What is the culture of ancient Rus'. Briefly about culture in ancient Rus'

Moscow State University. Founded in 1755 by M.V. Lomonosov

List of events that can be described in a historical essay:

• Improvement government controlled: abolition of the Cabinet of Ministers, restoration of the role of the Senate, creation of a Conference at the Imperial Court.
• Economic reforms.
• Development of culture.
• Carrying out a pro-noble policy, further strengthening serfdom.
• 1741-1743 - war with Sweden, annexation of the eastern part of Finland by the Treaty of Abos.
• Participation in the Seven Years' War (1657-1762)

General characteristics of the era

The period of Elizabeth Petrovna's reign is characterized by the continuation of the policies of Peter 1, the desire to strengthen the power of the state, restore its greatness and international recognition, which was under Peter 1, as well as the further strengthening of autocracy. Founding of the first Russian banks - Noble and Merchant, restoration of the role of the Senate, opening of the first university in Russia in 1755, public theater F. Volkov in the 1750s, the annexation of Finland are the most significant events of this period. I will focus on two of them.

Historical events (phenomena, processes)

1 .Opening of the first Moscow University in Russia in 1755.

I would like to highlight this event as one of the most important of this period. The era of Elizabeth Petrovna's reign can also be called the era M.V. Lomonosova- a prominent scientist of his time. A man of encyclopedic knowledge, who has done a lot in a number of sciences - both the humanities and science and mathematics, M.V. Lomonosov was one of the initiators and active participants in the creation of the university. By this time, the country had a fairly extensive network educational institutions, education has always been given considerable attention. However, the children of nobles mainly received higher education abroad; the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, opened according to the project of Peter the Great in 1725, could not cope with the assigned tasks. Therefore, the reasons for opening the university were the desire to prepare on our own people with higher education, whose activities would be dedicated to Russia, as well as creating conditions for further development Sci. In addition, the presence of a university significantly increased the international status of the country as a civilized and enlightened one.

M.V. Lomonosov drew up a project for the future university: it had three faculties (philosophical, medical and legal), 12 teachers M.V. Lomonosov himself personally invited to work. A gymnasium was planned at the university, the graduates of which would become university students. The first stage of education was the Faculty of Philosophy, and then students chose which faculty they would continue their studies at. A special feature of Moscow State University was the absence of a theological faculty, since there were enough spiritual institutions in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov compiled subject programs and himself lectured to students. His merit is enormous. The empress’s favorite, I.I. Shuvalov, helped M.V. Lomonosov in many ways, and Elizaveta Petrovna also supported him.

The result of the activities of M.V. Lomonosov was the opening of Moscow State University in 1755, professional training of personnel with higher education, and the development of science. It is no coincidence that the university bears the name of its greatest creator.

2.Economic reforms of Elizaveta Petrovna.

Economics is the foundation of the development of society. Elizaveta Petrovna paid great attention its development, strengthening the economic power of the country. The reasons for this were the economic decline that the country had reached during the previous reign of Anna Ioannovna and her favorite Biron, who ruined the country. In many indicators of economic development, Russia lagged behind the West. There was a lot of improvement that needed to be done in economic development countries.

A major role in this process was played by the brother of the empress’s favorite - P.I.Shuvalov. He was the head of government in last years life of the empress, the initiator of many reforms. Among them are the following: General land surveying, that is, determining the exact boundaries of possessions; It was on his initiative and direct participation that a new Customs Charter was adopted in 1754, internal duties were abolished - all this contributed to the development of the domestic economy, the all-Russian market, support for local producers - this is called politics protectionism. In addition, the Noble and Merchant Bank was established, which made it possible to take out loans for the development of production.

The consequence of this work was a significant improvement in the economy, an increase in indicators, and the development of product exports. The volume of industrial production increased noticeably: metallurgical production, light industry. This is largely due to I.I. Shuvalov, whose practical advice the Empress always listened to.

There are cause-and-effect relationships between these two events.

Causal connections:

• Both the opening of the university and the development of the economy were supposed to strengthen the power of the country: its own personnel with higher education - to serve for the glory of the Fatherland, economic transformations - to create conditions for moving along a progressive path of development.
• It was necessary to increase the international authority of the country as a powerful economic country, which has a good scientific base, institutions that train their own specialists.

Investigative connections:

• The opening of Moscow State University and economic transformations significantly increased the power and greatness of Russia.
• In eyes Western countries Russia became one of the powerful, strong, developed, enlightened countries in the world, and its authority in the world increased significantly.

Historical assessment of the significance of this period for the history of Russia

The era of Elizabeth Petrovna's reign is a glorious page in the history of Russia. Historians assess it as a period when Peter 1’s projects to strengthen the country’s power and its international authority continued. The territory of Russia expanded significantly (as a result of the war of 1741-1743 with Sweden, the eastern part of Finland was annexed). This was the flowering of culture: the opening of Moscow State University, the first public theater by F. Volkov in 1750, the Academy of Arts in 1757, active urban planning.

However, the policy of strengthening autocracy and tightening serfdom continued (for example, according to a decree of 1760, landowners could exile unwanted peasants to Siberia without trial). But at the same time, Elizaveta Petrovna did not sign a single death sentence during her reign, canceling death penalty in 1756

Undoubtedly, the activities of Elizaveta Petrovna became the basis on which Catherine II would later rely.

Material to historical essay according to the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna you can find

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna

Peter I loved his youngest daughter and called her Lisetka. He even named the sailing ship he sailed on in the Baltic Sea. Elizabeth did not receive a systematic education, and in her youth she had little interest in politics. After her mother, Catherine I, died in 1727, and her older sister Anna Petrovna got married and left for Holstein, Elizabeth became close to her nephew Peter Alekseevich (future Emperor Peter II). Friendly relations were established between them. There was even a plan to marry Peter and Elizabeth, but the Dolgorukov princes married Peter II to Catherine, the daughter of Prince A.G. Dolgorukova. Elizabeth was left to her own devices. She lived separately from the imperial court in the Pokrovskaya settlement near Moscow, in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky or in the Aleksandrovskaya settlement.

The Tsesarevna behaved simply and naturally: she easily got along with people, willingly visited the company of guards soldiers and officers, attended their weddings and baptized children. Elizabeth was cheerful, beautiful, witty, and always dressed with taste. Her popularity among the people and among the guards worried Empress Anna Ivanovna. She ordered the princess to live at court. A “small court” of Elizabeth arose, which was composed of noblemen devoted to her: brothers Alexander and Peter Shuvalov, Mikhail Vorontsov and life surgeon Johann Lestok. Alexei Razumovsky, a simple Cossack, a former church choir singer, also entered Elizabeth’s “small courtyard.” He became the crown princess's favorite, and, having become empress, she granted him the title of count and the rank of field marshal general.

After the death of Anna Ivanovna, her niece Anna Leopoldovna, who was extremely unpopular in noble circles, became the ruler of Russia under the young Ivan VI Antonovich. Taking advantage of the weakening of the supreme power, the ambassadors of France and Sweden began to push Elizaveta Petrovna to carry out a coup d'etat. Both familiar guards officers and noblemen devoted to her spoke about this. After some time, the crown princess agreed to oppose the government of Anna Leopoldovna.

On November 25 at 2 a.m., Elizaveta, accompanied by brothers A. and P. Shuvalov, M. Vorontsov and I. Lestok, appeared in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment. She reminded the soldiers that she was the daughter of Peter the Great, ordered them to follow her and at the same time forbade them to use weapons unnecessarily. The guards enthusiastically swore allegiance to the new empress and, on her instructions, without shedding a drop of blood, they arrested and brought Anna Leopoldovna, her husband Anton Ulrich, their son the infant sovereign Ivan Antonovich and vice-chancellor M.G. to the fortress. Golovkin, who advised Anna Leopoldovna to declare herself empress. The next day, a short manifesto was published about the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne.

From the very beginning of her reign, she declared herself to continue the work of her father, Peter I. All Germans on public service were dismissed, and those close to Anna Ivanovna A. Osterman, B. Minikh, Levenvolde were exiled by order of Elizabeth. The new empress appointed capable Russian people to important government positions.

Elizabeth's reign was quite humane for its time. The Secret Chancellery ceased to rage, and “the word and deed of the sovereign” became a thing of the past. The Empress not only did not sign a single death sentence, but actually abolished the death penalty in Russia.

Domestic policy Elizabeth was carried out in the interests of the nobility. To support entrepreneurship and ease the property situation of the nobles, the Noble Loan Bank was opened in May 1754 in St. Petersburg. This bank provided inexpensive loans to nobles at 6% per annum. The requirements for noble service were reduced. Under Peter I, young nobles had to begin serving as soldiers. Under Elizabeth, children were enrolled in the regiment from birth, and they appeared there already in the rank of officer. The nobles went on long-term vacations, sometimes lasting for years.

Elizabeth tried to support the merchants as well. In 1754, internal customs were liquidated and internal duties, which had long been collected along the roads of Russia and at the entrance to cities, were abolished. Duties on foreign goods have increased. In the cities, magistrates were restored - bodies of city self-government "from the first-class citizens."

During the reign of Elizabeth, Russian science and art developed. The government supported cultural figures. The Academy of Sciences was reformed, Russian scientists came there. In 1755, on the initiative and direct participation of I.I. Shuvalov and M.V. Lomonosov Moscow University was opened. In 1758, the Academy of Arts opened. The navigation school, founded under Peter I, was renamed the Naval Gentry Cadet Corps.

Some changes were also made in the structure of the state apparatus. Elizabeth abolished the Cabinet of Ministers and restored the Senate to the meaning it had under Peter I. The Chief Magistrate, Manufactory and Berg Collegiums were also restored. At the same time, local government remained in the forms it had taken after Peter I. In 1756, the Conference at the Highest Court was established - a permanent meeting of ten highest dignitaries and generals. They discussed "the most important foreign affairs."

Under Elizabeth, Russia again began to pursue an active foreign policy. The beginning of Elizabeth's reign coincided with the Russian-Swedish war of 1741-1743. The Swedes wanted to take revenge for their defeat in the Northern War. This war turned out to be successful for Russia: part of Finland went to it.

Until 1744, Elizabeth adhered to foreign policy pro-French orientation. This was due to the great influence that the French envoy Chetardie had on her. However, later Russian diplomacy reoriented itself towards an alliance with Austria against Prussia. In 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War to expand its borders in the west. In 1759, near Kunersdorf, the Prussian army suffered a crushing defeat. IN next year Russian troops occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia, for some time. The successful completion of the defeat of the Prussian army was prevented by the death of Elizabeth. Her successor Peter III sharply changed Russian foreign policy towards an alliance with Prussia.

The Empress was passionately interested fine arts. She loved the theater very much and watched the same performances several times. The Russians appeared with her professional theaters F. Volkova and A. Sumarokova. No expense was spared for the Italian opera.

By order of Elizabeth, architect V.V. Rastrelli erected in St. Petersburg Winter Palace- residence of Russian emperors, Grand Palace in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo Palace, in which it was mounted the Amber Room- a gift from the Prussian king Frederick William I to the Russian Tsar Peter I.

At the end of her life, Elizabeth was sick a lot. She stopped studying state affairs and entrusted the management of the country to P.I. and I.I. Shuvalov, M.I. and R.I. Vorontsov and others. Her favorite A.G. enjoyed great influence. Razumovsky. Elizaveta Petrovna died at the age of 52. She is buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

The time of Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)

The era of Elizabeth Petrovna

General assessment of the era. Starting to study the very curious time of Elizaveta Petrovna, we will first of all establish a small historical information. The significance of Elizabeth's time has been and still is assessed differently. Elizabeth was very popular; but there were people, and very smart people, Elizabeth's contemporaries, who recalled her time and her practices with condemnation. Such are, for example, Catherine II and N.I. Panin; and in general, if you pick up old memoirs relating to this era, you will almost always find in them some mockery of the time of Elizabeth. Her activities were treated with a smile. And this view of the Elizabethan era was in great fashion; in this regard, Catherine II herself set the tone, to whom power passed shortly after Elizabeth’s death, and others echoed the enlightened empress. Thus, N.I. Panin wrote about the reign of Elizabeth: “This era deserves a special note: everything in it was sacrificed to the present time, to the desires of fitful people and to all sorts of extraneous small adventures in business.” Panin, obviously, did not remember well what happened before Elizabeth, because his description may also relate to the era of temporary workers, “epismatic people” of 1725–1741. If we want to believe Panin, then we must speak of the time of Elizabeth as a dark time and identical with previous times. Panin’s point of view has passed into ours. historical literature. In the work of S. V. Eshevsky (“Essay on the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna”) we find, for example, the following words: “From then (from Peter the Great) until Catherine the Great herself, Russian history comes down to the history of private individuals, brave or cunning temporary workers, and history the struggle of famous parties, court intrigues and tragic disasters" (Oc., II, 366). This assessment (unfair in general) of the reign of Elizabeth does not recognize any historical significance. According to Eshevsky, the time of Elizabeth is the same time of misunderstanding of the tasks of Russia and the reform of Peter, as was the era of the temporary workers and the German regime. “The meaning of the reform begins to be revealed again only under Catherine II,” he says (Works, II, 373). This is how things stood before S. M. Solovyov. Soloviev was well furnished with documents and became well acquainted with the archives of the Elizabethan era. The enormous material he studied, together with the Complete Collection of Laws, led him to a different conviction. Soloviev, if we look for the exact word, “loved” this era and wrote about it with sympathy. He firmly remembered that Russian society Elizabeth believed that she was a very popular empress. He considered Elizabeth’s main merit to be the overthrow of the German regime, systematic patronage of everything national and humanity: with this direction of Elizabeth’s government, many useful details entered Russian life, calmed it down and allowed it to sort out matters; national “rules and habits” were brought up under Elizabeth whole line new figures who made the glory of Catherine II. The time of Elizabeth prepared a lot for Catherine’s brilliant activities both inside and outside Russia. Thus, historical meaning Elizabeth's time is determined, according to Solovyov, by its preparatory role in relation to next era, and Elizabeth’s historical merit lies in the nationality of her direction (“Ist. Ross.”, XXIV).

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Portrait by V. Eriksen

There is no doubt that last point view is more fair than views hostile to Elizabeth. Elizabeth's return to national policy both inside and outside Russia, due to the softness of her government’s receptions, made her a very popular empress in the eyes of her contemporaries and gave her reign a different historical meaning compared to dark time previous reigns. The peaceful inclinations of the government in foreign policy and the humane direction in domestic policy outlined the reign of Elizabeth with sympathetic features and influenced the morals of Russian society, preparing it for the activities of Catherine’s time.

Elizaveta Petrovna, Empress of the Russian Empire. Reign 1741 - 1761

Elizaveta Petrovna. Palace coup of November 25, 1741

By giving the imperial crown to John 6 Antonovich, Anna Ioannovna deprived the heirs of Peter 1, along the Naryshkins, of the hope of leading the Russian empire, with which Elizaveta Petrovna did not agree, youngest daughter and the direct heir of Peter 1. At court, Elizabeth was considered a cheerful and carefree princess, who was only interested in balls, music and entertainment. But Elizabeth herself did not think so; after the death of Anna Ioannovna, she boldly and boldly played her part, preparing to seize power. Elizabeth established contacts with the guards regiments, participated in the christenings of the children of the guards, presented them with gifts, constantly emphasizing that she was the rightful heir to the Russian throne. None of the guardsmen protested her claims; the “Birovism” introduced in the state by Anna Ioannovna had already become unbearable for everyone. The guards were only waiting for a signal from Elizabeth, promising to kill everyone. However, Elizabeth did not want to begin her reign on blood, and set the conditions that not a single person would be killed as a result of the change of power; the guards had to agree. The Swedish and French ambassadors offered their help to Elizabeth, hoping after the coup and Elizabeth’s coming to power to limit political and military influence Russia on events in Europe, believing that Elizabeth was inclined to the lifestyle of the pre-Petrine era and would not interfere in European affairs. They lent Elizabeth money, which she constantly lacked due to Anna Ioannovna’s restrictions on her support. Sweden even started a war, one of the reasons for which was the liberation of Russia from foreign domination.

Before the ruler Russian Empire, Anna Leopoldovna, brought information that Elizabeth was preparing a coup, but the simple-minded, naive and narrow-minded Anna Leopoldovna could not find anything better than to ask Elizabeth herself how true this was, of which, of course, she was immediately dissuaded. Just before the coup, an unpleasant incident occurred, which was perceived in the palace as a bad omen; Anna Leopoldovna, when meeting with Elizabeth in the presence of the entire court, either stumbled or got tangled in her dress and fell at the feet of Elizabeth Petrovna. Elizabeth, feeling that the preparation of a coup was no longer a secret to anyone, and on the night of November twenty-fifth, 1741, the guards regiments left their barracks and surrounded the Winter Palace. The soldiers burst into the bedroom of Anna Leopoldovna, who, due to the obvious superiority of forces on the side of the attacking guards, did not resist, and after getting dressed allowed herself to be taken away. Prince Anton Ulrich, like Biron before, was not allowed to get dressed, but was wrapped in a blanket, carried and loaded into a sleigh. Following the instructions of Elizabeth Petrovna, the soldiers did not dare to wake up the sleeping infant emperor, and stood at his cradle until he woke up. The awakened, frightened and crying Ivan Antonovich was taken to Elizabeth; the only victim in this palace coup was the emperor’s sister, who was barely four months old; she was dropped, hit, and lost her hearing.

Elizaveta Petrovna. Childhood and youth

After the unexpected death of Emperor Peter 2 on the day of the appointed wedding, the ministers, when determining the future ruler of the empire, do not recognize the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s claims to the throne, and Peter 1’s niece Anna Ioannovna, who ruled the country for ten years, becomes the empress. Anna Ioannovna did not love her cousin Elizabeth, and one day the matter almost ended with Elizabeth’s tonsure as a nun, only Biron’s intercession saved her. By the end of Anna Ioannovna's reign, Elizabeth already knew exactly what she wanted. Showing foresight, she makes friends with the guardsmen of the most privileged regiments, gives them and their families gifts, participates in their holidays, and acts as a godmother for their children. Having managed to gain the trust of the guards, who were ready to make her empress with the help of force, Elizabeth waits even when the people support and openly declares that the daughter of Peter 1 should sit on the throne. And only when the situation reaches the impossibility of delaying it further, and the conspiracy becomes known even Empress Anna Leopoldovna, Elizabeth arrives at the barracks of the guards on the night of November 25, 1741 and leads them to the residence Russian emperors, Winter Palace.

Elizaveta Petrovna. Governing body

As was customary, in the morning, immediately after the coup, a manifesto was read out to all the assembled people, according to which Elizaveta Petrovna was recognized as the only legal heir, since she was the daughter of Peter 1 and such was the will Russian people suffered grief from foreign rulers who plundered the state and oppressed the Russian people.

The first and most pressing issue that faced Elizabeth Petrovna after the seizure of the Russian throne required immediate action; something had to be done with the former Emperor Ivan Antonovich and his family. The first decision made by Elizaveta Petrovna was to send the family of the former emperor to Europe, where they had relatives among ruling families, such as King Christian 6 of Denmark and King Frederick 2. However, the initial decision is gradually changing, Elizaveta Petrovna understands that by releasing John and his family to Europe, she receives in their person pretenders to the throne who will be able to claim their rights over time. And now the prisoners, who only managed to get to Riga in a year, are being taken to Siberia, where what awaits them ahead is whole life hardships and hardships.

The personal enemies of the Empress, Minister Osterman and Field Marshal Minich, also fell into disgrace; both were sentenced to death, which was later replaced by exile. Biron, who helped Elizabeth avoid being tonsured as a nun during the reign of Anna Ioannovna, returns from exile. Elizabeth expressed gratitude to the French and Swedish diplomats for their support, but informed them that interference in Russia’s internal affairs was unacceptable.

One of the first decrees of Elizabeth Petrovna dated December 12, 1741, immediately after coming to power, the Senate created by Peter 1 was restored, the Cabinet of Ministers, which had the right to adopt decrees on behalf of the emperor, was disbanded. Zealously guarding her right to autocracy, Elizabeth created a personal office; all orders on behalf of the Empress were now issued only with the personal signature of Elizabeth, who took upon herself the decision of all important state affairs, and not only important ones.

Fulfilling her promise not to use the death penalty as a punishment, Elizabeth did not condemn anyone to death during her entire reign and did not sign a single death warrant. Contemporaries considered Elizabeth lazy in relation to state affairs, many of which required urgent decisions, but decrees on them lay with Elizabeth for a long time without signature. However, the entire reign of Elizaveta Petrovna was distinguished by prudence and measuredness, she never made decisions the correctness of which she doubted, she never listened to only one, she always listened to others before making an informed decision. Elizabeth appointed to high positions even those who were personally distasteful to her; if the person was smart and could manage affairs, then the empress’s attitude did not affect the appointment to the position. She knew how to cope with her favorites, without giving preference to them over others in matters. Without possessing any special talents for leading such a huge country as Russia, Elizaveta Petrovna knew how to select ministers and place the right and necessary people in key positions. useful people. The main goal of her reign, Elizaveta Petrovna declared a return to the principles of the country's development adopted by Peter 1, and which were forgotten in subsequent reigns. The Senate was given instructions to review all decrees adopted after the reign of Peter 1 and bring them into line with the decrees of Peter 1 aimed at developing the country according to European image. has been done big job on the development of a code of judicial and forensic laws. Elizaveta Petrovna’s favorite Shuvalov developed a decree abolishing internal state customs, which stimulated the development of the domestic market, giving it additional features development. Monetary losses from the liquidation of internal customs were compensated by an increase in duties for foreign merchants. In two stages, all arrears of the population from 1719 to 1747 were forgiven, and the arrears commission itself was disbanded. The population census, which lasted from 1744 to 1747, showed an increase in citizens subject to taxes by 17%, which was a considerable achievement for the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, since before that there had only been a population decline. Elizabeth continued the policy of Peter 1 in relation to foreign specialists; they were invited to Russia in large numbers, but Russian superiors were always placed over them.

The war with Sweden, which went to Elizabeth Petrovna along with the throne, despite the exorbitant demands of the Swedes to give them all the lands on the Baltic coast, ended in the defeat of the Swedes and part of Finland was ceded to Russia. In foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna relied on a sense of friendship, and only then justice. But even here she had to pacify herself and enter into agreements that she had previously considered unacceptable for herself. So Russia, after openly impartial statements by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna against Austria and England, concluded an alliance treaty with them against the common enemy Frederick 2, restraining his aggressive inclinations. The Seven Years' War, which cost Russia considerable effort, did not bear fruit; everything achieved in the war against Prussia during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was given by the successor to the Russian throne, Peter 3, to Frederick 2 out of the personal sympathies of Elizabeth's heir. Russia's foreign policy under the rule of Elizaveta Petrovna can be characterized by two words: containment and justice. Russia once again demonstrated to Europe its military power, which forced everyone to take into account the interests of the Russian empire in foreign policy.

At the end of her reign, due to deteriorating health, Elizaveta Petrovna could no longer maintain her business activity at the same level. Several years before her death, starting in 1755, courtiers and foreign diplomats noted Elizabeth's painful condition. For the last two years of her life, the empress struggled with fatal diseases that gradually overcame her. On the evening of December twenty-fourth, Elizaveta Petrovna confessed, received unction, and ordered the departure prayer to be read twice, repeating the words after the priest.

Russian history Platonov Sergey Fedorovich

The time of Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)