Artistic culture of Russia in the 19th century. Lesson summary "Artistic culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century"

The culture of the 19th century is a culture of freedom, activity, initiative and efficiency. It was in this century that human thought received the broadest scope for freedom of expression. However, the framework of the previous century was also valued. Rigidity manifested itself in the way people treated each other. The romanticized criteria of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and the passions and sentiments of the eighteenth were replaced by strict mercantilism. Financial status and wealth become a higher level than human feelings or spiritual and moral values. The dominance of sober calculation is clearly expressed.

19th century culture - main features

The first half of the nineteenth century for Europe was a time of rapid development of manufactures and industry, as well as active social transformation. Artists tried to convey through their creativity the images and trends of modern times that they captured and interpreted. The beginning of the century was marked by the collapse of artistic principles born in past centuries and the destruction of old subjects.

France is a trendsetter

For several centuries in a row, France has been considered a trendsetter throughout Europe. The culture of the 19th century bears the distinctive features of French views. So-called Salons began to be held in Paris, where specially selected works of painters were exhibited. The public discussed their works, and magazines and newspapers published numerous reviews. The artistic culture of the 19th century transformed along with society. The main themes were cities, houses, rooms, dishes, dresses, etc. Typically, the World Industrial Exhibition was also held in Paris (about once every couple of years), where paintings and sculpture were demonstrated along with new technologies.

Nineteenth-century Western European architecture

The rapid development of industry also caused a rapid influx of people into cities. In fact, megacities were already appearing. In the mid-19th century, the appearance of many cities in Western Europe changed dramatically. A system of radial and main streets began, which replaced the medieval isolation. Industrial enterprises began to spring up like mushrooms after rain in the suburbs and on the outskirts. European culture of the 19th century, in particular architectural solutions, largely depended on industrial progress. The emergence of new materials (reinforced concrete, steel, cast iron) has made adjustments to the construction of buildings.

Eclecticism is the basis of the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century

It was eclecticism as an architectural style based on decorative forms that began to triumph at that time. The culture of the 19th century was already “prepared” by neo-Gothic, classicism, baroque and rococo, neo-Renaissance and Romanesque-Byzantine style. The word “eclecticos” itself, translated from Greek, means “chooser,” which perfectly characterizes the direction in art of the nineteenth century, reflecting the psychology of a contemporary of that period, who considered his own era and civilization to be simply the pinnacle of history. The culture of the 19th century is based precisely on the apology of such principles and views.

For the artistic culture of the first half of the 19th century. were characterized by a rapid change in ideological and artistic directions compared to previous times, and the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. In the artistic consciousness of the first decades of the 19th century. There was a gradual departure from the normativity of the educational ideology that underlay the aesthetics of classicism, when the motives for the hero’s actions were primarily civic duty and public service. Attention to a person and his inner world increases; feeling, and not duty, becomes the motivating source of his actions.

The main direction in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century. - romanticism. In Russia, it arose during the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of romantic art was the desire to contrast a generalized ideal image with reality. Russian romanticism is inseparable from pan-European romanticism, but its peculiarity was a pronounced interest in national identity, national history, and the affirmation of a strong, free personality.

Attention to national history was characteristic of artistic culture as a whole. Many writers, poets, and composers turned to historical themes. Domestic history was the subject of A.S. Pushkin's thoughts, especially in the last period of his work ("Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter", "The Bronze Horseman", "Arap of Peter the Great", "The History of the Pugachev Rebellion").

In Russian literature, the emergence of romanticism is associated with the name of V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852). His ballads, full of humanity and high human dignity, gave Russian poetry “soul and heart” and constituted “an entire period of moral development of our society,” as Belinsky wrote. The development of lyricism from elegiacally dreamy to deeply civil, imbued with a sense of struggle “for the oppressed freedom of man” was a characteristic feature of romantic poetry. The Decembrist poets contributed to the establishment of the idea of ​​its high civil purpose.

In line with the romantic movement, the foundations of the Russian historical novel were laid (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), and an understanding of the national identity and nationality of literature was formed. Romantic poets did a lot for literary translation. Essentially, for the first time they introduced the Russian reader to the works of modern Western European and ancient writers. V.A. Zhukovsky was a talented translator of the works of Homer, Byron, and Schiller.

The most important problem of national culture, in particular literature, is the nationality of artistic works, the evolution of this very concept. The search for the essence of nationality was initially associated with a growing interest in Russian history. According to N.M. Karamzin, the key to understanding the originality of Russian literature must be sought in history, which determined the widespread development of the historical genre in the art of romanticism.

The ideological quest of the 30s and 40s was increasingly reflected in a deep understanding of the concept of “nationality”. If the official nationality came from “boundless devotion and obedience to the autocracy,” then in the understanding of leading cultural figures, nationality meant “fidelity to the depiction of pictures of Russian life.”

In the last pre-reform decades, the development of artistic culture was characterized by a movement from romanticism to realism. In literature, this movement is associated with the names of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol.

In the development of Russian national literature and culture in general, the role of A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) is enormous. Gogol expressed this perfectly: “At the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns on me... Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon, perhaps the only phenomenon of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he, perhaps, will appear in two hundred years ".

As a person and an artist, Pushkin was formed at a turning point in Russian history, during the period of the formation of noble revolution (Pushkin’s first poem “To a Friend the Poetmaker” was published in 1814). His work is a logical result in the artistic understanding of the life problems “facing Russia from the time of Peter I to the Decembrists. The subsequent development of Russian literature began with Pushkin. The establishment of modern literary language and the beginning of realism in literature as an artistic movement are associated with his work. Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" was the first Russian realistic novel, "an extremely popular work" (V.G. Belinsky). The novel was first published as a separate edition in 1833.

An important milestone on the path from romanticism to realism was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841), which reflected the difficult times - lost hopes and disappointment that followed the events of December 14, 1825. The poet's rejection of the surrounding reality acquired a pronounced social character. His novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1841), while retaining romantic features, was one of the first works of critical realism literature.

The role of N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) in Russian literature is enormous. “Dead Souls” (volume 1 was published in 1842) is one of the brightest realistic images of Russian life of that time. V.G. Belinsky assessed it as “a purely Russian, national creation, snatched from the recesses of people’s life.”

While remaining deeply humanistic, literature is increasingly acquiring the character of teaching and compassion. The sociality of Russian literature, its involvement in public life is a generally recognized feature and characteristic feature. One of the discoveries of the writers of the “natural school” (the early works of I.A. Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, etc.) was the “little man” with his difficult everyday fate.

The fate of the serf peasant became the subject of close attention in Russian literature (stories by D.V. Grigorovich, essays from peasant life by V.I. Dahl, the cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev). A.N. Ostrovsky opened a new, unprecedented world of Russian merchants to the reader and viewer.

Fiction, as one of the forms of social consciousness, has gained a predominant influence in the spiritual life of society, partially replacing open journalistic speeches in the conditions of autocratic Russia. Its socially effective nature and impact “on the concepts and morals of society” were noted by many contemporaries.

In the first half of the 19th century. collecting and research activities in the field of Russian folklore are intensifying. Slavophiles did a lot of this. The collection of folk songs by P.V. Kireevsky, which amounted to 11 volumes, is the most complete collection of Russian folklore.

The state of theatrical art was an indicator of “public education and the spirit of the times” (V.G. Belinsky). Despite the monopoly of the imperial theaters, which began in 1803, and the dramatic censorship that influenced the repertoire, the theater played an increasingly prominent role in social and cultural life.

The center of theatrical culture in Moscow was the Maly Theater. In 1824, the troupe of the former Petrovsky Theater was finally divided into drama and ballet. Dramatic performances were moved to a building built by the architect O.I. Bove and called the Maly Theater. Since 1825, the Bolshoi Theater was intended only for opera and ballet performances. There were several theaters in St. Petersburg, the most famous of them was the Alexandrian Theater (architect Rossi), opened in 1832 with the historical drama “Prince Pozharsky” by M.V. Kryukovsky.

Unlike the Moscow Maly Theater, where democratic traditions were strong, the theater in the northern capital of the Russian Empire had an official ceremonial character. Theaters also existed in many provincial cities. The flourishing of romanticism on stage is associated with the work of the wonderful Russian actor P.S. Mochalov (1800-1848), who became famous for his performances in the plays of Schiller and Shakespeare. The pinnacle of his creativity was the role of Hamlet. Mochalov's success in this area was explained by the modern interpretation of the play. Mochalov's hero was perceived by the audience as a Russian Hamlet of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. The dramaturgy of A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, especially A.N. Ostrovsky contributed to the establishment of realistic drama in the theatrical repertoire.

The reformer of acting art, the founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor M.S. Shchepkin (1788-1863). “He created truth on the Russian stage,” Herzen wrote about him, “he was the first to become non-theatrical in the theater.” Shchepkin's playing method
became the basis of the stage school of acting for many subsequent decades.

Theater of the first half of the 19th century. He trained a galaxy of wonderful Russian actors, of whom the Russian stage is rightfully proud to this day (E.S. Semenova, V.A. Karatygin, P.S. Mochalov, M.S. Shchepkin, A.E. Martynov). During this period, the formation of directing and the art of performance design begins.

The music of this time, based on the best traditions of nationality and democracy, was strongly influenced by the era of 1812. Composers began to turn more often to heroic-patriotic, national subjects (K. A. Kavos’s opera “Ivan Susanin”, 1815). A prominent representative of romanticism in music was A.N. Verstovsky (1799-1862). The production of his most famous opera, “Askold’s Grave,” based on a libretto by M.N. Zagoskin, took place in 1835.

Interest in chamber and public concerts has increased in society. The attention of many composers, writers, and artists was attracted by musical evenings with A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, and in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to be organized in 1838, when the railway from St. Petersburg was built here, were extremely successful. The Austrian composer and conductor, the famous “waltz king” I. Strauss, performed at these concerts many times.

In the history of Russian musical art, a special role belongs to M.I. Glinka (1804-1857). The emergence of Russian musical classics, the national school of music, is associated with his name. An event in the cultural life of Russia was the production of Glinka’s opera “A Life for the Tsar” (1836). The opera was greeted rather dryly by the high society public; the “coachman’s music” did not arouse their sympathy. But many progressive people in Russia enthusiastically welcomed the performance. Fans of the opera included Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky, Odoevsky, and Khomyakov.

Glinka is the founder of the main genres of Russian professional music. He “created national Russian opera, national instrumental music... Russian national romance,” V.V. Stasov wrote about him. Glinka is a composer for whom the highest principles of art were ideology and nationality. “The people create music,” he told A.N. Serov (composer and music critic), “and we, artists, only arrange it.”

The work of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869), along with the principles of realism and nationality, becomes characterized by great social and dramatic tension, ardent sympathy for the “little man” (opera “Rusalka”, 1856). Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music, introducing into it new techniques and means of musical expression (melodic recitative in the opera “The Stone Guest”).

In the post-reform era, wonderful works of literature and art were created in Russia, which took their rightful place in the treasury of world culture. The strength of Russian art lay in its artistic merits, citizenship, high morality and democratic orientation.

The art of critical realism - the main artistic movement of that time - was closely connected with ideological quests. He was distinguished by increased social activity. Literature and art, more than ever, have come closer to reflecting real life (essays and novels about modern life, modern everyday drama, everyday genre in painting, etc.).

In the second half of the 19th century. ideological and artistic development was largely determined by revolutionary democratic aesthetics, the foundations of which were laid by Belinsky. Its further development was associated with the name of N.G. Chernyshevsky. Art, in his opinion, is a manifestation of real human essence, therefore “beauty is life.” The social function of art should consist not only of reproducing and explaining life, but also of passing “a verdict on its phenomena.” Such a thesis represented a new aspect in the understanding of art.

Social problems of the post-reform era were reflected in fiction. The spirit of denunciation and a critical attitude to reality were characteristic of the works of Russian writers of these years. Literature not only exposed social evil, but also sought to find ways to combat it. True, these paths were understood differently: some saw deliverance from social injustices in the moral improvement of man, others called for an active struggle against them. But Russian literature has always been distinguished by democracy, love for the common man, and the desire to help him free himself from centuries-old oppression.

The literature of the post-reform era was a “bright constellation of great names.” During these years, the greatest Russian writers created works, whose creative path began in the previous era. The new generation of realist writers, who came to literature in the 60s and 70s, brought new themes, genres, and ideological and aesthetic principles. In the literary process of those years, the leading place belonged to the essay, which posed acute social problems, indirect issues of life and everyday life of the peasantry (essays by V.A. Sleptsov, G.I. Uspensky, etc.).

Associated with social upsurge is the appearance of a democratic novel in which the commoner became the protagonist (N.G. Pomyalovsky’s story “Pittish Happiness”). The programmatic work of the 60s was N.G. Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?”, published in Sovremennik in 1863. It was a story about “new people”, their morality and moral values.

A reflection of the acute ideological and artistic struggle in the literature of the 60-70s was the appearance of the so-called anti-Nihilist novel ("Demons" by F.M. Dostoevsky and others).

The 70s were the time of the greatest achievements of the Russian classical novel and story. I.S. Turgenev (1818-1883) and F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) made a huge contribution to Russian culture. In Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", published in 1862, and in his other works, images of new heroes of the era were created.

The work of F.M. Dostoevsky, ideologically complex, sometimes tragic, is always deeply moral. Pain for the humiliated and insulted, faith in man were the main theme of the writer. He opposed unrest and blood as a means of renewing the world. N.A. Nekrasov (1821-1877/78) was considered by the common youth to be an ideological leader. The theme of the people, their quests and hopes occupied a central place in Nekrasov’s poetry. It expresses not only the dream of the happiness of the people, but also faith in their strength, capable of throwing off the shackles of slavery (the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'”). The pinnacle of Russian literature of the 19th century. became the work of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). He posed “great questions” in his novels, stories, and journalism. The writer was always concerned about the fate of the people and the Motherland (historical epic "War and Peace"). One of the most poignant social literary works of our time was Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina, in which, depicting the life of Russian society in the 70s, it makes an indisputable verdict on the morals, manners, and foundations of this society.

The state of the theater in the post-reform era was determined by the successes of domestic drama. The public, in particular the theater community, drew attention to the pressing issues of theater development: improving professional acting education, expanding the network of theaters through the creation of private enterprises. In 1882, the monopoly of state-owned theaters was abolished. However, even earlier, private performances arose under the guise of “home performances,” “family evenings,” etc. Thus, the Artistic Circle appeared in Moscow - a social and artistic organization (1865-1883), created on the initiative of A.N. Ostrovsky, N.G. Rubinstein, V.F. Odoevsky; the first people's theater at the Polytechnic Exhibition (1872).

The Maly and Alexandrinsky theaters continued to remain the main centers of theatrical culture. However, the number of theaters and theater troupes in the provincial cities of Russia has increased significantly. In the 60s they operated in more than 100 cities. At this time, theaters opened in Orel, Ryazan, Kostroma, Smolensk, Saratov, Penza, etc. A new audience appeared from among the common intelligentsia. The theater became the cultural center of the province.

With the intensification of acute problems in public life, interest in modern everyday drama grew in the theater.

Development of Russian theater in the second half of the 19th century. is inextricably linked with the name of A.N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886), who considered the theater “a sign of the maturity of the nation, just like academies, universities and museums.” Ostrovsky's dramaturgy is a remarkable phenomenon of national artistic culture. Since the production of the play “Don’t Get in Your Own Sleigh” in 1852 on the stage of the Maly Theater, Ostrovsky’s works have taken a leading place in his repertoire. Many talented Russian actors were brought up on Ostrovsky’s dramaturgy (P.M. Sadovsky, N.H. Rybakov, P.A. Strepetova, A.E. Martynov, N.A. Nikulina, etc.).

The musical culture of this time also had some new features. In 1859, on the initiative of A.G. Rubinstein (1829-1894), the Russian Musical Society was organized “to develop musical education, taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talents.” The society organized symphony and chamber concerts. In St. Petersburg, A.G. Rubinstein (1862), and then in Moscow, N.G. Rubinstein (1866), opened conservatories, which laid the foundation for professional musical education in Russia. In St. Petersburg in the 60s, composer M.A. Balakirev and singing teacher G.Ya. Lomakin opened a free music school, which existed until 1917. It set the tasks of disseminating musical knowledge, promoting the works of Glinka, Dargomyzhsky, and composers of the “mighty handful” ", works by foreign composers (L. Beethoven, Liszt, G. Berlioz, etc.).

In the second half of the 19th century. A huge role in the development of musical culture was played by the creative association of the composer “the mighty handful” [M.A. Balakirev (1836/37-1910), M.P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), Ts.A. Cui (1835-1918), A.P. Borodin (1833-87), N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908)]. This name was given to him by the music critic and his ideological leader V.V. Stasov (1824-1906). The ideological and moral views of this community were formed under the influence of the ideas of the 60-70s. One of the main features of the aesthetics and musical creativity of the composers of the “mighty handful” was the desire to convey in music the “truth of life” and national character. They made extensive use of musical folklore, gravitated toward historical-epic subjects and contributed to the establishment of folk music themes on the stage ("Boris Godunov", "Khovanshchina" by M.P. Mussorgsky).

Outstanding achievements of Russian music are associated with the name of P.I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). He is one of the greatest composers of our era, who left an extensive creative legacy in the field of ballet, opera, symphony, chamber music (ballets "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty"; operas "Eugene Onegin", "Queen of Spades"; symphonies, romances , symphonic poems, the musical cycle "The Seasons", etc.). Tchaikovsky's national and deeply folk music has a rare power of emotional impact. Along with the lyrical life-affirming principle, Tchaikovsky's music is characterized by tragic features, which are especially strong in his last works.

Real life and its problems posed new challenges for the fine arts, in particular for painting. One of the Sovremennik articles (1859) called on artists to “be inspired by the history and movement of modern society.”

The 1880s did not leave anything significant in the history of the Russian classical novel. Vivid, unsurpassed works were created in the previous period ("Fathers and Sons" by Turgenev; "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina" by Tolstoy; "Crime and Punishment", "The Brothers Karamazov" by Dostoevsky; "The Lord Golovlevs" by Saltykov-Shchedrin; " Break" by Goncharov and others). But the greatest Russian writers passed away - Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Ostrovsky. L. Tolstoy’s ideological crisis affected his work, and the conditions of social life changed. A period came when the “soil of reality” turned out to be unfavorable for the creation of great works. Writers who came to literature in the late 70s - early 80s (V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko, etc.) were authors of works of small forms (short story, short story, short story).

In 1880, A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) came to literature. His first story, “Letter to a Learned Neighbor,” was published in the Dragonfly magazine. Chekhov's work, especially in the early period, reflected the ideological atmosphere generated by the era of the 80s. He wrote about the “gloomy point” of life, the vulgarity and philistinism that overwhelmed the average person, and painted a broad picture of the life of various strata of Russian society at the turn of the century, which was essentially sharply critical.

The writer rebelled against the world of vulgarity, dreamed of a bright life and a beautiful human personality. L. Tolstoy said about Chekhov: “He was an incomparable artist... an artist of life... and the dignity of his work is that it is understandable not only to every Russian, but to every person in general.”

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Culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. By the end of the 18th century. capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all sectors of material production, which entailed corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness).

The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time.

In the 19th century There is a radical revolution associated with the appearance of the machine, which alienates man from nature, breaking the usual ideas about his dominant role, and turns man into a creature dependent on the machine. In conditions of intensifying mechanization, a person goes to the periphery of spiritual life, breaks away from his spiritual foundations. The place of craft work associated with the personality and creativity of the master was taken by monotonous labor.

Spiritual culture of the 19th century. developed and functioned under the influence of two important factors: successes in the field of philosophy and natural science. The leading dominant culture of the 19th century. there was science.

Various value orientations were based on two starting positions: the establishment and affirmation of the values ​​of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand, and the critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the emergence of such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism, symbolism, naturalism, positivism, etc. European culture of the 19th century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in the depth of penetration into the existence and spiritual world of man and the creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art. In the development of philosophy of the 19th century. Three defining directions can be distinguished: classical German philosophy, dialectical-materialist philosophy, philosophy of positivism.

German classical philosophy represents the most important achievement of bourgeois philosophical thought. Being the ideology of the German bourgeoisie, historically progressive for its time, it reflected both the unique conditions for the development of capitalism in Germany at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, as well as the major socio-economic changes that took place in the more developed countries of Europe.

The formation of German classical philosophy took place under the influence of revolutionary changes in France, the industrial revolution in England, and the peculiarities of the socio-political situation in Germany, which was in economic stagnation. The philosophical thought of Germany reflected the peculiarities of the worldview of its time and did not represent a single whole. I. Kant was a dualist, I. Fichte was a subjective idealist, F. Schelling and G. Hegel were objective idealists, L. Feuerbach was a materialist and an atheist. But they were united by a line of succession. The core line of development of German classical philosophy was the study of forms of universality, which in Kant and Fichte were considered as forms of thinking, in Schelling and Hegel - as forms of being, reality, spiritual reality. Classical German philosophy is united by the idea of ​​development, dialectics. Classical German philosophy is completed by the greatest materialist L. Feuerbach, whose philosophical system was formed on the basis of the Hegelian school. This philosophy determined the thinking of the century and became the methodological basis for the development of spiritual culture in the 19th century. Its problems are, first of all, human problems, solved through the creation of a systematic picture of the world. The systems of “world-man” relations proposed by German philosophers, almost all (except for the ideas of L. Feuerbach) are idealistic in their attempt to once and for all explain the place and purpose of man. A huge achievement of German classical philosophy is the doctrine of development, dialectics, which took the form of scientific knowledge and became a research method.

A significant contribution to the development of culture is made by Marxist philosophy and Marxist theory, which left their mark on the philosophical and artistic thinking of the 19th century. The program document - the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” - presented a new worldview that extended to the area of ​​social life. Creatively reworking the ideas of classical German philosophy, English political economy, French and English utopian socialism, Marx and Engels discovered the laws of social development and showed the proletariat a scientifically based path to improve the conditions of its existence. In addition, the philosophy of Marxism has historical and cultural significance for the development of any scientific research, including research in the field of culture. The method of dialectical materialism, a universal method for studying a developing natural, conceivable or social object, is based on this theory. Based on this method, realistic art turned to reflecting the contradictions of the inner world of man and its contradictory connections with the processes of social life. The fate of Marxism is dramatic, but its role in culture is undeniable. Positivist consciousness developed under the influence of positivist philosophy. The conflict between humanistic ideals and prosaic everyday life resulted in the recognition of a scientific fact. Positivism relied on the philosophy of the New Age, on the program of practical dominance of science as a rational system of experimental reliable knowledge, discarding metaphysical ideas and becoming the forerunner of scientism. In the development of critical trends in the culture of the 19th century. there were two stages. The first was associated with the revolutionary movement, the second - with the emergence and spread of socialist ideas and the spiritual crisis of bourgeois society, that is, with disbelief in the possibility of spiritual progress, in the feasibility of humanistic ideals. All this led to the emergence of pessimism, apathy, and indifference, which was reflected in such forms of artistic culture as impressionism, naturalism, symbolism, aestheticism and decadence.

Impressionism developed under the influence of positivism. Focusing on the precise fixation of a “fact” (a moment in the depiction of reality) and refusing broad generalizations, the worldview of impressionism was unable to acquire stable patterns. This movement was based on the latest scientific discoveries in the field of biology, physiology, physics and chemistry, in the field of studying sound and visual sensations - naturalism.

The influence of positivism was most clearly manifested in it. His credo is “nature as it is.” Naturalists rejected the arbitrariness of the imagination and compared the work of writers and artists with the work of nature researchers - naturalists. The result of such activity is observation through temperament. A literal reflection of the biological aspect of human life was expressed in the profanation of art, which predetermined its scandalous success among the bourgeoisie, in the emergence of the aesthetics of “physiological art.”

But the most significant shift in the spiritual culture of the 19th century. and the life of society was the formation of romanticism, which claimed a holistic worldview and style of thinking along with others - classicism and realism.

Romanticism is a phenomenon generated by the bourgeois system. As a worldview and style of artistic creativity, it reflects its contradictions: the gap between what should be and what is, ideal and reality. The awareness of the unrealizability of humanistic ideals and values ​​of the Enlightenment gave rise to two alternative ideological positions. The essence of the first is to despise base reality and withdraw into the shell of pure ideals. The essence of the second is to recognize empirical reality and discard all speculation about the ideal. The starting point of the romantic worldview is open rejection of reality, recognition of the insurmountable gap between ideals and real existence, the unreasonableness of the world of things.

It is characterized by a negative attitude towards reality, pessimism, interpretation of historical forces as being outside the real everyday reality, mystification and mythologization. All this prompted the search for resolution of contradictions not in the real world, but in the world of fantasy.

The romantic worldview covered all spheres of spiritual life - science, philosophy, art, religion. It was expressed in two ways:

The first - in it the world appeared as an endless, faceless, cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts here as the beginning that creates world harmony. This version of the romantic worldview is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and sublime feelings.

The second is that human subjectivity is considered individually and personally, understood as the inner, self-absorbed world of a person in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism, a lyrically sad attitude towards the world.

The original principle of romanticism was “two worlds”: comparison and contrast of the real and imaginary worlds. The way to express this dual world was symbolism.

Romantic symbolism represented an organic combination of the illusory and real worlds, which manifested itself in the appearance of metaphor, hyperbole, and poetic comparisons. Romanticism, despite its close connection with religion, was characterized by humor, irony, and dreaminess. Romanticism declared music to be the model and norm for all areas of art, in which, according to the romantics, the very element of life, the element of freedom and the triumph of feelings, sounded.

The emergence of romanticism was due to a number of factors. Firstly, socio-political: the French Revolution of 1769-1793, the Napoleonic Wars, the War of Independence of Latin America. Secondly, economic: the industrial revolution, the development of capitalism. Thirdly, it was formed under the influence of classical German philosophy. Fourthly, it developed on the basis and within the framework of existing literary styles: enlightenment, sentimentalism.

Romanticism flourished between 1795 and 1830. - the period of European revolutions and national liberation movements, and romanticism manifested itself especially clearly in the culture of Germany, England, Russia, Italy, France, and Spain.

The romantic tendency had a great influence in the humanities, and the positivist tendency in the natural sciences, technology and practice.

The term “realism” should be understood in two ways: as a historically defined direction, a type of artistic thinking and as a truthful, objective reflection of reality (in the language of a particular art). Realism evolved from primitive forms of culture. As an artistic method, realism arose in the depths of romanticism in the first third of the 19th century, when the principle of truthful depiction was established in Europe as an opponent to romanticism.

Therefore, in realism, the subject of the image is not the world of fantasy and dreams, but modern reality. The importance of realism in culture is difficult to overestimate.

Critical realism. In the second half of the 19th century. becomes the dominant artistic thinking and method. Critical realism does not at all mean a negative attitude towards reality. This is a form of opposition to the existing (dominant) ideology. The leading role in critical realism belongs to literature. A realistic reflection of reality is determined not by one or another technique, but by a general attitude to reality, that is, artistic truth, which includes two sides: a truthful reflection of existing aspects of life and truth, compliance with the aesthetic ideal. In the first half of the 19th century. realism functioned in close connection with romanticism.

Romanticism in Germany. The basic principles of the literary theory of romanticism were formulated by F. Schlegel and Novalis. F. Schlegel was the first to develop the theory of romantic irony, one of the most brilliant and original creations of the romantic genius. Novalis's aesthetic views are expressed in the theory of art, which should connect the real with the ideal and should strive for universality. A special place in the romantic literature of Germany belongs to Heinrich Kleist and Ernst Hoffmann.

Realism in Germany. It did not manifest itself as clearly as in other European countries, but among the representatives of this trend it is worth mentioning Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), Georg Buchner (1813-1856), who strived for a certain idealization of reality.

Romanticism in England. The most prominent figure among the romantics of England should be considered George Gordon Byron (1788-1824), one of the greatest lyric poets in world literature. Among the outstanding English romantics are Percy Shelley (1792-1822) and Walter Scott (1871 -1892). The English romantics affirmed optimism, the pathos of the struggle against tyranny and religious fanaticism; their works clearly showed an epic element, passionate journalism, and realistic tendencies.

Realism in England. It is distinguished by great originality - pronounced didacticism and critical realism. The most famous English realist writers were Charles Dickens (1812-1870) and William Thackeray (1811 -1863). The romantic movement in English literature is represented by the works of the sisters Charlotte and Emilia Bronte.

Romanticism in France. Its development was influenced by the Great French Revolution, classicism and the Enlightenment. The emergence of romantic ideas is associated with the names of J. de Stael and F. R. de Chateaubriand. The pinnacle of French romanticism is the work of V. Hugo, P. Merimee, J. Sand, and others. In their works, romantic aesthetics is combined with subtle psychologism and strength of character.

Realism in France. It goes through several stages in its development and is characterized by an instant response to significant events in social life. The works of Stendhal, Honore de Balzac, and Postav Flaubert can be considered among the most striking manifestations of realism in France.

3. Artistic culture of the 19th century

Introduction

1. General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th – 19th centuries.

the first quarter of a century associated with Peter's reforms;
the era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;
the last third of the century (starting from the mid-60s), marked by major social changes, aggravation of social contradictions, noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

2. Culture of the nobility.

Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century. reflects the characteristics of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is increasing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Progressive writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; The first literary magazines appear.
The main content of the cultural process of the mid-18th century. - the formation of Russian classicism, the ideological basis of which was the struggle for powerful national statehood under the auspices of autocratic power, the assertion in artistic images of the power of an absolute monarchy.
Although Russian writers and artists turned to the experience of Western European classicism, which was ahead of them in the development, they sought to give this movement features of national originality. Lomonosov said it well: “In order not to introduce anything objectionable, and not to leave anything good, you need to look at who is better to follow and in what.”
Unlike Western European classicism, Russian classicism, full of the pathos of citizenship, had strong educational tendencies and a sharp accusatory satirical stream.
In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Tredyakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov. A.D.
The traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in a different way in the works of A.P. Sumarokov and his school (M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov Ya.B. Knyazhnin, etc.), which defended the idea of ​​​​the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism.
Since the 70s of the 18th century. Russian classicism in literature is experiencing a crisis; the aggravation of social contradictions and class struggle leads to the penetration of new themes and sentiments into literature. Thus, republican motifs appeared in Ya. B. Knyazhnin’s tragedy “Vadim Novgorodsky”. But at the same time, civil themes are pushed aside by love lyrics. From the leading literary movement, classicism becomes the literature of narrow reactionary-serfdom circles.
A characteristic feature of Russian classicism in sculpture was warmth and humanity. It is enough to look at the tombstone of N. M. Golitsyna in the Donskoy Monastery by F. G. Gordeev to feel the sublime sadness and wise restraint of quiet grief, expressed with the greatest sincerity. Russian masters created examples of monumental sculpture, distinguished by their majestic character, humanism of images, brevity and generality. One of the most remarkable monuments of this era is the monument to Peter I by E.-M. Falcone. He was a foreigner, but the monument he created should be considered within the framework of Russian culture, which predetermined the assessment of Peter I and the interpretation of his sculptural image.
Classicism is also reflected in historical painting. Noteworthy are the paintings by A. P. Losenko “Vladimir and Rogneda” and “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”, the painting by G. I. Ugryumov “The Test of the Strength of Jan Usmar”. However, painting was more affected by the limitations of classicism - the abstract ideal nature of the images, the conventionality of color, imitation of the poses and gestures of ancient models.
Russian theatrical classicism, which developed by the mid-18th century, was founded by the dramaturgy of Lomonosov and Sumarokov, who established national-patriotic themes and educational trends in the theater. The spread of classicism in theatrical art is associated with the emergence in St. Petersburg in 1756 of the state public professional theater headed by the Russian actor F. G. Volkov. The largest actors of Russian theatrical classicism were also I. A. Dmitrevsky, P. A. Plavilshchikov, T. M. Troepolskaya. Their playing was distinguished by subtle skill in revealing passions and thoughts, and expressiveness of recitation. A master of great stage temperament, F. G. Volkov left behind the memory of an inspired artist in the heroic images of the freedom-loving characters of Sumarokov’s tragedy, who did not leave the stage at that time.

Sentimentalism

Classicism was not the only trend of noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to the feelings and interests of the common man, mainly from the “middle” class. Tragedy was replaced by “tearful bourgeois drama” and comic opera. The sublime language of tragic heroes ceases to excite listeners, who greet with delight the “mixing of fun with sorrow in the actions” and shed tears over sensitive stories. The creator of the genre of sentimental story and sentimental journey in Russian literature, N. M. Karamzin sought to convey the subtle and deep experiences of ordinary people. However, in his works, in a conservative spirit, he depicted the idyllic relationship between landowners and peasants. N. M. Karamzin was afraid of the peasants' uprising, the ghost of the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. and therefore came to terms with feudal reality.
The influence of sentimentalism was also reflected in the architecture, especially in park architecture, with various “grottoes of solitude”, mysterious pavilions hidden in the twilight, and in the stylization of “wild” nature. One of the works of the agronomist and noble memoirist A. T. Bolotov is called: “Some general notes about tender melancholic gardens.” Most of the estates of the 18th century. was created with the participation or designs of serf architects and gardeners.
In painting, sentimentalism was reflected in “sensitive” subjects, in the sugary-sweet interpretation of peasant images, in the pastoral depiction of nature. In M. M. Ivanov’s painting “Milking a Cow,” the artist’s entire attention is focused not on the peasants (his images don’t even look like them!), but on the gentle sheep, on the idyllic picture of peaceful rural life. Looking at this canvas, one would not think that it was written in 1772 - on the eve of the Peasant War. Sentimental themes are also strong in the works of landscape painter S. F. Shchedrin, who painted traditional “landscapes with cattle,” peasant huts of fantastic architecture and idyllic “rural amusements” of shepherds and shepherdesses.
One of the prominent sentimentalists in portrait painting was V. L. Borovikovsky. The female images he created (for example, the portrait of M. I. Lopukhina) are full of tender elegiac feelings and idyllic moods.
The founder of sentimentalism in the Russian theater is the actor V. II. Pomerantsev. Theater of the 70-80s of the 18th century. often turned to pastoral operas and comedies. This is Maykov’s “Village Festival,” at which the touched peasants sing in chorus: “We have a lot in the field and live according to our will, you are our master and father! »
A sentimental-idyllic “sensibility” penetrated into music. The romance “The Gray Dove Moans” (words by I. I. Dmitriev, music by F. M. Dubyansky) outlived its creators for a long time, continuing into the 19th century. to disturb the hearts of merchants and tradeswomen.
Sentimentalism in Russian culture arose during the period of the formation of new, bourgeois relations in the depths of the feudal-serf system, and its struggle with classicism was a reflection of deep socio-economic processes. Therefore, despite all the political limitations of sentimentalism, it was a progressive movement for its time.

3. Artistic culture of the 19th century

Conclusion
The eighteenth century in the field of culture and life in Russia is a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.
The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, and means of artistic expression have changed. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. Back in the depths of the 17th century, in the times of Peter the Great, a process of “secularization” of Russian culture took place. In the formation and development of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom the new tasks were beyond their capabilities. Foreign masters invited to Russian service not only helped create new art, but also served as teachers of the Russian people. Another equally important way of receiving professional training was sending Russian craftsmen to study in Western Europe. Thus, many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, and Germany.
Changes of enormous significance took place in the culture of Russia in the 19th century. They constituted the cultural heritage of the country. Cultural heritage is the most important form in which continuity in the historical development of society is expressed. Even in the conditions of a socialist revolution, which resolutely denies many socio-historical institutions of the old society, the creation of a qualitatively new culture is impossible without the creative development of cultural heritage, without caring for the culture of past eras, without preserving the wealth that was created in various fields of culture. Today we are especially clear about this.

List of used literature

Anisimov E.V. The Birth of an Empire // book. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. M.: Politizdat. 1991.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia, - M.: 1975. Volumes 18,19,20,21.

Zezina M. R. Koshman L. V. Shulgin V. S. History of Russian culture. – M., 1990

V.V. Mavrodin “The Birth of a New Russia.”, M., 1998.