The Golden Age of Russian culture summary. Features of the "Golden Age" of Russian culture

The fate of Russia in the first half of the 19th century was ambiguous. These years began with the victory in the Patriotic War, and ended with the unsuccessful Crimean War.

The 1st half of the 19th century, the time of Pushkin, is called the Golden Age of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. After the defeat of the Decembrists, a new rise in the social movement began. This gave hope that Russia would gradually overcome its difficulties. The country achieved the most impressive successes in these years in the field of science and especially culture. The 1st half of the century gave Russia and the world Pushkin and Lermontov, Griboyedov and Gogol, Belinsky and Herzen, Glinka and Dargomyzhsky, Bryullov, Ivanov and Fedotov.

During the period of transformations at the beginning of the 19th century. The public education system was reformed. In 1803, six educational districts headed by trustees and four classes of educational institutions were created. According to the Charter of 1804, universities became centers for training teachers and provided methodological guidance to schools in the educational district. In 1802 the University of Dorpat was restored, and in 1804 universities were founded in Vilna, Kazan, and Kharkov. Universities enjoyed significant rights of self-government.

At the beginning of the century, closed educational institutions for nobles - lyceums - appeared (in Yaroslavl, Odessa, Tsarskoe Selo), and higher educational institutions were opened (Commercial Institute, Institute of Railways).

Back at the beginning of the 19th century. N. M. Karamzin wrote about “the love of reading in Russia.” In 1813 there were 66 printing houses in Russia. Quantity periodicals by the middle of the century it grew from 64 titles to 200.

Based on the achievements of European science, major successes Russian scientists have achieved. The centers of scientific thought were:

1) Academy of Sciences;

2) universities;

3) scientific societies.

Mathematicians have achieved outstanding success:

1) N. I. Lobachevsky (creator of non-Euclidean geometry);

2) P. V. Chebyshev;

3) astronomer V. Ya. Struve;

4) chemist N. N. Zinin.

The level of development of world science corresponded to the discoveries and inventions of Professor V.V. Petrov (electrochemistry and electrometallurgy), Academician B.S. Jacobi (electroplating), P.L. Schilling (electromagnetic telegraph), P.P. Anosov (metallurgy). New ideas in medicine and physiology were put forward by N. I. Pirogov. Among the historians of this period, Moscow University professor T. N. Granovsky stands out.

In 1811, Russian sailors led by captain V. M. Golovkin(1776–1831) surveyed Kurile Islands. F. P. Litke(1797–1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America, founded the Russian Geographical Society. In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition on two sloops to the southern polar seas under the leadership of F.F. Bellingshausen(1778–1852). Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name G. I. Nevelskoy(1813–1876).

In 1819, persecution began at universities, and theological departments were established in them. The strict “cast-iron” charter of 1828 for lower and secondary educational institutions determined that children of “people of lower status” should study in parish schools, children of merchants, artisans and other residents of the city should study in district schools, children of nobles and officials should study in gymnasiums. In 1835, universities were deprived of the status of scientific centers, as well as their internal autonomy. Technical higher educational institutions were opened to train qualified personnel:

1) Moscow vocational school;

2) School of Architecture;

3) Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg;

4) Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow;

5) Theological, military schools and academies.

Social thought in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. developed in the traditions of the Enlightenment. Ideas circulated:

1) Montesquieu;

3) Voltaire;

However, only a small part of society considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative.

1st half of the 19th century became the time of formation of the Russian literary language. Russian scientific terminology expanded - linguistic departments were opened at universities. “Freed the language from the alien yoke” N. M. Karamzin. Karamzin's followers created the Arzamas association (1815–1818).

In the literature of the 1st half of the 19th century. Various artistic movements coexisted:

1) classicism;

3) pre-romanticism;

4) romanticism;

5) realism.

At this time, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol created their works.

The importance of literature in Russia in the 1st half of the century was enormous. In scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, and secular salons, current political problems were discussed.

An important stage in the development of national self-awareness was the Patriotic War of 1812. At the same time, after the war, religious sentiments intensified in society. Fearing the influence of European revolutionary movement, the government strengthened political control within the country.

In 1814–1815 The first secret organizations arose in the army, whose task was to change the existing system. In 1816, on the initiative of the Muravyov brothers, S.P. Trubetskoy, the Muravyov-Apostolov brothers and I.D. Yakushkin, the Union of Salvation was created. The Union had about 200 members. At the congress held in January 1821, opinions about the Union's program of action were divided. The leadership announced the dissolution of the Welfare Union. But immediately after this, the conspiratorial Northern and Southern societies emerged simultaneously.

In 1824, the Southern Society adopted a program document (“Russian Truth” by P. I. Pestel). Northern society adopted the “Constitution” of Nikita Muravyov. In 1824, during negotiations, it was decided to convene a congress at the beginning of 1826 to unite the two societies. But in November 1825, Alexander I suddenly died in Taganrog, and after clarifying the issue of succession to the throne, the oath to the new Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich was scheduled for December 14, 1825. The leaders of the Northern Society, K. F. Ryleev and A. A. Bestuzhev, decided to act.

Nicholas I became aware of the conspiracy. Of the 579 people involved in the investigation, 289 were found guilty. K. F. Ryleev, P. I. Pestel, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky were hanged on July 13, 1826.

A. I. Herzen called the period that followed the defeat of the Decembrists “the time of external slavery.” The censorship regulations of 1826 prohibited anything that “impaired respect” for the authorities.

In the 30s XIX century is being developed:

1) genre of the story (A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. F. Odoevsky);

2) historical novel(A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol).

Beginning of the 19th century - the time of formation of Russian journalism. The number of newspapers and magazines increased significantly and their circulation increased, although even the most popular publications were printed in no more than 1,500 copies. Among Russian magazines, Vestnik Evropy, founded by N. M. Karamzin, was especially popular.

In the 2nd half of the 20s - early 30s. XIX century Numerous secret circles were formed in Russia. Their members discussed political and philosophical problems, tried to comprehend the events of December 14, 1825, and read forbidden literature. Circles were created at Moscow University: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich and others. Most of them were dispersed by the police.

The constantly increasing censorship was primarily directed against periodicals, which played a large role in the ideological struggle. In 1836, the Telescope magazine published one of the “Philosophical Letters” P. Ya. Chaadaeva(1794–1856), a bright and original thinker.

S.S. Uvarov, who became the Minister of Public Education, proposed introducing “truly Russian” education, which was based on three inseparable principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality. The theory of “official nationality” by S. S. Uvarov became the basis of the ideology of the Nicholas era.

In the 1830-40s. main directions are being formed social thought, based on the need for reforms in Russia. Their representatives called themselves:

1) Slavophiles;

2) Westerners;

3) revolutionaries.

Theater began to play an increasingly prominent role in public life. The centers of theatrical life were the Maly Theater in Moscow (since 1824) and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg (since 1832). Theaters existed in many cities of Russia. In 1825, the Bolshoi Opera and Ballet Theater began operating in Moscow. Both “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov and “The Inspector General” by N. V. Gogol were staged. Composers such as A. A. Alyabyev, A. L. Gurilev, A. E. Varlamov wrote songs and romances based on poems by Russian poets.

The formation of the Russian national school in music is associated with the name M. I. Glinka(1804–1857), author of romances, symphonic works, classical operas “A Life for the Tsar” (1836), “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842). He was an innovator in music A. S. Dargomyzhsky(1813–1869), who created the opera-ballet “The Triumph of Bacchus”, the operas “Rusalka”, “The Stone Guest”.

Although foreign troupes and serf theaters continued to play a large role in the theatrical life of Russia, some Russian landowners became theater entrepreneurs. Their theaters turned into public ones. During these same years, M. I. Glinka’s opera “A Life for the Tsar” was staged at the Bolshoi Theater (later Soviet scene it was called “Ivan Susanin”).

Glinka’s other opera, “Ruslan and Lyudmila,” which was received coldly by the public, is also distinguished by the brightness of its musical colors, ingenious lightness of technique and classical simplicity. Pushkin’s plot also formed the basis of A. S. Dargomyzhsky’s opera “Rusalka”. This opera also met with a cold reception from the public, accustomed to the music of Italian composers.

The beginning of the 19th century is called the golden age of Russian painting. At this time, Russian artists reached a level of skill that put their works on a par with the best examples European art. The primacy remained with the historical genre.

A famous portrait artist of this time was O. A. Kiprensky(1782–1836). His paintings attract with warm golden tones in the spirit of the Dutch artist Rembrandt. Around 1808–1809 Kiprensky wrote “Portrait of a boy A. A. Chelishchev.” The artist seemed to predict the extraordinary fate of his hero: at the age of 15, he already participated in the Patriotic War of 1812 and reached Paris. Kiprensky's female images have great depth.

V. A. Tropinin(1776–1857) was born into the family of serfs of Count Morkov. A strong character and his love for art helped him defend his right to do what he loved. In 1823, the count, under public pressure, gave Tropinin his freedom. In the same year, the artist presented to the Academy the works “Portrait of the Artist Skotnikov” (1821), “The Old Beggar Man” and “The Lacemaker” (both in 1823). Having received freedom, the artist settled in Moscow. In the period from the 20s to the 40s. XIX century the master was unusually popular and wrote many works. Among them are a portrait of Pushkin (1827) - very simple and “homely”, “Self-portrait with a palette against the backdrop of the Kremlin” (1846), etc.

Famous artist S. F. Shchedrin(1791–1830) was one of the first to discover the unusual color effect of the lunar path, which became very popular in Russian painting in the mid and 2nd half of the 19th century. His work anticipated the discoveries of French impressionist artists. K. P. Bryullov(1799–1852) managed to find a middle ground between the classicism that dominated academic painting and new romantic trends.

First big job 18 year old Alexandra Ivanova(1806–1858) on a plot from Homer’s “Iliad” – “Priam asking Achilles for the body of Hector” (1824) – showed that he had perfectly mastered the academic style of painting. In the painting “The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene” (1834–1836), the classical setting of the characters’ poses and gestures is combined with the Christian enlightenment of their faces and a sense of miracle. For this painting, Ivanov received the title of academician. For more than 20 years the author worked on the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People.”

IN architecture of the 19th century V. Classicism reigned. Buildings built in this style are distinguished by a clear and calm rhythm and correct proportions; they strictly adhere to such laws architectural composition, How:

1) symmetry;

2) emphasizing the center;

3) general harmony of parts and the whole.

There were significant differences in the architecture of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Also in mid-18th century V. St. Petersburg was a city of architectural masterpieces, surrounded by green estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Then the regular development of the city began along the avenues that cut through it, rays radiating from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is the architecture not of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles, striking in their unity and harmony. Work to streamline the center of the new capital began with the construction of the Admiralty building according to the project A. D. Zakharova(1761–1811).

Construction was of fundamental importance at the beginning of the 19th century. Exchange building on the highway of Vasilyevsky Island. The new building united the remaining ensembles in this part of the city. The design of the Exchange and the design of the switch were entrusted to the French architect Thomas de Thomon.

Nevsky Prospekt, the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, has acquired the appearance of a single ensemble since its construction in 1810–1811. Kazan Cathedral. It was built on the model of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome by the architect A. N. Voronikhin(1759–1814). In 1806, A. N. Voronikhin received an order to rebuild the buildings of Mining cadet corps(since 1833 - Mining Institute). Having preserved the existing buildings, Voronikhin united them with a common facade - austere, devoid of decorative details. The building is decorated with a series of sculptural works on ancient subjects, symbolizing the purpose of this institution. They were made by sculptors V. I. Demut-Malinovsky(1779–1846) and S. Pimenov(1784–1833).

For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg - the largest building erected in Russia in the 1st half of the 19th century. The project was designed by a French architect O. Montferrand(1786–1858).

The triumphal motifs of the Alexander Column were embodied in the sculptural decoration of the arch of the General Staff Building, which covered Palace Square on the south side. At the same time, the General Staff building, built according to the design of K. I. Rossi, seemed to repeat the solemn motifs of the Admiralty, located diagonally from it. Thus the ensemble Palace Square merged with the Admiralteysky Prospekt ensemble.

The final work on the formation of St. Petersburg ensembles is related to creativity K. I. Rossi(1775–1849). Buildings were built according to his design.

1. Senate and Synod.

2. Alexandria Theater.

3. Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum).

Not limiting himself to the construction of individual buildings, the famous maestro rebuilt the streets and squares adjacent to them. These works acquired such a scale that it seemed that Rossi was close to realizing his dream - to turn the entire city into a work of art. However, the architect took little into account the everyday needs of the people living in the city, and his creations began to turn into grandiose decorations.

Manifestations of Moscow classicism were characteristic of individual buildings. Even the fire of 1812 did not eliminate the diversity of Moscow streets and the picturesque chaos of buildings.

In 1813, the Commission for the Restoration of Moscow was organized, which was engaged in the reconstruction of the city for thirty years. In the same year, O. I. Bove (1784–1834) returned to Moscow from the people’s militia and received the position of architect.

In the first decades of the 19th century. Moscow has acquired a new look. And in this, along with Osip, Bove played an important role Domenico Gilardi(1785–1845). First great job The architect was responsible for the restoration of Moscow University after the fire of 1812. Gilardi retained the composition of the building built by M. F. Kazakov, but changed the facade.

At the same time, the architect continued his activities Stasov. His most famous buildings were two St. Petersburg churches - the Transfiguration and Trinity Cathedrals. For the Transfiguration Cathedral (1827–1829), the architect chose a simple and expressive cube shape. When designing the Trinity Cathedral (1828–1835), the master could not deviate from the forms of the old churches of the 18th century. As a result, he erected a cruciform building, completing each of the projections of the cross with a 6-column portico and crowning it with a small dome on a smooth drum. Stasov occupied a special place in Russian architecture of the 1st half of the 19th century, showing that a bright architectural solution does not depend on the purpose of the building.

In 1839–1852 according to the project German architect Leo Klenze The New Hermitage building was built in St. Petersburg. The calm balance of its parts, decorative design in the modern Greek style, powerful granite atlases at the entrance - all this created an impressive image of the museum - a repository of masterpieces of world art.

K. A. Ton(1794–1881) tried to revive traditions in his work ancient Russian architecture. He built 5-domed churches with narrow rounded windows and used Russian and Byzantine decor. All this was subject to the strict proportions and symmetry of classicism, which Tone could not refuse. Nicholas I liked Tone's works. In 1838–1849. under his leadership the Grand Kremlin Palace was built. In 1839, on the banks of the Moscow River, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was founded in memory of the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion.

Sculpture also developed actively. A monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected on Red Square - a work I. P. Martos(1754–1835). Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptor dressed his heroes in antique clothes.

In the 40-50s. XIX century Nevsky Prospekt was decorated bronze sculptures P. K. Klodt(1805–1867) “Horse Tamers” installed on the abutments of the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka. Monument to Nicholas I on Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg also belongs to Klodt.

The 19th century in Russian history was a direct continuation of the previous one. Russia continued to expand its territories. After the annexation of the North Caucasus. Central Asia and other lands, it became not just a huge, but truly immense country - empire. The transformations begun by Peter I also continued. Russia slowly and as if reluctantly emerged from its medieval past and became increasingly drawn into the New Age. However, its development was uneven.

The most profound and impressive changes occurred in spiritual culture. In this area, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. If in the 18th century. Russia loudly declared its existence to the whole world, then in the 19th century. she literally burst into world culture, occupying one of the highest and most honorable places there.

The main credit for this belongs to two great Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky And L.N. Tolstoy. Acquaintance with their work was a real discovery, revelation and shock for the West. Their enormous success contributed to the elevation of the authority of the entire Russian spiritual culture, strengthening its influence and rapid spread throughout the world.

As for material culture, economic and socio-political areas, Russia's achievements here were much more modest. Of course, there have been some successes in these areas as well. In particular, already in the first half of the 19th century. Domestic mechanical engineering is being born in Russia. Steam engines are becoming widespread. The first steamship appears (1815). The first railway began operating between Moscow and St. Petersburg (1851).

The basis of the emerging industry is the rapidly developing metallurgy, where the Demidov factories in the Urals play a key role. The textile industry is developing successfully. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities and an increase in their population. Cities are increasingly beginning to dominate the countryside.

However, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is slow. The main obstacle is the persistence of serfdom and autocracy. In this respect, Russia was still a medieval feudal society.

The reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, changed the situation. However, this reform was inconsistent and half-hearted, it retained many factors constraining development, so its impact was limited. In addition, the political system of autocracy remained practically unaffected. At the same time, the same factors had a stimulating effect on spiritual life. They encouraged the Russian intelligentsia to again and again pose and seek answers to the eternal questions that had become for them: “Who is to blame?”, “What to do?”

In general, the main and most important events and phenomena that determined the development of Russian XIX culture century, there were the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrist uprising of 1825, serfdom and the reform of 1861 to abolish it.

Patriotic War of 1812 caused an increase in national self-awareness and an unprecedented rise in patriotism. It awakened in Russians a sense of pride in their fatherland, in their people, who managed to defeat such a strong enemy, defending not only their national freedom, but also the freedom of European peoples. All this contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance of extreme forms of admiration for everything Western that took place in the upper strata of Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on domestic art. Many artists dedicated their works to the theme of war. As an example, we can point to L. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”.

The Patriotic War was also one of the main reasons for the emergence Decembrist movements - movements of the Russian revolutionary nobility. The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that the Russian people who won it did not gain anything for themselves. It was as if his victory was stolen from him. Having defended the freedom of others, he himself remained in “slavery and ignorance.”

Based on the liberation ideas of Western philosophers and thinkers and influenced by the French and American revolutions, the Decembrists set radical tasks for their movement: the overthrow or limitation of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a republican or constitutional system, the abolition of estates, the establishment of individual and property rights, etc. . They viewed the implementation of these tasks as fulfilling a “duty to the people.” For this reason, they went to an armed uprising and were defeated.

The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge of social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and profound. A.S. expressed his closeness to the ideas and spirit of Decembrism in his work. Pushkin, as well as other artists.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. This theme came in the 19th century. from the previous century. It tormented the Decembrists and was inherited by two important trends in Russian thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. Both movements rejected the existing regime of autocracy and serfdom, but they deeply diverged in their understanding of the ways to rebuild Russia. Differently They also looked at the transformations of Peter I.

Westerners - among whom were P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky - stood on the positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly appreciated Peter's reforms and advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it universal and inevitable for all peoples. Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, the determining role of laws and rights in the organization of public life.

Slavophiles, who were represented by I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevskie. A.S. Khomyakov, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed Peter's reforms, which, in their opinion, disrupted the natural evolution of Russia. Slavophiles rejected the Western European path of development, insisted on the original development of Russia, and emphasized its religious, historical and cultural-national originality.

They did not reject the need to create modern industry and Agriculture, trade and banking, but believed that in doing so they should rely on their own forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which are the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.

Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, etc.) laid the foundation for the development of an original and original Russian philosophy, the basis of which is not Western rationalism, but Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. Slavophiles develop the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities - feelings, reason and faith, as well as will and love - participate in cognition.

Truth, moreover, does not belong to an individual person, but to a collective of people united by a single love, from which a collective consciousness is born. Sobornost opposes individualism and disunity. Considering freedom, the Slavophiles emphasized its conditioning by internal motives and motivations and rejected its dependence on external circumstances. A person in his actions and deeds must be guided by his conscience, spiritual, and not material interests.

Slavophiles looked skeptically at legal forms regulation of people's behavior. Therefore, they were not worried about the modest role of the legal principle in the life of Russian society. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith and the true Church. Slavophiles believed that only the Christian worldview and Orthodox Church will be able to lead humanity onto the path of salvation. They were convinced that it was Russian Orthodoxy most fully embodies truly Christian principles, while Catholicism and Protestantism have moved away from true faith. In this regard, they put forward the idea of ​​Russia's messianic role in the salvation of humanity. The ideas of Slavophilism had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian philosophy; they were continued in ideology of pochvennichestvo, one of the main representatives of which was F. Dostoevsky.

Russian science and education of the 19th century.

The basis of cultural takeoff Russia XIX V. were her significant successes in business development of education. By the beginning of the century, education in the country was noticeably lagging behind the level Western countries. The overwhelming majority of people who were illiterate were not only the lower classes - peasants and townspeople, but also the upper classes - merchants and even many nobles. The need for educated and knowledgeable people was acutely felt at all levels of government and society.

Therefore, already at the beginning of the century, the government of Alexander I decided to create a unified education system, including four levels: parish one-class schools for the lower strata, district two-class schools for townspeople, merchants, and townspeople; provincial four-year gymnasiums - for nobles; universities and other higher education institutions.

After the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, the development of the education system accelerated. In post-reform times, Russia's literacy increased from 7 to 22% of the population. By the end of the century there were 63 institutions of higher education, including 10 universities. The total number of students was 30 thousand. Since 1819. Women's education is developing, and in the 1870s. higher education for women begins. In 1869, the Lubyanka Higher Women's Courses opened in Moscow, and in 1870, the Alarcha Courses opened in St. Petersburg. The Bestuzhev Women's Courses in St. Petersburg became the most famous. However, the development of women's education was not without difficulties. Therefore, in the 1870s. At the University of Zurich, girls from Russia made up 80% of all foreign students.

Advances in education and enlightenment contributed to further progress Russian science, which is experiencing real prosperity. At the same time, one unusual, but characteristic for Russia, tradition is emerging: to develop successfully without having the necessary and sufficient conditions for this, and to remain unclaimed by society. In the 19th century Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries and achievements alone looks quite impressive.

In area mathematicians they are associated primarily with the names of N.I. Lobachevsky, A.A. Markova and others. The first created non-Euclidean geometry, which revolutionized ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. The second developed the so-called Markov chains, which laid the foundation for a new direction in probability theory.

IN astronomy The works of V.Ya. have received worldwide recognition. Struve, who made the first determination of stellar parallax (mixing), established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world.

Russian scientists made a huge contribution to the development physicists, especially in the study of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc, which has found wide practical application. E.H. Lenz formulated a rule (later named after him) that determines the direction of the induction current; experimentally substantiated the Joule-Lenz law. B.S. Jacobi invented the electric motor, created electroplating, together with the submarine. Shilling invented the electric telegraph and designed the first telegraph recording apparatus that operated on the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line. Russian scientists have great merit in creating the theory of electrolysis, in the development of electronic, atomic and quantum physics.

The progress of chemistry also owes a lot to Russian scientists. D.M. Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements, which became the greatest achievement of world science. N.N. Zinin discovered a method for the production of aromatic amines, synthesized quinine and aniline for the first time. A .M. Butlerov created new theory chemical structure substances, laying the foundations of modern organic chemistry, discovered the polymerization reaction.

IN geography in January 1820, Russian navigators made the greatest discovery: the expedition F.F. Bellingshausen - M.P. Lazarev discovered a sixth of the world - Antarctica.

Development marked great achievements biology And medicine. Russian doctors were the first to use painkillers - anesthesia. N.I. Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions, created the atlas " Topographic anatomy", gained worldwide fame. N.F. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

The social sciences also developed successfully, the leading among which was story. Russian scientists paid their main attention to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created the twelve-volume “History of the Russian State,” which had unprecedented success and was reprinted more than once. A major and authoritative historian was CM. Soloviev. He owns the “History of Russia since Ancient Times” in 29 volumes, containing rich factual material. Made a significant contribution to the study of the history of the fatherland IN. Klyuchevsky. He wrote “A Course in Russian History,” as well as works on the history of serfdom, classes, and finance.

Made significant achievements linguistics. Here the activity deserves special mention IN AND. Dalia, compiler of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language,” on which he worked for about 50 years and which has retained its significance to this day.

The 19th century was the time of formation as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought in the person of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Nietzsche, etc. At the same time, it develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements - from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, B.S. Soloviev.

The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also experiencing a period of active development.

Russian literature of the 19th century.

The most favorable and fruitful 19th century. turned out to be for artistic culture, which experienced an unprecedented rise and flourishing and became a classic. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. The main role belonged to literature.

Founder and central figure sentimentalism was in Russia N.M. Karamzin. In the story " Poor Lisa" he showed brightly character traits this direction in art: attention to to the common man revealing his inner world of feelings and experiences, praising the “natural simplicity” of the patriarchal way of life. To one degree or another, sentimentalism was present in the works of many Russian writers, but as an independent movement it was not widespread.

Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. There were several currents in it. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets: K.F. Ryleeva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Kuchelbecker. Civil and freedom-loving motives are also heard in the works of A.A. Delviga, I.I. Kozlova, N.M. Yazykova. Depths and condition spiritual world with a touch of fantasy and melancholy constitute the content of V.A.’s works. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkova. Philosophical lyrics, deep psychologism, Slavophile ideas and reverent love for Russia found expression in the works of F.I. Tyutchev and V.F. Odoevsky.

By the beginning of the 1830s. in Russian literature it is stated realism and becomes the main focus. In its formation important role played by the creativity of A.S. Griboedova And AND.A. Krylova. However, the greatest names of Russian realism, of all Russian literature and culture are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.

A.S. Pushkin became the founder of Russian literature, the creator of the Russian literary language. It is in his work that the Russian language for the first time appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. His early works - “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Gypsies”, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, etc. - are in line with romanticism.

Then he moves to the position of realism. All types and genres of literature are represented in his work. In poetry he acts as a singer of freedom. In the novel “Eugene Onegin” he paints large-scale pictures of Russian life. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" and the story "The Captain's Daughter" are dedicated to significant events in the history of Russia.

A.S. Pushkin was not only a great artist, but also an outstanding historian and thinker. In a dispute with P. Chaadaev, he gives a more subtle, deep and convincing understanding of the place and role of Russia in world history. Critically assessing the Asian ignorance, wild tyranny and violence, and lack of rights of the people existing in Russia, he opposes violent methods of changing the existing situation. A.S. Pushkin had a huge influence on the subsequent development of Russian literature, philosophy and all culture.

F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Russian literature and culture owe their world fame and recognition to Tolstoy. In my creativity F.M.Dostoevsky struggled with what he defined as “the mystery of man.” His main works are devoted to solving this mystery - “Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, etc. In them he examines the problems of the meaning of life, good and evil, goals and means of achievement, faith and unbelief, freedom and responsibility, passion and duty. At the same time, Dostoevsky goes beyond literature and acts as a profound philosopher and thinker. With his work he had a huge impact on such philosophical movements as existentialism And personalism, to all modern spiritual culture.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy One of the central themes is the search for a moral ideal and the meaning of life. This theme runs through almost all of his works - the novels “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, the story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”, etc. In the grandiose epic “War and Peace” Tolstoy examines the origins of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, which he sees in the extraordinary rise of the patriotic spirit.

Tolstoy is the creator of religious and philosophical teachings, the basis of which is the development of the “true religion” of universal love, goodness and non-violence. He had a huge influence on world literature and culture.

Among the great Russian writers who have received worldwide recognition are also M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.WITH. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov.

Along with literature, the Russian music. Already in the first decades of the 19th century. appears whole line wonderful composers, many of whom gravitate towards romanticism. The leading genre is romance. He is represented by A.A. Alyabyev, P.P. Bulakhov. A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, A.L. Gurilev et al.

Most popular romances A.A. Alyabyeva became “Nightingale”, “Beggar”. P.P. Bulakhov is the author of no less popular romances and songs - “Troika”, “There’s a big village on the way”. A.E. Varlamov He became famous primarily for the song “A blizzard is blowing along the street” and the romance “Don’t wake her up at dawn.” In total, he wrote about 200 romances and songs. A.L. Gurilev belongs to “Separation”, “Bell”, “Mother Dove” and other romances and songs. A .N. Verstovsky is one of the main representatives of Russian romanticism in music. In addition to romances, he also created famous opera"Askold's grave."

The greatest names in Russian musical art are M.I. Glinka And G1.I. Chaikovsky. Glinka became the pinnacle in the development of Russian music in the first half of the 19th century. He is the founder of Russian classical music. His main works are the operas “A Life for the Tsar” and “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. With his compositions “Kamarinskaya”, “Spanish Overtures” and others, the composer laid the foundations of Russian symphonism. All subsequent Russian musical art developed under the strong influence of Glinka.

Tchaikovsky became the pinnacle of the development of Russian music throughout the 19th century. It is to him that she primarily owes her world fame. He created true masterpieces in all musical genres. His most famous operas are Eugene Onegin and Queen of Spades" The ballets “Swan Lake” and “Sleeping Beauty” received worldwide recognition. "Nutcracker". He created six symphonies, several piano and violin concertos. Tchaikovsky's musical genius is comparable to that of Mozart.

A huge contribution to the development of Russian and world musical culture was made by " Mighty bunch" - a group of outstanding Russian composers, which included M.A. Balakirev (leader), A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

The successful development of Russian music was facilitated by the opening of conservatories in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866).

Russian painting and art of the 19th century.

Great achievements have also been noted in the development of fine arts, especially painting. Romanticism in Russian paintings of the 19th century V. represented by O.A. Kiprensky and S.F. Shchedrin. The first is known mainly as a portrait painter, who painted “Self-Portrait with Brushes Behind the Ear”, “A.S. Pushkin", "E.P. Rostopchin” and others. The second created poetic images of Italian nature, in particular the series “Harbors in Sorrento”.

In creativity K.P. Bryullov Romanticism is combined with classicism. His brushes include such famous paintings as “The Last Day of Pompeii”, “Bathsheba”, etc.

WITH mid-19th V. Realism becomes the leading direction in Russian painting. Its establishment and successful development was facilitated by the Association of Itinerants, which arose in 1870, which included almost all the best Russian artists of that time. Realism in painting reached its highest peak in creativity I.E. Repina And IN AND. Surikov. The first created such masterpieces as “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “ Procession in the Kursk province”, as well as portraits of “Protodeacon”. “Mussorgsky” and others. The second is known for the paintings “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Mentikov in Berezovo”, etc.

Outstanding realist artists were also I.N. Kramskoy, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, P.A. Fedotov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin.

It is also developing very successfully Russian theater. Its heyday is associated with the name of the great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky, whose creative destiny was connected with the Maly Theater in Moscow. He created the plays “The Thunderstorm”, “Profitable Place”, “Forest”, “Dowry”, the production of which made Russian theater classic. An outstanding actor on the Russian stage was M.S. Shchepkin.

The impressive successes and achievements of Russian culture still seem surprising and incredible today. But they really existed and allowed Russia to take its rightful place among the leading countries of the world.

An extraordinary rise national culture in the first half of the 19th century. allowed us to call this time the “golden age.” If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind advanced European states, then in cultural achievements she not only kept up with them, but often got ahead of them.

Development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century. relied on the transformations of the previous time. The penetration of elements of capitalist relations into the economy has increased the need for literate and educated people. Cities became major cultural centers. New social strata were drawn into social processes. Culture developed against the background of the ever-increasing national self-awareness of the Russian people and, in connection with this, had a pronounced national character. The Patriotic War of 1812 had a significant impact on literature, theater, music and fine arts.

However, conservative tendencies in the policies of Emperors Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1 hampered the development of culture. The government actively fought against the emergence of progressive thought in literature, journalism, theater and painting. It prevented widespread public education. Serfdom did not give the entire population the opportunity to enjoy high achievements. The cultural demands and needs of the top of society were different from those of the people, who developed their own cultural traditions.

Architecture and sculpture. Late 18th and early 19th centuries. - this is the era of classicism in Russian architecture, which left a bright imprint on the architectural appearance of both capitals and other cities.

Classicism is a European cultural and aesthetic movement that focused on ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) art, on ancient literature and mythology. In Russian literature, the age of classicism was relatively short and dull; there was almost no classicism in Russian music, but in painting and especially in architecture it left genuine masterpieces.

Back in the middle of the 18th century. St. Petersburg was a city of isolated architectural ensembles, surrounded by green estates and was in many ways similar to old Moscow. Then the regular development of the city began along the avenues that cut through it, rays radiating from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is the architecture not of individual buildings, but of entire avenues and ensembles, striking in their balance, unity, and harmony.

Work on streamlining the center of St. Petersburg began with the emergence of the Admiralty building according to the design of Andrei Dmitrievich Zakharov (1761-1811). In the huge building, the architect highlighted the central tower. The construction at the beginning of the 19th century was of fundamental importance. Exchange building on the spit of Vasilyevsky Island. It was this building that was supposed to unite the ensembles that had developed around the widest section of the Neva riverbed. The design of the Exchange and the design of the arrow were entrusted to the French architect Thomas de Thomon. A.D. Zakharov participated in finalizing the project.

Nevsky Prospekt acquired the appearance of an integral architectural ensemble with its construction in 1801 - 1811. Kazan Cathedral. The author of the project, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin (1759-1814), took St. Cathedral as a model. Peter's in Rome, the creation of the great Michelangelo. Monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, made by B.I. Orlovsky, were erected in front of the cathedral.

In the 40s - 50s of the 19th century. Nevsky Prospect was decorated with bronze sculptures of Pyotr Karlovich Klodt (1805-1867) “Horse Tamers”, installed on the abutments of the Anichkov Bridge across the Fontanka. Another work of Klodt is the monument to Nicholas 1 on St. Isaac's Square in St. Petersburg. The Emperor is depicted riding a horse.

For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. 13 thousand people can be inside the cathedral at the same time. The project was designed by the French architect Auguste Montferrand (17886-1858). The figure of an angel holding a cross was made by B.I. Orlovsky. He also owns the monuments to M.I. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly in St. Petersburg.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi (1775-1849), son of an Italian ballerina, was born and lived in Russia. According to Rossi's design, the buildings of the Senate and Synod, the Alexander Theater, and the Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum) were built. Not limiting himself to the construction of individual buildings, the famous maestro rebuilt and redesigned the adjacent streets and squares.

Moscow classicism was characterized by individual buildings, not ensembles. It was difficult to create architectural ensembles on curved streets with layers of different eras. Even the fire of 1812 did not change the traditional diversity of Moscow streets and the picturesque chaotic nature of the buildings. Russian culture painting literature

After the fire in Moscow, such outstandingly beautiful buildings were erected as the Bolshoi Theater, the Alexander Garden and the Manege (architect O.I. Bove, engineer A.A. Betancourt), and the Guardian Palace on Solyanka (architect D.I. Zhiyardi). A monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected on Red Square - the work of Ivan Petrovich Martos (1754-1835). Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptures dressed its heroes in antique clothes.

In general, however, Moscow classicism was not distinguished by such majestic monumentality as St. Petersburg. Small mansions of the estate type were typical for Moscow. Moscow classicism is freer, sometimes touchingly naive (when the portico was attached to a plastered wooden building) and closer to man.

In 1839-1852. According to the design of the German architect Leo Klenze, the building of the New Hermitage was built in St. Petersburg. The calm balance of its parts, decorative design in the modern Greek style, powerful granite atlases at the entrance - all this created an impressive image of the museum - a repository of masterpieces of world art.

Nicholas 1 liked Ton's work. The architect received two large orders for Moscow. In 1838-1849 under his leadership the Grand Kremlin Palace and the building of the Armory Chamber were built. In 1839, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was founded on the banks of the Moscow River. The solemn consecration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior took place in 1883. Many talented Russian sculptors, artists, engineers, foundry workers, and stonemasons took part in its construction. Marble plaques with the names of killed and wounded officers were installed in the temple, the number of soldiers killed in each battle was reported, and the names of people who donated their savings to the cause of victory were immortalized. The majestic hundred-meter bulk of the temple organically fits into the silhouette of Moscow.

Russian painting. Russian fine art was also characterized by romanticism and realism. However, the officially recognized method was classicism. The Academy of Arts became a conservative and inert institution that hindered any attempts at creative freedom. She demanded strict adherence to the canons of classicism, encouraged the painting of biblical and mythological stories. Young talented Russian artists were not satisfied with the framework of academicism. Therefore, they turned to the portrait genre more often than before.

Two remarkable portrait painters of their time - Orest Adamovich Kiprensky (1782-1836) and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin (1776-1857) - left us lifetime portraits of Pushkin. In Kiprensky, Pushkin looks solemn and romantic, in an aura of poetic glory. In the portrait of Tropinin, the poet is charming in a homely way.

In 1803, the Russian artist Karl Petrovich Bryullov visited the excavations of the ancient city of Pompeii. He walked along the ancient pavements, admired the frescoes, and in his imagination that tragic night of August 79 AD arose. e., when the city was covered with hot ash and pumice of the awakened Vesuvius. Three years later, the painting “The Last Day of Pompeii” made a triumphal march from Italy to Russia. At this time, the era of academic painting began.

Truly, with Pushkin's grace, he knew how to capture on canvas the beauty of the naked human body, and trembling sunbeam on a green leaf. His canvases “Horsewoman”, “Bathsheba”, “Italian Childhood”, numerous ceremonial and intimate portraits. However, the artist has always gravitated towards large historical themes, towards depicting significant events in human history.

Academic painting reached its peak in the work of Alexander Andreevich Ivanov (11806-1858). For more than 20 years he worked on the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” into which he invested all the power and brightness of his talent. On foreground of his grandiose canvas, the courageous figure of John the Baptist, pointing the people to the approaching Christ, catches the eye. His figure is shown in the distance. He has not arrived yet, he is coming, he will definitely come, says the artist. And the faces and souls of those who wait for the Savior brighten and become clear.

In the first half of the 19th century. Russian painting includes everyday subjects. A.G. Venetsianov was one of the first to contact him. He dedicated his paintings “On the Plowed Field”, “Zakharka”, “Morning of the Landowner” to the depiction of peasants. His traditions were continued by Pavel Andreevich Fedotov (1815-1852). He began his path as a satirical artist as a guards officer. Then he made funny, mischievous sketches of army life. In 1842, his painting “The Fresh Cavalier” was presented at an academic exhibition.

The best creations of artists ended up in the collections of nobles and ended up in the storerooms of the Academy of Arts. Few people have seen them. Create public art museums in Russia began in 1852, when the Hermitage opened its doors. The palace's collection of artistic treasures was turned into a national museum open to the public.

Theater and music. In the first half of the 19th century. In Russia, theatrical life is entering a new phase. There were different types of theaters. Serf theaters that belonged to Russian aristocratic families (Sheremetyevs, Apraksins, Yusupovs, etc.) were still widespread. State theaters there were few (Alexandrinsky and Mariinsky in St. Petersburg, Bolshoi and Maly in Moscow). Private theaters began to appear, which were either allowed or prohibited by the authorities.

Dramatic theater developed under the influence of the same trends as literature. In it at the beginning of the 19th century. Classicism and sentimentalism dominated. Later, romantic plays appeared. Works by European (F. Schiller, W. Shakespeare) and domestic authors were staged. N.V. Kukolnik, who wrote a number of historical plays, was especially popular. Great success enjoyed satirical comedies D.I. Fonvizin and I.A. Krylov. In the 30s - 40s of the 19th century. under the influence of Russian literature, realistic traditions began to establish themselves in the theatrical repertoire.

A big event in the theatrical life of Russia was the premiere of Gogol’s “The Inspector General” - first in St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky Theater, and then in the Moscow Maly, where Shchepkin played the role of the Mayor. Getting “The Inspector General” through censorship was a hopeless matter. Only the personal intervention of Nicholas 1 made it possible to stage the comedy.

During these same years, on the stage of the Moscow Bolshoi Theater M.I. Glinka’s opera “A Life for the Tsar” was staged (later on the Soviet stage it was staged under the name “Ivan Susanin”).

Glinka's operatic creations are distinguished by their luxury and brightness of musical colors, ingenious ease of technique and classical simplicity. This also applies to his other opera - “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. But if “A Life for the Tsar” was a resounding success, the public greeted Glinka’s second opera coldly. In Russia, very few realized the true meaning of his music. But foreign connoisseurs (French novelist P. Merimee, composers G. Berlioz and F. Liszt) already at that time highly appreciated Glinka’s work.

Pushkin's plot formed the basis of Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky's opera "Rusalka". This opera also met with a cold reception from the capital's public.

Dargomyzhsky's music is not as melodic as Glinka's. But in one respect he surpassed him. Glinka in his operas often limited himself to general characteristic dramatic situation. Dargomyzhsky knew how to convey state of mind each of its characters excited musical speech. A major representative of the romantic trend in music was the composer A.N. Verstovsky (opera “Askold’s Grave”).

In the first half of the 19th century. opened new page in the history of national musical culture. Composers did not seek to borrow from the German, Italian and French schools. Centuries-old folk art created the basis for the development of a national music school. Combination folk motifs with romanticism led to the emergence of a special genre - Russian romance (A.A. Alyabyev, A.E. Varlamov, A.L. Gurilev). At this time, Russian musical culture rose to unprecedented heights.

Literature. It was the dawn of literature that made it possible to define the first half of the 19th century as the “golden age” of Russian culture. Writers who reflected Russian reality occupied different socio-political positions. There were various art styles(methods) whose proponents held opposing beliefs. The literature of the first half of the 19th century laid down the fundamental principles that determined its further development: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship and a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice. Literature became an important means of shaping public consciousness.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. classicism gave way to sentimentalism. At the end of his creative path, G.R. Derzhavin came to this method. The main representative of Russian sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (the story “Poor Liza”).

Russian sentimentalism did not last long. The heroic events of the War of 1812 contributed to the emergence of romanticism. It was widespread in Russia and other European countries. There were two movements in Russian romanticism. “Salon” romanticism manifested itself in the work of V.A. Zhukovsky. In ballads, he recreated the world of beliefs, knightly legends, far from reality. Another movement in romanticism was represented by poets and Decembrist writers (K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky). They called for a fight against autocratic serfdom and advocated the ideals of freedom and service to the Motherland. Romanticism had a significant influence on early work A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov.

In the second quarter of the 19th century. V European literature realism began to take hold. In Russia, its founder was A.S. Pushkin. After the creation of the novel "Eugene Onegin" this artistic method became dominant. In the works of M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, the characteristic features of realism were clearly manifested: a truthful reflection of reality in all its diversity, attention to the common man, exposure of the negative phenomena of life, deep thoughts about the fate of the Motherland and the people.

The development of literature took place in difficult socio-political conditions. Her constant contact with the advanced trends of social thought forced the government to apply prohibitive and repressive measures to writers. In 1826, the censorship statute, called “cast iron” by contemporaries, replaced the previous one (1804), which was more liberal. Now the censor could shred the text at his discretion, removing from it everything that seemed offensive to the autocracy and the church. “The history of our literature, according to A.I. Herzen, is either a martyrology or a register of hard labor.” A.I. Polezhaev and T.G. Shevchenko were given up as soldiers. A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev were exiled for their first literary experiments. A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky was killed during the Caucasian War.

In the 18th century Russia declared itself as a powerful power, and in the 19th century. - as a country of great culture. Period from 1800 to 1880 called the “golden age” of Russian culture, followed by the “silver age”. Periodization is conditional; it is very difficult to draw a clear line. The beginning silver age the speech of F.M. is usually considered Dostoevsky at the opening of the monument to A.S. Pushkin in Moscow in 1880, ending with an article by A.A. Blok “Intellectuals and Revolution”, published in 1920. Russia’s achievements in the field of culture were so great that it is only possible to briefly list them, it is impossible to cover them completely.

The level of education of a society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the country. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. this figure was low. The peasantry, the main group of the population, was illiterate or semi-literate. In this regard, much attention has been paid to the development of a network of primary schools. Secondary education was provided by classical and real gymnasiums. In 1858, girls' gymnasiums appeared. By the end of the century - Sunday schools for adults. In 14 universities in the country by the beginning of the 1860s. About 3 thousand students studied. To train qualified personnel, special higher educational institutions were created: Practical Technological Institute in St. Petersburg (now St. Petersburg State Technical Institute), Moscow Craft Educational Institution (MRUZ, later MVTU-MSTU named after N.E. Baum), Forestry Academy in St. Petersburg (later – St. Petersburg State Federal Technical University named after S. M. Kirov) and others. In the 1870s. in Moscow, Vladimir, Kyiv, Kazan, St. Petersburg, higher education institutions were organized using private funds women's courses with a university program. In 1875, Professor K.N. became the head of the pedagogical council, which was entrusted with the management of the courses. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (hence the name of the courses - “Bestuzhev”).

In the 19th century Russian science has acquired international significance.

The main achievements of Russian scientists in the 19th century.

The rise of Russian culture and the very definition of the “golden age” are associated primarily with literature. There were various artistic styles, whose supporters held opposing beliefs, but the fundamental principles were laid that determined the entire further development of literature: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship, a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice.

To the treasury of the world musical culture included works by P.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1753-1840), M.I. Glinka (1804-1857), M.P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), P.I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). Operas, symphonies, ballets, romances created in the 19th century. have become classics.

F.M. Dostoevsky wrote: “... the main idea of ​​all art of the 19th century... is the restoration of a lost person, crushed by the unfair pressure of circumstances, the stagnation of centuries and social prejudices. This thought is a justification for the humiliated and rejected pariahs of society. ...It is an integral part and, perhaps, a historical necessity of the nineteenth century.” This idea runs like a red thread in the great art of the 19th century. For the 19th century was characterized by a variety of artistic movements. However, they can be reduced to several main ones: the beginning of the century - classicism, developing into the Empire style; first decades of the 19th century - romanticism prevailed, which was replaced by realism, which became most widespread in the art of the mid-second half of the 19th century; since the 1880s - decadence. IN painting various aspects of the past and present were reflected.

Impressive successes in the 19th century. were also in architecture and urban planning. In the first half of the century, the Russian Empire style prevailed. During the post-reform period, a national style in architecture was formed in the spirit of traditional Russian architecture (“Russian-Byzantine”). However, for the second half of the 19th century. In general, architectural eclecticism is characteristic - a variety of directions and a mixture of styles. The construction of residential buildings was dominated by the Baroque style, characterized by a wealth of forms and decoration.

Achievements of Russian culture of the 19th century. received worldwide recognition. Many domestic scientists were honorary members of European academies and scientific institutions. The names of Russian travelers remained on the geographical map of the world. art had a huge influence on the development of European and world culture.

In general, summing up the historical development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century, we can draw the following conclusions:

- “Great reforms” affected all aspects of life Russian society, and they should have been continued. However, due to the extreme heterogeneity of ideas in society about the future of the country and the lack of popular representation in power, the conservative tendency prevailed. The resumption of reforms took place already under the conditions of the First Russian Revolution.

The trends laid down in the second half of the 19th century had a direct impact on the development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

Issues for discussion

1. Was there a threat of a peasant revolution on the eve of the abolition of serfdom?

2. Why did the peasants not want to switch to a buyout?

3. Why liberal-bourgeois reforms of 1864-1874. were they inevitable?

4. What did the populists rely on, believing that Russia would come to socialism before other countries?

5. What changes in Russia’s relations with other countries occurred in the second half of the 19th century?

6. How can one explain the unprecedented rise of Russian culture in the 19th century?

Abramov V.F. Russian zemstvo: economics, finance and culture. M.: Nika, 1996. 165 p.

Bolkhovitinov N.N. Russia discovers America. 1732-1739. M.: International relationships, 1991. 302 p.

Bokhanov A.N. Emperor Alexander III. M.: Russian Word, 2007. 509 p.

Budnitsky O.V. Terrorism in the Russian liberation movement: ideology, ethics, psychology: (second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries) M.: ROSSPEN, 2000. 396 p.

Great reforms in Russia. 1856-1874. [Collection] / Ed. L.G. Zakharova M.: Moscow State University, 1992. 333 p.

Dmitrieva N.A A Brief History of Art. Vol. III: Western Countries Europe XIX century; Russia of the 19th century. M.: Art, 1992. 361 p.

Zakharova L.G. Russia is at a turning point. (Autocracy and reforms 1861-1874) / History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th-20th centuries / Comp. S.V. Mironenko. M.: Politizdat, 1991. – 367 p.

Lopatnikov V.A. Pedestal: The time and service of Chancellor Gorchakov. M.: Young Guard, 2015. 394 p.

Semanov S.N. Alexander II: The Story of the Tsar-Liberator, his father and his son. M.: Algorithm: EKSMO, 2003. 414 p.

Conclusion

The features inherent in the New Age in the life of the peoples of Western Europe and America were fully formed in the 18th century. In the 19th century, bourgeois relations (industrial society) were finally established as the basis Western civilization.

The ideological basis of modernization was the ideology of the Enlightenment. The Great French Revolution gave dynamism to the historical process. Industrialization led to changes in the social structure of societies, which resulted in an intensification of contradictions between wage earners and capital owners. There have also been changes in the balance of power in Europe. The attempt to unify Europe by military means during the Napoleonic Wars failed. England and France, which occupied a leading position, began to be pushed aside by the USA and Germany. Russia was an authoritative participant in international events.

The development trends of Western civilization were also inherent in Russia. The beginning of the modernization of the Russian traditional society associated with the transformations of Peter the Great. It was a response to the challenge of the time, and Russia managed to take its rightful place in the world. The reforms carried out while maintaining serfdom had contradictory consequences. The great reforms of Alexander II were designed to eliminate them. However, due to the extreme heterogeneity of the social movement and the increased terrorist activity of radical organizations, the reforms were interrupted. The conservative trend has taken over. The consequence of the incompleteness of reforms and the lack of popular representation in power was the revolution in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

Foreign policy Russia during the 18th - 19th centuries was characterized by an intense struggle for key geopolitical positions. The country became a strong maritime power, without whose participation not a single international issue was resolved in Europe. The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a great impact on the historical process. Unlike the colonial conquests of Western European countries, Russia included the acquired territories within the state. This is how a single geopolitical space was formed on the territory of Eurasia.

The culture of Russia, based on its own traditions and the achievements of other countries, reached unprecedented heights. However, if the West entered the 20th century with the ideas of the common good (socialism, communism), then F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy argued that happiness can only be individual.

TEST

Task 1 (choose one answer option).

Russia fortified the coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga as a result of the __________ war.

Possible answers:

1) Northern;

2) Seven years old;

3) Smolensk;

4) Livonian.

Task 2 (choose two or more answer options).

The measures of Peter I aimed at “Europeanizing” the country were: ____________.

Possible answers:

1) convening of the Statutory Commission;

2) exemption of the nobility from compulsory service;

3) abolition of the patriarchate;

4) creation of a regular army.

Literature became the most vibrant, interesting, advanced area of ​​Russian culture in the 19th century. Its flourishing was largely prepared by the activities of writers of the 18th century. By the beginning of the century, a readership had formed in Russia with a developed taste for serious literature, and the publication of a new work was perceived as an event. Writers and poets became prominent figures in society. Awareness of the writer's social mission contributed to the establishment of a close connection between literature and advanced liberation ideology.

Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century is characterized by a rapid change of artistic trends. The dominant aesthetic principles managed to transform several times during the life of one generation.

It was the flourishing of literature that made it possible to define the first half of the 19th century as the “Golden Age” of Russian culture. Writers who reflected Russian reality occupied different socio-political positions. There were various artistic styles, the proponents of which held opposing beliefs. The literature of the first half of the 19th century laid down the fundamental principles that determined its further development: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship and a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice. Literature became an important means of shaping public consciousness.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, classicism gave way to sentimentalism. The final chord of the development of classicism in Russian literature in 1823 was the play by A.S. Griboedov's "Woe from Wit", in which traditions classic comedy The 18th centuries are combined, as in D.I. Fonvizin, with features of emerging realism. At the end of his creative path, the poet G.R. came to this artistic method. Derzhavin. The main representative of Russian sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin, who wrote the story "Poor Liza".

Russian sentimentalism did not last long. The heroic events of the War of 1812 contributed to the emergence of romanticism. Romanticism is a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world. It was widespread in Russia and other European countries. There were two movements in Russian romanticism. In the works of V.A. Zhukovsky showed “salon” romanticism. In ballads, he recreated the world of beliefs, knightly legends, far from reality. Another movement in romanticism was represented by poets and writers - the Decembrists, such as K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. They called for a fight against autocratic serfdom and advocated the ideals of freedom and service to the Motherland. For romantics in creativity, the main task is not so much the accurate reproduction of reality, but the creation of an “ideal”, the features of which are usually attached to the main thing acting person and reflect the author’s attitude to reality. After the defeat of the Decembrists, pessimism in literature intensified, but there was no decline in creativity. Romanticism had a noticeable influence on the early work of A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov. Pushkin is one of those writers whose creative path was marked by an appeal to various artistic directions.

In the second quarter of the 19th century, realism began to take hold in European literature. In Russia, its founder was A.S. Pushkin. After the creation of the novel "Eugene Onegin" this artistic method became dominant. A.S. Pushkin became a symbol of his era, when there was a rapid rise in cultural development Russia. It is the time of Pushkin that is called the “Golden Age” of Russian culture. In the first decades of the century, poetry was the leading genre in Russian literature. Pushkin is the creator of the Russian literary language. His poetry has become an enduring value in the development of not only Russian but also world culture. He was a singer of freedom and a staunch patriot who condemned serfdom in his homeland. It can be said that before Pushkin, there was no literature in Russia worthy of the attention of Europe in depth and diversity equal to the amazing achievements of European creativity. In the works of the great poet there is a highly patriotic pathos of love for the Motherland and faith in its power, an echo of events Patriotic War 1812, a magnificent, truly sovereign image of the Motherland. A.S. Pushkin is a brilliant poet, prose writer and playwright, publicist and historian. All that he created are classic examples of Russian words and poetry. The poet bequeathed to his descendants: “It is not only possible, but also necessary to be proud of the glory of your ancestors... Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery...”

The further development of literature was associated with the strengthening of the position of realism. In the works of M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasova, I.S. Turgeneva, I.A. Goncharov’s characteristic features clearly emerged: a truthful reflection of reality in all its diversity, attention to the common man, exposure of the negative phenomena of life, deep thoughts about the fate of the Motherland and the people. N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) is considered the first writer of the so-called " natural school"in Russian literature, i.e., that movement that is now commonly called “critical realism.” In his works, the reconstruction of the truth of life was accompanied by merciless revelations of the autocratic Russian order. In 1836, the first printed form of Gogol’s “The Inspector General” appeared.

The activities of the “thick” literary magazines “Sovremennik” and “Sovremennik” were of great importance for the development of literature. Domestic notes". The founder of Sovremennik was A.S. Pushkin, and since 1847 it was headed by N.A. Nekrasov and V.G. Belinsky. In the 40s of the 19th century, Otechestvennye Zapiski rallied around itself the most talented writers of that time : I. S. Turgeneva, A. V. Koltsova, N. A. Nekrasova, M. E. Saltykova-Shchedrina In the above-mentioned journals, a new phenomenon arose for Russia - literary criticism, which has become an independent genre. Highest achievements in this area are associated with the name of Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (1811-1848), the significance of whose work goes far beyond the narrow limits literary issues. V.G. Belinsky was one of those thinkers whose efforts affirmed the high civic spirit of Russian literature. Largely thanks to Belinsky, literary criticism in Russia became a space for ideological struggle, a forum at which the most important issues in the life of society were discussed, a platform from which advanced ideas went to the masses.

The development of literature took place in difficult socio-political conditions. Her constant contact with the advanced trends of social thought forced the government to apply prohibitive and repressive measures to writers. In 1826, the censorship charter, called “cast iron” by contemporaries, replaced the previous charter of 1804, which was more liberal. Now the censor could shred the text at his discretion, removing from it everything that seemed offensive to the autocracy and the church. “The history of our literature, according to A.I. Herzen, is either a martyrology or a register of hard labor.” A.I. Polezhaev and T.G. Shevchenko were given up as soldiers. A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev was exiled for his first literary experiments. A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky was killed during the Caucasian War.