are locally limited to the regions of East, Southeast and South Asia, which makes it possible to more accurately and clearly determine the specifics of Asian cultures in their commonality and particularity. The German orientalist O. Weggel (Institute for Cultural Research, Hamburg) recognizes the geographical and cultural boundaries adopted with this approach as most closely corresponding to the concept of Asian cultures. Although “Asia” (in the work of a German researcher) means the regions of East, Southeast and South Asia; the regions of the Near and Middle East, Central, Central and Northern Asia are not included in this concept, just as the cultures of the peoples of these regions are not included in the concept of Asian cultures ) - thus, it is more of a geographical than a cultural concept. The use of the term “Asian cultures” has a certain meaning, since it includes common characteristics of different countries, the peoples and cultures of the specified area of ​​Asia have features that allow us to speak about their cultural identity: statehood that has historically deeper roots and is territorially more extensive than in other parts of the world; the predominance of historically more ancient than in other cultures, autochthonous (predominantly) religions. According to Weggel, in the value systems of Asian cultures and in the way of thinking of Asian peoples, there are common orientations towards a holistic perception of the world and its phenomena, which sharply differs from the Euro-American desire for differentiation and demarcation.

Over the years comparative study Western and Asian cultures in science have developed stereotypes in which the dynamism of the former is opposed by the staticity of the latter, the “youth” of the former is opposed to the “oldness” of the latter, the orientation toward freedom is an orientation toward despotism, the conceptual culture is emotional, the historical and this-worldly dominants of thinking are unhistorical and otherworldly, materialism - spirituality. These oppositions are as controversial as they are unreliable, since much of what is attributed to Western culture is no less characteristic (or at least was characteristic) of Asian culture. The main difference is that Asian cultures strive for a holistic, undifferentiated perception of the world, for harmony, while Western cultures adhere to opposite orientations. According to many researchers, the origins of this feature of Asian cultures lie in their agricultural nature. The agricultural dominant remains strong in them to this day. Its essence is determined by the recognition of the harmony of three principles - Heaven, Earth and Man. Any false note in this harmony it gives rise to disharmony, which in itself is very dangerous, since in the picture of the world created on this basis there is no place for chance, nothing can arise from nothing or disappear without a trace (the Hindu-Buddhist doctrine of karma is indicative in this regard). Everything that happens in one of the three spheres, has its parallels or analogies in others (for example, today in Asian countries it is often believed that natural disasters are accompanied by political unrest). The parallelism of the three spheres - heavenly, earthly and human - existed in the past and continues to exist today in all Asian cultures. In Confucianism, Hinduism and Taoism, the idea of ​​analogies between the three spheres can be seen most clearly. In a world built on the principles of analogies, the dominance of laws and orders that are common and identical for these spheres is recognized. A holistic worldview and the desire for harmony generated by it also determined the nature of the attitude of Asian peoples to nature, economic activity and power structures. Instead of the typical Western desire to dominate, transform and exploit nature, the worldview and behavior of Asian peoples are characterized by the desire to live in harmony with the natural world, with nature, to create unity between man and his environment, to the integrity of the micro- and macrocosm . The religious consciousness of Asian peoples is much less differentiated than European ones (for example, for a Chinese or Japanese, for example, it is just as difficult to answer the question of what religion he professes - Buddhism, Shintoism or Taoism, as for a European to answer the question of what his blood type is) . The Asian population as a whole (with the exception of Muslims) is characterized by religious tolerance: Eastern religious thought has never become a source for the emergence of new, different from religious, areas of knowledge and non-theological concepts, as was the case in Western Christianity. Moreover, Asian religious systems have never been exposed to the temptation of rationalism.

IN big picture Asian cultures have five main subcultures:

1. The first type is meta-Confucian, which includes the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and the countries of East and Southeast Asia with a predominant Chinese population (primarily Hong Kong and Singapore). For countries with a meta-Confucian culture, strong “cell” group formations, the ideology of state centralism, and a value system oriented towards economic achievements are typical.
2. The second type is the culture of peoples professing Theravada Buddhism - Thai, Laotian, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhalese. In them, the way of life and human behavior were formed under the influence of the production industries that dominated in these areas. social structures, usually characterized in specialized literature as “loose”. These structures determined rather individualized behavior of the individual and required the presence of strong state power.
3. The third type is Hindu, which includes different, but at the same time local cultures of Hindustan connected into a single whole. It is characterized by organization Everyday life based on the subtle system and rules of caste relations, which penetrated deeply into religious consciousness. The Hindu subculture places emphasis on group sociocultural orientations, implemented in family or intra-caste structures.
4. The fourth type is Islamic, in which the influence of local pre-Islamic traditions is strong. There are two subgroups of crops in this type:
   • Malay-Islamic - Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Southern Philippines, partly Singapore;
   • Indo-Islamic - Bangladesh, Pakistan, Maldives.
5. The fifth type is Catholic, which includes the majority of the Philippine population. Philippine Catholicism was heavily influenced by pre-Christian local traditions. The psychology of a large family is one of the most important characteristic features this type of subculture.

Eastern countries for centuries-old history have accumulated not only many attractions, rich culture, history, its own cuisine, not similar to others, but also customs local residents, which often cause shock among foreigners. Gastronomic customs Lunch break is sacred. In Malaysia, residents are not in a hurry, so drivers, for example, of buses, can interrupt the route for a few minutes to have a snack. And for the Malays this does not seem bad manners, because the driver is also a person, and he has the right to eat. Students in Indonesia and Malaysia do not consider it shameful to open a box of food during a lecture and eat with appetite. The most surprising thing is that this is not because of hunger, but because listening to the teacher and chewing at the same time is much more fun. Another amazing feature of Asians is something that no sane European would even think of touching. The bravest cook the deadly poisonous fugu fish. And many restaurants serve dishes made from dog and cat meat. And what about snacks and delicacies made from something that recently flew and crawled? Fried mice with sauce, live lobsters, ant eggs in banana leaves, scorpion with vegetables, fish genitals, fly larvae - this is a small part of the unusual dishes that are part of the eastern national cuisine. Eat to your health, slurp loudly and don’t be shy about belching - after all, it is a sign that the guest has eaten well and tasty.
Etiquette in Eastern culture As guests, be respectful of Asian traditions by taking off your shoes when entering their home, and avoid wearing revealing clothing in temples. When greeting each other, Asians raise their hand as a sign of friendship or nod their heads - this is enough for a polite sign of attention. When meeting someone, it is customary to say your first and last name, and then repeat the first and last name of your new acquaintance several times. This is done in order to remember difficult to pronounce oriental words and address the person correctly. Although in Thailand it is customary to address a person by his nickname, which he received in childhood, for example “Noah” or “Dang”. You need to be very careful about postures and gestures; they may be interpreted incorrectly. For example, by placing their fists on their sides, they show that they are aggressive and unfriendly. Politeness and smiles are a sign of a positive attitude towards life. It is better to smile than to make a scandal, be rude and cause inconvenience to others. Smiling is a sign of gratitude, a way to avoid conflict, a common convention, and also a way to apologize.
Decorating your home and forgetting about everything else, such as dirty streets or crooked houses, is the norm. And foreigners will be misunderstood if they try to point out such a disorder. You should apologize if, during a friendly fight with a new acquaintance, by accident or as a joke, you hit him with your foot or touched his head. This is considered very impolite and is allowed only to the closest people; the head is an inviolable part of the body. It is considered normal to ask unmarried girl, when she plans to end her relationship with her boyfriend. But such a question to a married couple is extremely inappropriate. If you want to please the Malay family, give each of its members a separate gift as a gesture of respect for the hospitality provided. Superstitions and religious traditions The most common religions in Southeast Asia are Buddhism and Islam. And traditions associated with religion are observed very strictly. You should not drink alcohol during the holy months or eat near someone who is fasting. Those who come to the temple, in addition to wearing modest clothing, are required to take off their shoes and walk around the shrine clockwise. Just like the area around the temples. Women are not allowed to touch monks. And everyone, without exception, is prohibited from taking pictures near Buddha statues in an indecent pose or hugging a statue. It is prohibited to raise your voice or shout inside shrines.
In Vietnam, it is customary to hang a mirror on the outside of the door. They firmly believe that evil spirit or the dragon, coming into the house, will be afraid of its reflection and leave. The lunar calendar introduced its own oddities into the habits of Asians. When setting the table, you are not supposed to place cutlery for only one person. During certain phases of the moon, people do not eat certain foods and do not begin important tasks. Traditions regarding appearance One of the traditions that has come down from the past is growing a long nail on the little finger. This meant belonging to the aristocracy, but now it is simply an expression of image and personal style. But this is not as wild as the tradition of one of the Thai tribes of putting brass rings around women’s necks. In a civilized society appearance regulated by religion. Women in many countries decorate themselves with jewelry and talismans. Men often wear a business suit. But different nationalities also have different attire, often unusual for Europeans.
Outside the hotels where foreign tourists stay en masse and where you can’t find either traditions or local customs, there is a special life that can only be seen by talking with the indigenous residents. They will tell visitors a lot of interesting things, surprising them with their oddities, oriental flavor, extraordinary life and food. If you respect the culture of the local residents of the country in which you are visiting, your memories of your vacation and communication will remain vivid and unique. Politeness and courtesy are the main guarantee of Asians' goodwill towards you.

Spain

What is Spain? Lazy relaxation on the beaches of the Mediterranean coast and romantic sunsets in the secret coves of the Atlantic, the ancient streets of Toledo full of ghosts, the frosty air of the ski resorts of Cantabria, wonderful wines and unforgettable architectural monuments, fiery flamenco, exciting man-bull fights, diving, cycling tours, excellent shopping and a huge number of festivals.

Italy

In search of the very best, go to Italy: the most affectionate sun, the most cheerful people, the most tasty food, the most fashionable stores. Italians firmly believe in the exclusivity of their country and successfully convince everyone around them. Excellent beaches surrounded by luxurious nature, quality service at thermal resorts, rich excursion program, an unprecedented variety of landscapes, ski resorts, diving, gourmet cuisine, friendly residents. Yes, Italians have every reason to consider their country exceptional.

France

Mysterious, unpredictable and invariably attractive - that’s exactly how she is, beautiful France. Have the most romantic date in your life, strolling along the Champs Elysees, or go on an exciting journey through the castles of the Loire? Smell lavender from endless blue fields or taste wine while at one of the famous vineyards? Finally, to see with our own eyes all those unique historical monuments and architectural masterpieces that are familiar to us from the films?

Lecture No. 11 (2 hours) Asian continent: regional division. Races and ethnicities. The role of Confucianism and Shintoism in the formation of economic activity, material and spiritual culture of the peoples of China and Japan. Life and family. Rituals, customs, traditions. Modern centers of international tourism. Requirements for the behavior of tourists in China and Japan.

Seminar lesson No. 11 (2 hours) China and Japan: territory, modern population. Races. Ethnic history. Material and spiritual culture of the peoples of China and Japan. Rituals, customs, traditions in public and family life. Influence modern processes globalization on the traditional world of the peoples of China and Japan.

Independent work (4 hours) Using the recommended sources, make a summary, reflecting the following questions: Asian continent: regional division. Races and ethnicities. The role of Confucianism and Shintoism in the formation of economic activity, material and spiritual culture of the peoples of China and Japan. Life and family. Rituals, customs, traditions. Modern centers of international tourism. Requirements for the behavior of tourists in the countries of Asia, China and Japan. China and Japan: territory, modern population. Ethnic history. Material and spiritual culture of the peoples of China and Japan. Rituals, customs, traditions in public and family life. The influence of modern globalization processes on the traditional world of the peoples of China and Japan.

Topic 6.2 Buddhism in the customs and traditions of the peoples of Asia.

Lecture No. 12 (2 hours)

Directions, traditions and schools of Buddhism. A brief overview of the history of Buddhism. The Buddhist picture of the world. Buddhist monasticism as “leaving home,” breaking ties with family, leaving the mundane social framework. Monastic names. Donations to churches from the laity: food, clothing and utensils, land. Temple farms. Patronage of temples to various worldly communities: artisans, sailors, etc. Buddhist holidays. Pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines. Requirements for the behavior of tourists in Asian countries.

Seminar lesson No. 12 (2 hours)

The question of the laity's membership in the Buddhist community. Offerings to the Three Treasures. Orders for rituals. Training with monastic mentors. Rituals performed mainly by lay people.

Independent work (4 hours) Using the recommended sources, make a note, reflecting the following questions: Directions, traditions and schools of Buddhism. A brief overview of the history of Buddhism. Buddhist picture of the world. Buddhist monasticism as “leaving home,” breaking ties with family, leaving the mundane social framework. Monastic names. The question of the laity's membership in the Buddhist community. Offerings to the Three Treasures. Orders for rituals. Training with monastic mentors. Rituals performed mainly by lay people.

Form of control: survey during a seminar lesson, preparation of abstracts.

Section 7. Problems of preserving traditions and interethnic conflicts in the modern world

Topic 7.1 The problem of preserving the customs and traditions of modern peoples of the world in the process of globalization

Seminar lesson No. 13 (2 hours)

Globalization and the problem of preserving the customs and traditions of modern peoples of the world. Intercultural interaction and cultural tolerance.

Independent work (2 hours)

Prepare an abstract on the proposed topic.

Form of control: preparation of abstracts.