Provide a definition of the literary movement romanticism. Artistic features of romanticism

Romanticism- a trend in the art and literature of Western Europe and Russia of the 18th-19th centuries, consisting in the desire of authors to contrast the reality that does not satisfy them with unusual images and plots, suggested to them by life phenomena. The romantic artist strives to express in his images what he wants to see in life, which, in his opinion, should be the main, determining one. Arose as a reaction to rationalism.

Literary forms

Romanticism- a direction that developed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Romanticism is characterized by a special interest in the individual and his inner world, which is usually shown as an ideal world and is contrasted with the real world - the surrounding reality. In Russia, there are two main movements in romanticism: passive romanticism (elegiac), the representative of such romanticism was V.A. Zhukovsky ; progressive romanticism, its representatives were in England J. G. Byron, in France V. Hugo, in Germany F. Schiller, G. Heine. In Russia ideological content progressive romanticism was most fully expressed by the Decembrist poets K. Ryleev, A. Bestuzhev, A. Odoevsky and others, in the early poems of A. S. Pushkin “ Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies" and M.Yu. Lermontov's poem "Demon".

Romanticism- a literary movement that formed at the beginning of the century. Fundamental to romanticism was the principle of romantic dual worlds, which presupposes a sharp contrast between the hero and his ideal and the surrounding world. The incompatibility of ideal and reality was expressed in the departure of romantics from modern themes into the world of history, traditions and legends, dreams, dreams, fantasies, and exotic countries. Romanticism has a special interest in the individual. The romantic hero is characterized by proud loneliness, disappointment, a tragic attitude and, at the same time, rebellion and rebellion of spirit (A.S. Pushkin.“Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Gypsies”; M.Yu. Lermontov."Mtsyri"; M. Gorky.“Song of the Falcon”, “Old Woman Izergil”).

Romanticism(end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century)- received the greatest development in England, Germany, France (J. Byron, W. Scott, V. Hugo, P. Merimee). In Russia, it arose against the backdrop of national upsurge after the War of 1812, it is characterized by a pronounced social orientation, imbued with the idea of ​​​​civic service and love of freedom (K.F. Ryleev, V.A. Zhukovsky). Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and the inner depth of human individuality. Denial of artistic authorities. There are no genre barriers or stylistic distinctions; the desire for complete freedom of creative imagination.

Realism: representatives, distinctive features, literary forms

Realism(from Latin. realis)- a movement in art and literature, the main principle of which is the most complete and accurate reflection of reality through typification. Appeared in Russia in the 19th century.

Literary forms

Realism- artistic method and direction in literature. Its basis is the principle of life truth, which guides the artist in his work in order to give the most complete and true reflection of life and preserve the greatest life verisimilitude in the depiction of events, people, objects of the external world and nature as they are in reality itself. Realism reached its greatest development in the 19th century. in the works of such great Russian realist writers as A.S. Griboedov, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, L.N. Tolstoy and others.

Realism- a literary movement that established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century and passed through the entire 20th century. Realism asserts the priority of the cognitive capabilities of literature, its ability to explore reality. The most important subject of artistic research is the relationship between character and circumstances, the formation of characters under the influence of the environment. Human behavior, according to realist writers, is determined by external circumstances, which, however, does not negate his ability to oppose his will to them. This determined the central conflict of realistic literature - the conflict of personality and circumstances. Realist writers depict reality in development, in dynamics, presenting stable, typical phenomena in their unique individual embodiment (A.S. Pushkin."Boris Godunov", "Eugene Onegin"; N.V.Gogol."Dead Souls"; novels I.S. Turgenev, JI.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.M. Gorky, stories I.A.Bunina, A.I.Kuprina; P.A. Nekrasov.“Who Lives Well in Rus'”, etc.).

Realism- established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century and continues to remain an influential literary movement. Explores life, delving into its contradictions. Basic principles: objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts in typical circumstances; their social and historical conditioning; predominant interest in the problem of “individuality and society” (especially in the eternal confrontation between social patterns and moral ideal, personal and mass); formation of characters' characters under the influence of the environment (Stendhal, Balzac, C. Dickens, G. Flaubert, M. Twain, T. Mann, J. I. H. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov).

Critical realism- an artistic method and literary movement that developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the depiction of human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep analysis of the inner world of man. Representatives of Russian critical realism are A.S. Pushkin, I.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov.

Modernism- the general name of trends in art and literature of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, expressing the crisis of bourgeois culture and characterized by a break with the traditions of realism. Modernists are representatives of various new trends, for example A. Blok, V. Bryusov (symbolism). V. Mayakovsky (futurism).

Modernism- a literary movement of the first half of the 20th century, which opposed itself to realism and united many movements and schools with a very diverse aesthetic orientation. Instead of a rigid connection between characters and circumstances, modernism affirms the self-worth and self-sufficiency of the human personality, its irreducibility to a tedious series of causes and consequences.

Postmodernism- a complex set of ideological attitudes and cultural reactions in the era of ideological and aesthetic pluralism (late 20th century). Postmodern thinking is fundamentally anti-hierarchical, opposes the idea of ​​ideological integrity, and rejects the possibility of mastering reality using a single method or language of description. Postmodernist writers consider literature, first of all, a fact of language, therefore they do not hide, but emphasize the “literary” nature of their works, combine in one text the stylistics of different genres and different literary eras(A. Bitov, Caiuci Sokolov, D. A. Prigov, V. Pelevin, Ven. Erofeev and etc.).

Decadence (decadence)- a certain state of mind, a crisis type of consciousness, expressed in a feeling of despair, powerlessness, mental fatigue with the obligatory elements of narcissism and aestheticization of the self-destruction of the individual. Decadent in mood, the works aestheticize extinction, the break with traditional morality, and the will to death. The decadent worldview was reflected in the works of writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. F. Sologuba, 3. Gippius, L. Andreeva, M. Artsybasheva and etc.

Symbolism- direction in European and Russian art of the 1870-1910s. Symbolism is characterized by conventions and allegories, highlighting the irrational side of a word - sound, rhythm. The very name “symbolism” is associated with the search for a “symbol” that can reflect the author’s attitude to the world. Symbolism expressed rejection of the bourgeois way of life, longing for spiritual freedom, anticipation and fear of world socio-historical cataclysms. Representatives of symbolism in Russia were A.A. Blok (his poetry became a prophecy, a harbinger of “unheard-of changes”), V. Bryusov, V. Ivanov, A. Bely.

Symbolism(late XIX - early XX century)- artistic expression of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas through a symbol (from the Greek “symbolon” ​​- sign, identifying mark). Vague hints at a meaning unclear to the authors themselves or a desire to define in words the essence of the universe, the cosmos. Often poems seem meaningless. Characteristic is the desire to demonstrate heightened sensitivity, experiences incomprehensible to the average person; many levels of meaning; pessimistic perception of the world. The foundations of aesthetics were formed in creativity French poets P. Verlaine and A. Rimbaud. Russian Symbolists (V.Ya.Bryusova, K.D.Balmont, A.Bely) called decadents (“decadents”).

Symbolism- a pan-European, and in Russian literature - the first and most significant modernist movement. Symbolism is rooted in romanticism, with the idea of ​​two worlds. The symbolists contrasted the traditional idea of ​​understanding the world in art with the idea of ​​constructing the world in the process of creativity. The meaning of creativity is the subconscious-intuitive contemplation of secret meanings, accessible only to the artist-creator. The main means of conveying rationally unknowable Secret meanings becomes the symbol (“senior symbolists”: V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub;"Young Symbolists": A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov).

Expressionism- a direction in literature and art of the first quarter of the 20th century, which proclaimed the subjective spiritual world of man as the only reality, and its expression as the main goal of art. Expressionism is characterized by flashiness and grotesqueness of the artistic image. The main genres in the literature of this direction are lyrical poetry and drama, and often the work turns into a passionate monologue by the author. Various ideological trends were embodied in the forms of expressionism - from mysticism and pessimism to sharp social criticism and revolutionary appeals.

Expressionism- a modernist movement that formed in the 1910s - 1920s in Germany. The expressionists sought not so much to depict the world as to express their thoughts about the troubles of the world and the suppression of the human personality. The style of expressionism is determined by the rationalism of constructions, the attraction to abstraction, the acute emotionality of the statements of the author and characters, and the abundant use of fantasy and the grotesque. In Russian literature, the influence of expressionism manifested itself in the works of L. Andreeva, E. Zamyatina, A. Platonova and etc.

Acmeism- a movement in Russian poetry of the 1910s, which proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses towards the “ideal”, from the polysemy and fluidity of images, a return to the material world, the subject, the element of “nature”, the exact meaning of the word. Representatives are S. Gorodetsky, M. Kuzmin, N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam.

Acmeism - a movement of Russian modernism that arose as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism with its persistent tendency to perceive reality as a distorted likeness of higher entities. The main significance in the poetry of the Acmeists is the artistic exploration of the diverse and vibrant earthly world, the transfer of the inner world of man, the affirmation of culture as the highest value. Acmeistic poetry is characterized by stylistic balance, pictorial clarity of images, precisely calibrated composition, and precision of detail. (N. Gumilev. S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich, V. Narvut).

Futurism- avant-garde direction in European art 10-20 years of the XX century. In an effort to create “the art of the future”, denying traditional culture (especially its moral and artistic values), futurism cultivated urbanism (the aesthetics of the machine industry and big city), the interweaving of documentary material and fiction, in poetry even destroyed natural language. In Russia, representatives of futurism are V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov.

Futurism- an avant-garde movement that emerged almost simultaneously in Italy and Russia. The main feature is the preaching of the overthrow of past traditions, the destruction of old aesthetics, the desire to create new art, the art of the future, capable of transforming the world. The main technical principle is the principle of “shift”, which manifested itself in the lexical updating of the poetic language due to the introduction of vulgarisms, technical terms, neologisms, in violation of the laws of lexical compatibility of words, in bold experiments in the field of syntax and word formation (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, V. Kamensky, I. Severyanin and etc.).

Avant-garde- a movement in the artistic culture of the 20th century, striving for a radical renewal of art both in content and form; sharply criticizing traditional trends, forms and styles, avant-gardeism often comes to belittle the importance of the cultural and historical heritage of mankind, giving rise to a nihilistic attitude towards “eternal” values.

Avant-garde- a direction in literature and art of the 20th century, uniting various movements, united in their aesthetic radicalism (Dadaism, surrealism, absurd drama, “new novel”, in Russian literature - futurism). It is genetically related to modernism, but absolutizes and takes to the extreme its desire for artistic renewal.

Naturalism(last third of the 19th century)- the desire for an outwardly accurate copy of reality, an “objective” dispassionate depiction of human character, likening artistic knowledge to scientific knowledge. It was based on the idea of ​​the absolute dependence of fate, will, and the spiritual world of man on the social environment, everyday life, heredity, and physiology. There are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. When explaining human behavior, social and biological reasons are placed on the same level. Particularly developed in France (G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, E. Zola, who developed the theory of naturalism), French authors were also popular in Russia.

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period in the history of literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, as well as the direction in art and literature that arose in Europe and America at this time with common artistic ideas and literary style, characterized by a certain set of themes, images and techniques. Romantic works are characterized by a rejection of rationalism and rigid literary rules characteristic of classicism, the literary movement from which romanticism was based. Romanticism contrasts the strict rules of classicism with the freedom of the writer-creator. The individuality of the author, his unique inner world are the highest values ​​for romantics. The worldview of the romantics is characterized by the so-called dual world - the opposition of an ideal to a meaningless, boring or vulgar reality. The ideal beginning in romanticism can be either a creation of the imagination, an artist’s dream, or the distant past, or the way of life of “natural” peoples and people, free from the chains of civilization, or the other world. Melancholy, sadness, inescapable grief, despair are the moods that distinguish romantic literature.

The word "romantic" existed in European languages ​​long before the era of romanticism. It meant, firstly, belonging to the genre of the novel, and secondly, belonging to the literatures that emerged in the Middle Ages in the Romance languages ​​- Italian, French, Spanish. Thirdly, what was especially expressive and exciting (sublime and picturesque) in life and literature was called romantic. The word “romantic” as a characteristic of medieval poetry, which was in many ways unlike ancient poetry, spread after the publication in England of T. Wharton’s treatise “On the Origin of Romantic Poetry in Europe” (1774). Defining a new era in European literature and the new ideal of beauty, the word “romantic” appeared in aesthetic treatises and literary critical articles of the late 1790s. German writers and thinkers belonging to the so-called. "Jena school" (named after the city of Jena). Works by the brothers F. and A. Schlegel, Novalis (the poetic cycle “Hymns for the Night,” 1800; the novel “Heinrich von Ofterdingen,” 1802), L. Tieck (the comedy “Puss in Boots,” 1797; the novel “The Wanderings of Franz Sternbald” , 1798) expressed such features of romanticism as an orientation towards folk poetry and medieval literature, installation on the connection between literature and philosophy and religion. They own the concept of “romantic irony,” meaning irony caused by the discrepancy between a sublime ideal and reality: romantic irony is outwardly aimed at an abstract ideal, but in essence its subject is ordinary, dull or vicious reality. In the works of the late romantics: the prose writer E. T. A. Hoffman (the cycle of fantastic short stories and fairy tales “Serapion’s Brothers”, 1819–21; the novel “The Everyday Views of the Cat Moore...”, 1819–21, not completed), the poet and prose writer G. Heine (poetic “Book of Songs”, 1827; poem “Germany, a Winter’s Tale”, 1844; prosaic “Travel Pictures”, 1829–30) - the prevailing motif is the gap between dreams and everyday reality, grotesque techniques are abundantly used, incl. for satirical purposes.

In English literature, romanticism was expressed primarily in the works of the so-called poets. “Lake School” by W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, in the poetry of P. B. Shelley and J. Keats. Like German, English romanticism cultivates national antiquity, but it is less philosophical and religious. In Europe, the most famous of the English romantics was J. G. Byron, who created examples of the genre of romantic poems (“The Giaour,” 1813; “The Bride of Abydos,” 1813; “Lara,” 1814). The poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–21) enjoyed particular success. Byron created sublime images of individualistic heroes challenging the world; his poetry has strong atheistic motives and criticism of modern civilization. In prose, the English romantic W. Scott created the genre of the historical novel, and C. R. Maturin created the adventure-fantasy novel “Melmoth the Wanderer” (1820). The term “romanticism” as a designation for a new literary period began to be used in England quite late, in the 1840s.

French romanticism clearly manifested itself in the genre of the novel dedicated to selfishness and the “disease of the century” - disappointment: “Adolphe” (1815) by B. Constant, the novels of Stendhal, “Confession of a Son of the Century” (1836) by A. de Musset. French romantics turn to the exotic material of the life of the social bottom, like, for example, the early O. de Balzac, like J. Janin in the novel “The Dead Donkey and the Guillotined Woman” (1829). The prose of Balzac, V. Hugo, J. Janin, dedicated to the depiction of strong passions, full of bright contrasts and spectacular images, was called “violent literature.” In French drama, romanticism was established in a fierce struggle with classicism (the dramas of V. Hugo).

In US literature, romanticism is represented in prose: novels from the history of North America by J. F. Cooper, novels and short stories by W. Irving, fantasy and detective stories by E. A. Poe.

In Russia, the first romantic works were the lyrical poems and ballads of V. A. Zhukovsky, inspired by Western European romanticism. The influence of J. G. Byron is noticeable in the works of A. S. Pushkin, especially in the works of the first half. 1820s (Russian version of the Byronic romantic poem). Romantic features are characteristic of the lyrics and poems of E. A. Baratynsky and other poets. The prose of Russian romanticism is dominated by the so-called. secular, fantastic, philosophical and historical stories (A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. F. Odoevsky, N. V. Gogol, etc.). Romantic motives of loneliness are presented in the works of M. Yu. Lermontov. Romantic symbolism of dissonance, discord between man and the natural world, existence as an unstable combination of two principles: harmony and chaos - the motives of F. I. Tyutchev’s poetry.

The term “romanticism” is also used to designate an artistic method that includes works created after the end of romanticism as a literary period. Thus, researchers attribute many works of literature of the 20th century to romanticism, for example, the prose of A. Green and K. G. Paustovsky. A literary movement such as symbolism is sometimes considered as a variant of romanticism.

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You will find out who the representatives of romanticism in literature were by reading this article.

Representatives of romanticism in literature

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement that arose in American and European culture late XVIII century - early 19th century, as a reaction to the aesthetics of classicism. Romanticism first developed in the 1790s in German poetry and philosophy, and later spread to France, England and other countries.

Basic ideas of romanticism– recognition of spiritual values creative life, rights to freedom and independence. In literature, heroes have a rebellious, strong character, and the plots are characterized by intense passions.

The main representatives of romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century

Russian romanticism combined the human personality, enclosed in a beautiful and mysterious world of harmony, high feelings and beauty. Representatives of this romanticism in their works depicted a non-real world and a main character filled with experiences and thoughts.

• Representatives of English Romanticism

The works are distinguished by gloomy Gothic, religious content, elements of the culture of the working class, national folklore and peasant class. The peculiarity of English romanticism is that the authors describe in detail travel, journeys to distant lands, as well as their exploration. The most famous authors and works: “Childe Harold’s Travels”, “Manfred” and “Oriental Poems”, “Ivanhoe”.

• Representatives of Romanticism in Germany

The development of German romanticism in literature was influenced by philosophy, which promoted freedom and individualism of the individual. The works are filled with reflections on the existence of man, his soul. They are also distinguished by mythological and fairy-tale motifs. The most famous authors and works: fairy tales, short stories and novels, fairy tales, works.

• Representatives of American Romanticism

In American literature, romanticism developed much later than in Europe. Literary works are divided into 2 types - eastern (supporters of plantation) and abolitionist (those who support the rights of slaves and their emancipation). They're crowded acute feelings struggle for independence, equality and freedom. Representatives of American romanticism - (“The Fall of the House of Usher”, (“Ligeia”), Washington Irving (“The Phantom Bridegroom”, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”), Nathaniel Hawthorne (“The House of the Seven Gables”, “The Scarlet Letter”), Fenimore Cooper ("The Last of the Mohicans"), Harriet Beecher Stowe ("Uncle Tom's Cabin"), ("The Legend of Hiawatha"), Herman Melville ("Typee", "Moby Dick") and (poetry collection "Leaves of Grass") .

We hope that from this article you learned everything about the most prominent representatives of the movement of romanticism in literature.

Examination essay

Subject: "Romanticism as a movement in art."

Performed student of class 11 "B" of school No. 3

Boyright Anna

World Art Teacher

culture Butsu T.N.

Brest 2002

1. Introduction

2. Reasons for the emergence of romanticism

3. Main features of romanticism

4. Romantic hero

5. Romanticism in Russia

a) Literature

b) Painting

c) Music

6. Western European romanticism

a) Painting

b) Music

7. Conclusion

8. References

1. INTRODUCTION

If you look into the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, you can find several meanings of the word “romanticism”: 1. A movement in literature and art of the first quarter of the 19th century, characterized by the idealization of the past, isolation from reality, and the cult of personality and man. 2. A movement in literature and art, imbued with optimism and the desire to show in vivid images the high purpose of man. 3. A state of mind imbued with an idealization of reality and dreamy contemplation.

As can be seen from the definition, romanticism is a phenomenon that manifests itself not only in art, but also in behavior, clothing, lifestyle, psychology of people and arises at turning points in life, therefore the topic of romanticism is still relevant today. We live at the turn of the century, we are in a transitional stage. In this regard, in society there is a lack of faith in the future, a loss of faith in ideals, a desire arises to escape from the surrounding reality into the world of one’s own experiences and at the same time to comprehend it. It is these features that are characteristic of romantic art. That’s why I chose the topic “Romanticism as a movement in art” for research.

Romanticism is a very large layer various types art. The purpose of my work is to trace the conditions of origin and reasons for the emergence of romanticism in different countries, to explore the development of romanticism in such forms of art as literature, painting and music, and to compare them. The main task for me was to highlight the main features of romanticism, characteristic of all types of art, to determine what influence romanticism had on the development of other movements in art.

When developing the topic, I used textbooks on art, authors such as Filimonova, Vorotnikov and others, encyclopedic publications, monographs dedicated to various authors of the Romantic era, biographical materials such authors as Aminskaya, Atsarkina, Nekrasova and others.

2. REASONS FOR THE ARISE OF ROMANTICISM

The closer we get to modern times, the shorter the periods of dominance of one style or another become. The time period of the end of the 18th-1st third of the 19th centuries. is considered to be the era of romanticism (from the French Romantique; something mysterious, strange, unreal)

What influenced the emergence of the new style?

These are three main events: the Great French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of the national liberation movement in Europe.

The thunder of Paris echoed throughout Europe. The slogan "Freedom, equality, brotherhood!" had enormous attractive force for all European peoples. As bourgeois societies formed, the working class began to act against the feudal order as an independent force. The opposing struggle of three classes - the nobility, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat formed the basis of the historical development XIX century.

The fate of Napoleon and his role in European history for 2 decades, 1796-1815, occupied the minds of his contemporaries. “The ruler of thoughts,” A.S. said about him. Pushkin.

For France, these were years of greatness and glory, albeit at the cost of the lives of thousands of Frenchmen. Italy saw Napoleon as its liberator. Big hopes The Poles placed it on him.

Napoleon acted as a conqueror acting in the interests of the French bourgeoisie. For European monarchs, he was not only a military opponent, but also a representative of the alien world of the bourgeoisie. They hated him. At the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, his “Great Army” included many direct participants in the revolution.

The personality of Napoleon himself was phenomenal. The young man Lermontov responded to the 10th anniversary of Napoleon’s death:

He is alien to the world. Everything about him was a secret

The day of exaltation - and the hour of fall!

This mystery especially attracted the attention of romantics.

In connection with the Napoleonic wars and the maturation of national self-awareness, this period was characterized by the rise of the national liberation movement. Germany, Austria, Spain fought against the Napoleonic occupation, Italy - against the Austrian yoke, Greece - against Turkey, in Poland they fought against Russian tsarism, Ireland - against the British.

Amazing changes have taken place before the eyes of one generation.

France was seething most of all: the stormy five years of the French Revolution, the rise and fall of Robespierre, Napoleonic campaigns, Napoleon’s first abdication, his return from the island of Elba (“one hundred days”) and the final

the defeat at Waterloo, the gloomy 15th anniversary of the restoration regime, the July Revolution of 1860, the February Revolution of 1848 in Paris, which caused a revolutionary wave in other countries.

In England, as a result of the industrial revolution in the 2nd half of the 19th century. machine production and capitalist relations were established. The parliamentary reform of 1832 cleared the path for the bourgeoisie to state power.

In the lands of Germany and Austria, feudal rulers retained power. After the fall of Napoleon, they dealt harshly with the opposition. But even on German soil, the steam locomotive, brought from England in 1831, became a factor in bourgeois progress.

Industrial revolutions and political revolutions changed the face of Europe. “The bourgeoisie, in less than a hundred years of its class rule, has created more numerous and colossal productive forces than all previous generations combined,” wrote the German scientists Marx and Engels in 1848.

So, the Great French Revolution (1789-1794) marked a special milestone separating the new era from the Age of Enlightenment. Not only the forms of the state, the social structure of society, and the arrangement of classes changed. The entire system of ideas, illuminated for centuries, was shaken. The Enlighteners ideologically prepared the revolution. But they could not foresee all its consequences. The “kingdom of reason” did not take place. The revolution, which proclaimed individual freedom, gave rise to the bourgeois order, the spirit of acquisition and selfishness. Such was the historical basis for the development of artistic culture, which put forward a new direction - romanticism.

3. MAIN FEATURES OF ROMANTICism

Romanticism as a method and direction in artistic culture was a complex and contradictory phenomenon. In every country it had a strong national expression. In literature, music, painting and theater it is not easy to find features that unite Chateaubriand and Delacroix, Mickiewicz and Chopin, Lermontov and Kiprensky.

Romantics occupied various social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had their own ideal. But for all its many faces and diversity, romanticism has stable features.

Disillusionment with modernity gave rise to a special interest in the past: to pre-bourgeois social formations, to patriarchal antiquity. Many romantics had the idea that the picturesque exoticism of the countries of the south and east - Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey - was a poetic contrast to the boring bourgeois everyday life. In these countries, then little touched by civilization, romantics looked for bright, strong characters, original, colorful way of life. Interest in the national past has given rise to a lot of historical works.

Striving to rise above the prose of existence, to liberate the diverse abilities of the individual, to achieve maximum self-realization in creativity, the romantics opposed the formalization of art and the straightforward and reasonable approach to it, characteristic of classicism. They all came from denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist’s creative initiative. And if classicism divides everything in a straight line, into good and bad, into black and white, then romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not. Romanticism advanced the advancement of modern times from classicism to sentimentalism, which shows the inner life of man in harmony with the wider world. And romanticism contrasts harmony with the inner world. It is with romanticism that real psychologism begins to appear.

The main goal of romanticism was image of the inner world, spiritual life, and this could be done on the material of stories, mysticism, etc. It was necessary to show the paradox of this inner life, its irrationality.

In their imagination, romantics transformed the unsightly reality or retreated into the world of their experiences. The gap between dream and reality, the opposition of beautiful fiction to objective reality, lay at the heart of the entire romantic movement.

Romanticism first raised the problem of the language of art. “Art is a language of a completely different kind than nature; but it also contains the same miraculous power, which equally secretly and incomprehensibly affects the human soul” (Wackenroder and Tieck). The artist is an interpreter of the language of nature, a mediator between the world of spirit and people. “Thanks to artists, humanity emerges as a complete individuality. Through modernity, artists unite the world of the past with the world of the future. They are the highest spiritual organ in which the vital forces of their outer humanity meet each other and where the inner humanity manifests itself first of all” (F. Schlegel).

However, romanticism was not a homogeneous movement: its ideological development went in different directions. Among the romantics were reactionary writers, adherents of the old regime, who glorified the feudal monarchy and Christianity. On the other hand, romantics with a progressive worldview expressed a democratic protest against feudal and all kinds of oppression, and embodied the revolutionary impulse of the people for a better future.

Romanticism left an entire era in world artistic culture, its representatives were: in literature V. Scott, J. Byron, Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Mickiewicz, etc.; in fine arts E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. Runge, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. Kiprensky and others; in music F. Schubert, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin and others. They discovered and developed new genres, paid close attention to the fate of the human personality, revealed the dialectic of good and evil, masterfully revealed human passions, etc.

The types of art more or less equalized in importance and produced magnificent works of art, although the romantics gave primacy to music in the ladder of the arts.

4. ROMANTIC HERO

Who is a romantic hero and what is he like?

This is an individualist. A superman who has lived through two stages: before colliding with reality, he lives in a “pink” state, he is overcome by the desire for achievement, to change the world; after colliding with reality, he continues to consider this world both vulgar and boring, but he does not become a skeptic or a pessimist. With a clear understanding that nothing can be changed, the desire for achievement degenerates into a desire for danger.

The Romantics could attach eternal lasting value to every little thing, every concrete fact, every single thing. Joseph de Maistre calls this “the paths of Providence,” Germaine de Stael calls it “the fruitful womb of the immortal universe.” Chateaubriand in The Genius of Christianity, in a book devoted to history, directly points to God as the beginning of historical time. Society appears as an unshakable connection, “a thread of life that connects us with our ancestors and which we must extend to our descendants.” Only a person’s heart, and not his mind, can understand and hear the voice of the Creator, through the beauty of nature, through deep feelings. Nature is divine, a source of harmony and creativity, and its metaphors are often carried into the political lexicon by romantics. For romantics, a tree becomes a symbol of clan, spontaneous development, perception of the juices of the native land, a symbol of national unity. The more innocent and sensitive a person’s nature, the easier he hears the voice of God. A child, a woman, a noble youth more often than others perceives the immortality of the soul and the value of eternal life. The thirst for bliss among the romantics is not limited to the idealistic desire for the Kingdom of God after death.

In addition to mystical love for God, a person needs real, earthly love. Unable to possess the object of his passion, the romantic hero became an eternal martyr, doomed to wait for a meeting with his beloved in the afterlife, “for great love is worthy of immortality when it costs a person his life.”

The problem of personality development and education occupies a special place in the work of romantics. Childhood is devoid of laws; its instantaneous impulses violate public morality, obeying its own rules of children's play. In an adult, similar reactions lead to death, to the condemnation of the soul. In search of the heavenly kingdom, a person must comprehend the laws of duty and morality, only then can he hope for eternal life. Since duty is dictated to romantics by their desire to gain eternal life, the fulfillment of duty gives personal happiness in its deepest and most powerful manifestation. TO moral duty a debt of deep feelings and sublime interests is added. Without mixing the merits of different sexes, romantics advocate the equality of spiritual development of men and women. In the same way, civic duty is dictated by love for God and his institutions. Personal aspiration finds its completion in a common cause, in the aspiration of the whole nation, all humanity, the whole world.

Every culture had its own romantic hero, but Byron gave the typical idea of ​​the romantic hero in his work "Charold Harold". He put on the mask of his hero (suggests that there is no distance between the hero and the author) and managed to correspond to the romantic canon.

All romantic works are distinguished by characteristic features:

Firstly, in every romantic work there is no distance between the hero and the author.

Secondly, the author does not judge the hero, but even if something bad is said about him, the plot is structured in such a way that the hero is not to blame. The plot in a romantic work is usually romantic. Romantics also build a special relationship with nature; they like storms, thunderstorms, and disasters.

5. ROMANTICISM IN RUSSIA.

Romanticism in Russia differed from Western Europe due to a different historical situation and a different cultural tradition. The French Revolution cannot be counted among the causes of its occurrence; a very narrow circle of people pinned any hopes on transformations in its course. And the results of the revolution were completely disappointing. The question of capitalism in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. didn't stand. Therefore, there was no reason for this either. The real reason was the Patriotic War of 1812, in which the full force of popular initiative was demonstrated. But after the war, the people did not receive freedom. The best of the nobility, not satisfied with reality, came to Senate Square in December 1825. This act also did not pass without a trace for the creative intelligentsia. The turbulent post-war years became the setting in which Russian romanticism was formed.

Romanticism, and moreover ours, Russian, developed and molded into our original forms, romanticism was not a simple literary, but a life phenomenon, an entire era of moral development, an era that had its own special color, carrying out a special view in life... Let the romantic trend come from the outside, from Western life and Western literature, it found in Russian nature soil ready for its perception, and therefore was reflected in completely original phenomena, as the poet and critic Apollo Grigoriev assessed - this is unique cultural phenomenon, and his characterization shows the essential complexity of romanticism, from the depths of which young Gogol emerged and with which he was associated not only at the beginning of his writing career, but throughout his entire life.

Apollo Grigoriev precisely defined the nature of the influence of the romantic school on literature and life, including on the prose of that time: not a simple influence or borrowing, but a characteristic and powerful life and literary trend that gave completely original phenomena in young Russian literature.

a) Literature

Russian romanticism is usually divided into several periods: initial (1801-1815), mature (1815-1825) and the period of post-Decembrist development. However, in relation to the initial period, the conventionality of this scheme is striking. For the dawn of Russian romanticism is associated with the names of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, poets whose work and attitude are difficult to put side by side and compare within the same period, their goals, aspirations, and temperaments are so different. In the poems of both poets one can still feel the powerful influence of the past - the era of sentimentalism, but if Zhukovsky is still deeply rooted in it, then Batyushkov is much closer to new trends.

Belinsky rightly noted that Zhukovsky’s work is characterized by “complaints about imperfect hopes that had no name, sadness over lost happiness, which God knows what it consisted of.” Indeed, in the person of Zhukovsky, romanticism was still taking its first timid steps, paying tribute to sentimental and melancholy melancholy, vague, subtle heartache, in a word, that complex set of feelings that in Russian criticism was called “romanticism of the Middle Ages.”

A completely different atmosphere reigns in Batyushkov’s poetry: the joy of being, frank sensuality, a hymn to pleasure.

Zhukovsky is rightfully considered a prominent representative of Russian aesthetic humanism. Alien to strong passions, the complacent and meek Zhukovsky was noticeably influenced by the ideas of Rousseau and the German romantics. Following them, he attached great importance to the aesthetic side in religion, morality, and social relations. Art acquired a religious meaning from Zhukovsky; he sought to see in art the “revelation” of higher truths; it was “sacred” for him. The German romantics were characterized by the identification of poetry and religion. We find the same thing in Zhukovsky, who wrote: “Poetry is God in the holy dreams of the earth.” In German romanticism, he was especially close to the attraction to everything beyond, to the “night side of the soul,” to the “inexpressible” in nature and man. Nature in Zhukovsky’s poetry is surrounded by mystery, his landscapes are ghostly and almost unreal, like reflections in water:

How incense is fused with the coolness of plants!

How sweet is the splashing of the jets in the silence by the shore!

How softly the zephyr blows across the waters

And the fluttering of the flexible willow!

Zhukovsky’s sensitive, gentle and dreamy soul seems to sweetly freeze on the threshold of “that mysterious light.” The poet, in the apt expression of Belinsky, “loves and doves his suffering,” but this suffering does not prick his heart with cruel wounds, for even in melancholy and sadness his inner life is quiet and serene. Therefore, when in a letter to Batyushkov, “the son of bliss and fun,” he calls the epicurean poet “relative of the Muse,” it is difficult to believe in this relationship. Rather, we will believe the virtuous Zhukovsky, who friendly advises the singer of earthly pleasures: “Reject voluptuousness, dreams are pernicious!”

Batyushkov is a figure opposite to Zhukovsky in everything. He was a man of strong passions, and his creative life ended 35 years before his physical existence: as a very young man he plunged into the abyss of madness. He gave himself over to both joys and sorrows with equal strength and passion: in life, as in its poetic understanding, the “golden mean” was alien to him - unlike Zhukovsky. Although his poetry is also characterized by praise of pure friendship, the joy of a “humble corner,” his idyll is by no means modest and quiet, for Batyushkov cannot imagine it without the languid bliss of passionate pleasures and the intoxication of life. At times the poet is so carried away by sensual joys that he is ready to recklessly reject the oppressive wisdom of science:

Is it possible that in sad truths

Gloomy stoics and boring sages,

Seated in funeral dresses,

Between the rubble and coffins,

Will we find the sweetness of our lives?

From them, I see, joy

Flies like a butterfly from thorn bushes.

For them there is no charm in the delights of nature,

The maidens do not sing to them, intertwining in round dances;

For them, as for the blind,

Spring without joy and summer without flowers.

True tragedy rarely sounds in his poems. Only at the end of his creative life, when he began to show signs of mental illness, was one of his last poems written down from dictation, in which the motives of the futility of earthly existence are clearly heard:

Do you remember what you said?

Saying goodbye to life, gray-haired Melchizedek?

A man was born a slave,

He will go to his grave as a slave,

And death will hardly tell him

Why did he walk through the valley of wonderful tears,

Suffered, cried, endured,

In Russia, romanticism as a literary movement developed in the twenties of the nineteenth century. Poets, prose writers, and writers stood at its origins; they created Russian romanticism, which differed from “Western European” in its national, original character. Russian romanticism was developed by poets of the first half of the nineteenth century, and each poet contributed something new. Russian romanticism developed widely, acquired characteristic features, and became an independent movement in literature. In "Ruslan and Lyudmila" A.S. Pushkin has the lines: “There is a Russian spirit, there is a smell of Russia.” The same can be said about Russian romanticism. The heroes of romantic works are poetic souls striving for the “high” and the beautiful. But there is hostile world, which does not allow one to feel freedom, which leaves these souls misunderstood. This world is rough, so the poetic soul runs to another, where there is an ideal, it strives for the “eternal.” Romanticism is based on this conflict. But poets had different attitudes to this situation. Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, based on one thing, build the relationship between their heroes and the world around them differently, therefore their heroes had different paths to the ideal.

Reality is terrible, rude, impudent and selfish, there is no place in it for the feelings, dreams and desires of the poet and his heroes. "True" and eternal - in other world. Hence the concept of dual worlds; the poet strives for one of these worlds in search of an ideal.

Zhukovsky’s position was not the position of a person who entered into a struggle with the outside world, who challenged it. It was a path through unity with nature, a path of harmony with nature, in an eternal and beautiful world. Zhukovsky, according to many researchers (including Yu.V. Mann), expresses his understanding of this process of unification in “The Inexpressible.” Unity is the flight of the soul. The beauty that surrounds you fills your soul, it is in you, and you are in it, the soul flies, neither time nor space exists, but you exist in nature, and in this moment you live, you want to sing about this beauty, but there are no words to express your condition, there is only a feeling of harmony. You are not disturbed by the people around you, the prosaic souls, more is revealed to you, you are free.

Pushkin and Lermontov approached this problem of romanticism differently. There is no doubt that the influence exerted by Zhukovsky on Pushkin could not but be reflected in the latter’s work. Pushkin's early work is characterized by "civil" romanticism. Under the influence of “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” by Zhukovsky and the works of Griboyedov, Pushkin wrote the ode “Liberty”, “To Chaadaev”. In the latter he calls:

“My friend! Let us dedicate our souls to our Fatherland with wonderful impulses...” This is the same desire for the ideal that Zhukovsky had, only Pushkin understands the ideal in his own way, therefore the path to the ideal is different for the poet. He does not want and cannot strive for the ideal alone; the poet calls for him. Pushkin looked at reality and ideal differently. You can’t call it a riot, it’s a reflection on a rebellious element. This was reflected in the ode "Sea". This is the strength and power of the sea, the sea is free, it has reached its ideal. Man must also become free, his spirit must be free.

The search for an ideal is the main characteristic feature of romanticism. It manifested itself in the works of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, and Lermontov. All three poets were looking for freedom, but they were looking for it in different ways, they understood it differently. Zhukovsky was looking for freedom sent by the “creator”. Having found harmony, a person becomes free. For Pushkin, freedom of spirit was important, which should manifest itself in a person. For Lermontov, only the rebellious hero is free. Revolt for freedom, what could be more beautiful? This attitude towards the ideal was preserved in the love lyrics of poets. In my opinion, this attitude is due to time. Although they all worked almost in the same period, the time of their creativity was different, events developed with extraordinary speed. The characters of the poets also greatly influenced their relationships. The calm Zhukovsky and the rebellious Lermontov are completely opposite. But Russian romanticism developed precisely because the natures of these poets were different. They introduced new concepts, new characters, new ideals, gave a complete understanding of what freedom is, what real life. Each of them represents their own path to the ideal; this is the right of choice for each individual.

The very emergence of romanticism was very disturbing. The human individual now stood at the center of the whole world. The human “I” began to be interpreted as the basis and meaning of all existence. Human life began to be viewed as a work of art, art. In the 19th century, romanticism was very widespread. But not all poets who called themselves romantics conveyed the essence of this movement.

Now, at the end of the 20th century, we can already classify the romantics of the last century on this basis into two groups. One and probably the most extensive group is the one that united “formal” romantics. It is difficult to suspect them of insincerity; on the contrary, they convey their feelings very accurately. Among them are Dmitry Venevitinov (1805-1827) and Alexander Polezhaev (1804-1838). These poets used the romantic form, considering it the most suitable for achieving their artistic goal. Thus, D. Venevitinov writes:

I feel it's burning inside me

Holy flame of inspiration,

But the spirit soars towards a dark goal...

Will I find a reliable cliff,

Where can I rest my foot firmly?

This is a typical romantic poem. It uses traditional romantic vocabulary - both “flame of inspiration” and “soaring spirit”. Thus, the poet describes his feelings. But nothing more. The poet is constrained by the framework of romanticism, its “verbal appearance.” Everything is simplified to some cliches.

Representatives of another group of romantics of the 19th century, of course, were A.S. Pushkin and M. Lermontov. These poets, on the contrary, filled the romantic form with their own content. The romantic period in A. Pushkin’s life was short, so he had few romantic works. “Prisoner of the Caucasus” (1820-1821) is one of the earliest romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin. Before us is a classic version of a romantic work. The author does not give us a portrait of his hero, we do not even know his name. And this is not surprising - all romantic heroes are similar to each other. They are young, beautiful... and unhappy. The plot of the work is also classically romantic. A Russian captive among the Circassians, a young Circassian woman falls in love with him and helps him escape. But he hopelessly loves another... The poem ends tragically - the Circassian woman throws herself into the water and dies, and the Russian, freed from “physical” captivity, falls into another, more painful captivity - captivity of the soul. What do we know about the hero's past?

In Russia long journey leads...

.....................................

Where I embraced terrible suffering,

Where the stormy life ruined

Hope, joy and desire.

He came to the steppe in search of freedom, tried to escape from his past life. And now, when happiness seemed so close, he has to run away again. But where? Back to the world where he “embraced terrible suffering.”

Renegade of light, friend of nature,

He left his native land

And flew to a distant land

With the cheerful ghost of freedom.

But the “ghost of freedom” remained a ghost. He will forever haunt the romantic hero. Another romantic poem is “Gypsies”. In it, the author again does not give the reader a portrait of the hero; we only know his name - Aleko. He came to the camp to experience true pleasure, true freedom. For her sake, he abandoned everything that previously surrounded him. Has he become free and happy? It would seem that Aleko loves, but with this feeling only misfortune and contempt come to him. Aleko, who so longed for freedom, could not recognize the will in another person. This poem revealed another of the extremely characteristic features of the romantic hero’s worldview - selfishness and complete incompatibility with the world around him. Aleko is punished not by death, but more terrible - by loneliness and debate. He was alone in the world from which he fled, but in the other, so desired, he was left alone again.

Before writing “Prisoner of the Caucasus,” Pushkin once said: “I am not fit to be the hero of a romantic poem”; however, at the same time, in 1820, Pushkin wrote his poem “The Daylight Has Extinguished...”. In it you can find all the vocabulary inherent in romanticism. This is the “distant shore”, and the “gloomy ocean”, and “excitement and melancholy” that torment the author. The refrain runs through the entire poem:

Worry beneath me, sullen ocean.

It is present not only in the description of nature, but also in the description of the hero’s feelings.

...But former heart wounds,

Nothing has healed the deep wounds of love...

Make noise, make noise, obedient sail,

Worry beneath me, gloomy ocean...

That is, nature becomes another actor, another lyrical hero poems. Later, in 1824, Pushkin wrote the poem “To the Sea.” The romantic hero in it, as in “The Daylight Has Gone Out...”, again became the author himself. Here Pushkin turns to the sea as a traditional symbol of freedom. The sea is an element, which means freedom and happiness. However, Pushkin constructs this poem unexpectedly:

You waited, you called... I was chained;

My soul was torn in vain:

Enchanted by powerful passion,

I was left by the shores...

We can say that this poem ends the romantic period of Pushkin's life. It is written by a man who knows that after achieving so-called “physical” freedom, the romantic hero does not become happy.

In the forests, in the deserts are silent

I’ll bear it, I’m full of you,

Your rocks, your bays...

At this time, Pushkin comes to the conclusion that true freedom can only exist within a person and only it can make him truly happy.

The version of Byron's romanticism was lived and felt in his work first by Pushkin, then by Lermontov. Pushkin had the gift of attention to people, and yet the most romantic of the romantic poems in the work of the great poet and prose writer is undoubtedly “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai”.

The poem “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai” still only continues Pushkin’s search in the genre of a romantic poem. And there is no doubt that this was prevented by the death of the great Russian writer.

The romantic theme in Pushkin’s works received two different versions: there is a heroic romantic hero (“prisoner”, “robber”, “fugitive”), different strong will, who has gone through a cruel test of violent passions, is a suffering hero, in whom subtle emotional experiences are incompatible with the cruelty of the outside world (“exile”, “prisoner”). The passive principle in the romantic character now acquired a feminine guise in Pushkin. “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai” develops precisely this aspect of the romantic hero.

In “The Prisoner of the Caucasus” all the attention was paid to the “prisoner” and very little to the “Circassian woman”, now on the contrary - Khan Girey is a figure of no more than an undramatic one, and indeed the main character is a woman, even two - Zarema and Maria. Pushkin also uses the solution to the hero’s duality found in previous poems (through the image of chained brothers): the passive principle is depicted in the person of two characters - the jealous, passionately in love Zarema and the sad, lost hope and love Maria. Both of them are two contradictory passions of a romantic nature: disappointment, despondency, hopelessness and at the same time spiritual ardor, intensity of feelings; the contradiction is resolved tragically in the poem - Maria’s death did not bring happiness to Zarema either, since they are connected by mysterious ties. So in “The Robber Brothers,” the death of one of the brothers forever darkened the life of the other.

However, B.V. Tomashevsky rightly noted, “the lyrical isolation of the poem also determined a certain poverty of content... The moral victory over Zarema does not lead to further conclusions and reflections... “Prisoner of the Caucasus” has a clear continuation in Pushkin’s work: both Aleko and Evgeny Onegin resolve ... questions posed in the first southern poem. “The Bakhchisarai Fountain” has no such continuation...”

Pushkin felt and identified the most vulnerable place of a person’s romantic position: he wants everything only for himself.

Lermontov's poem "Mtsyri" also does not fully reflect the characteristic features of romanticism.

There are two romantic heroes in this poem, therefore, if this is a romantic poem, then it is very unique: firstly, the second hero is conveyed by the author through an epigraph; secondly, the author does not connect with Mtsyri, the hero solves the problem of self-will in his own way, and Lermontov throughout the entire poem only thinks about solving this problem. He does not judge his hero, but he does not justify him either, but he takes a certain position - understanding. It turns out that romanticism in Russian culture is transformed into reflection. It turns out romanticism from the point of view of realism.

We can say that Pushkin and Lermontov failed to become romantics (however, Lermontov once managed to comply with romantic laws - in the drama Masquerade). With their experiments, the poets showed that in England the position of an individualist could be fruitful, but in Russia it was not. Although Pushkin and Lermontov failed to become romantics, they opened the way for the development of realism. The first was published in 1825 realistic work: “Boris Godunov”, then “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Eugene Onegin”, “Hero of Our Time” and many others.

b) Painting

In the fine arts, romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, less expressively in sculpture and architecture. Prominent representatives of romanticism in the fine arts were Russian romantic painters. In their paintings they expressed the spirit of freedom, active action, and passionately and temperamentally called for the manifestation of humanism. The everyday paintings of Russian painters are distinguished by their relevance, psychologism, and unprecedented expression. Spiritualized, melancholic landscapes are again the same attempt of the romantics to penetrate into the human world, to show how a person lives and dreams in the sublunary world. Russian romantic painting differed from foreign painting. This was determined by both the historical situation and tradition.

Features of Russian romantic painting:

Enlightenment ideology weakened but did not collapse, as in Europe. Therefore, romanticism was not clearly expressed.

Romanticism developed in parallel with classicism, often intertwined with it.

Academic painting in Russia has not yet exhausted itself.

Romanticism in Russia was not a stable phenomenon; romantics were drawn to academicism. By the middle of the 19th century. the romantic tradition has almost died out.

Works related to romanticism began to appear in Russia already in the 1790s (the works of Theodosius Yanenko “Travelers Caught in a Storm” (1796), “Self-Portrait in a Helmet” (1792). The prototype in them is obvious - Salvator Rosa, very popular in the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Later, the influence of this proto-romantic artist will be noticeable in the work of Alexander Orlovsky. Robbers, scenes around the fire, and battles accompanied his entire creative career. As in other countries, artists belonging to Russian romanticism introduced portraiture into the classical genres, landscape and genre scenes create a completely new emotional mood.

In Russia, romanticism began to appear first in portrait painting. In the first third of the 19th century she for the most part lost contact with the dignitary aristocracy. Portraits of poets, artists, art patrons, and images of ordinary peasants began to occupy a significant place. This tendency was especially pronounced in the works of O.A. Kiprensky (1782 – 1836) and V.A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857).

Vasily Andreevich Tropinin strove for a lively, relaxed characterization of a person, expressed through his portrait. Portrait of a Son (1818), “Portrait of A.S. Pushkin” (1827), “Self-Portrait” (1846) amaze not by their portrait resemblance to the originals, but by their unusually subtle penetration into the inner world of a person.

Portrait of a son- Arseny Tropinina is one of the best in the master’s work. The refined, soft golden color scheme is reminiscent of 18th-century valerie painting. However, compared to the typical child portrait in 18th century romanticism. Here the impartiality of the design is striking - this child poses to a very small extent. Arseny's gaze slides past the viewer, he is dressed casually, the gate seems to be accidentally thrown open. The lack of representation lies in the extraordinary fragmentation of the composition: the head fills almost the entire surface of the canvas, the image is cut off right up to the collarbone, and thus the boy’s face is mechanically moved towards the viewer.

The history of creation is extremely interesting “Portrait of Pushkin.” As usual, for the first acquaintance with Pushkin, Tropinin came to Sobolevsky’s house on the dog run, where the poet then lived. The artist found him in his office fiddling with the puppies. It was then, apparently, that a small sketch was written based on the first impression that Tropinin valued so much. For a long time he remained out of sight of his pursuers. Only almost a hundred years later, by 1914, it was published by P.M. Shchekotov, who wrote that of all the portraits of Alexander Sergeevich, he “best conveys his features... the poet’s blue eyes here are filled with a special brilliance, the head turns quickly, and the facial features are expressive and mobile. Undoubtedly, the authentic facial features of Pushkin are captured here, which we separately encounter in one or another of the portraits that have come down to us. One remains perplexed,” adds Shchekotov, “why this charming sketch did not receive due attention from publishers and connoisseurs of the poet.” This is explained by the very qualities of the small sketch: there was no brilliance of colors, no beauty of brushwork, no skillfully written “circumstances” in it. And Pushkin here is not a folk “vitia”, not a “genius”, but first of all a person. And it is hardly amenable to analysis why such a large human content is contained in the monochromatic grayish-green, olive tones, in the hasty, seemingly random strokes of the brush of an almost inconspicuous-looking sketch. Going over in memory all the lifetime and subsequent portraits of Pushkin, this sketch, in terms of the power of humanity, can only be placed next to the figure of Pushkin, sculpted by the Soviet sculptor A. Matveev. But this is not the task Tropinin set for himself, this is not the kind of Pushkin his friend wanted to see, although he ordered the poet to be depicted in a simple, homely form.

In the artist’s assessment, Pushkin was a “tsar-poet.” But he was also a people's poet, he was one of his own and close to everyone. “The similarity of the portrait to the original is striking,” Polevoy wrote after finishing it, although he noted the lack of “quickness of gaze” and “liveness of facial expression,” which changes and becomes animated in Pushkin with every new impression.

In the portrait, everything is thought out and verified to the smallest detail, and at the same time, there is nothing deliberate, nothing brought in by the artist. Even the rings that adorn the poet’s fingers are highlighted to the extent that Pushkin himself attached importance to them in life. Among Tropinin's pictorial revelations, the portrait of Pushkin amazes with the sonority of its range.

Tropinin's romanticism has clearly expressed sentimentalistic origins. It was Tropinin who was the founder of the genre, somewhat idealized portrait of a man from the people (“The Lacemaker” (1823)). “Both experts and non-experts,” writes Svinin about “The Lacemaker,” -- come to admiration when looking at this picture, which truly unites all the beauties of pictorial art: the pleasantness of the brush, the correct, happy lighting, the clear, natural coloring; moreover, in this portrait the soul of the beauty is revealed and that sly glance of curiosity that she casts on someone. who entered at that moment. Her arms, bared by the elbow, stopped along with her gaze, the work stopped, a sigh flew out of the virgin breast, covered with a muslin scarf - and all this is depicted with such truth and simplicity that this picture can very easily be mistaken for the most successful work of the glorious Dream. Incidental items, such as a lace pillow and a towel, are arranged with great skill and worked out with finality...”

At the beginning of the 19th century, Tver was a significant cultural center of Russia. All prominent people of Moscow attended literary evenings here. Here young Orest Kiprensky met A.S. Pushkin, whose portrait, painted later, became the pearl of world portrait art, and A.S. Pushkin dedicated poems to him, where he called him “the darling of light-winged fashion.” Portrait of Pushkin O. Kiprensky’s brushes are a living embodiment of poetic genius. In the decisive turn of the head, in the energetically crossed arms on the chest, in the poet’s entire appearance, a feeling of independence and freedom is reflected. It was about him that Pushkin said: “I see myself as in a mirror, but this mirror flatters me.” In the work on the portrait of Pushkin, Tropinin and Kiprensky meet for the last time, although this meeting does not take place in person, but many years later in the history of art, where, as a rule, two portraits of the greatest Russian poet, created simultaneously, but in different places, are compared - one in Moscow. The other is in St. Petersburg. Now this is a meeting of masters equally great in their significance for Russian art. Although Kiprensky’s admirers claim that the artistic advantages are on the side of his romantic portrait, where the poet is presented immersed in his own thoughts, alone with the muse, the nationality and democracy of the image are certainly on the side of Tropinsky’s “Pushkin”.

Thus, two portraits reflected two directions of Russian art, concentrated in two capitals. And critics will subsequently write that Tropinin was for Moscow what Kiprensky was for St. Petersburg.

A distinctive feature of Kiprensky’s portraits is that they show the spiritual charm and inner nobility of a person. The portrait of a hero, brave and strongly feeling, was supposed to embody the pathos of the freedom-loving and patriotic sentiments of the progressive Russian people.

In the front door “Portrait of E.V. Davydov”(1809) shows the figure of an officer who directly showed the expression of that cult of a strong and brave personality, which was so typical of the romanticism of those years. The fragmentarily shown landscape, where a ray of light fights the darkness, hints at the hero’s spiritual anxieties, but on his face there is a reflection of dreamy sensitivity. Kiprensky looked for the “human” in a person, and the ideal did not shield him from the personal character traits of the model.

Kiprensky’s portraits, if you look at them in your mind’s eye, show the spiritual and natural wealth of a person, his intellectual strength. Yes, he had an ideal of a harmonious personality, as his contemporaries also spoke about, but Kiprensky did not strive to literally project this ideal onto an artistic image. In creating an artistic image, he followed nature, as if measuring how far or close it was to such an ideal. In essence, many of those depicted by him are on the threshold of the ideal, aspired to it, but the ideal itself, according to the ideas of romantic aesthetics, is hardly achievable, and all romantic art is only the path to it.

Noting the contradictions in the souls of his heroes, showing them in anxious moments of life, when fate changes, old ideas are broken, youth fades, etc., Kiprensky seems to be experiencing together with his models. Hence the portraitist’s special involvement in the interpretation of artistic images, which gives the portrait a sincere touch.

In the early period of Kiprensky’s work, you will not see people infected with skepticism, soul-corroding analysis. This will come later, when the romantic time experiences its autumn, giving way to other moods and feelings, when hopes for the triumph of the ideal of a harmonious personality collapse. In all the portraits of the 1800s and the portraits executed in Tver, Kiprensky’s bold brush is visible, easily and freely constructing form. The complexity of technical techniques and the nature of the figure changed from work to work.

It is noteworthy that on the faces of his heroes you will not see heroic elation; on the contrary, most of the faces are rather sad, they indulge in reflection. It seems that these people are concerned about the fate of Russia, thinking about the future more than the present. In the female images representing the wives and sisters of participants in significant events, Kiprensky also did not strive for deliberate heroic elation. A feeling of ease and naturalness prevails. At the same time, in all the portraits there is so much true nobility of soul. Women's images attract with their modest dignity and integrity of nature; in the faces of the men one can discern an inquisitive thought, a readiness for asceticism. These images coincided with the maturing ethical and aesthetic ideas of the Decembrists. Their thoughts and aspirations were then shared by many (the creation of secret societies with certain social and political programs occurred in the period 1816-1821), and the artist knew about them, and therefore we can say that his portraits of participants in the events of 1812-1814, images of peasants created in the same years is a peculiar artistic parallel emerging concepts of Decembrism.

Marked with the bright stamp of the romantic ideal “Portrait of V.A. Zhukovsky”(1816). The artist, creating a portrait commissioned by S.S. Uvarov, decided to show his contemporaries not only the image of the poet, who was well known in literary circles, but also to demonstrate a certain understanding of the personality of the romantic poet. Before us is a type of poet who expressed the philosophical and dreamy direction of Russian romanticism. Kiprensky introduced Zhukovsky at a moment of creative inspiration. The wind has tousled the poet's hair, the trees are anxiously splashing their branches in the night, the ruins of ancient buildings are barely visible. This is what it seemed like a creator of romantic ballads should look like. Dark colors enhance the mysterious atmosphere. On the advice of Uvarov, Kiprensky does not complete individual fragments of the portrait, so that “excessive completeness” does not extinguish the spirit, temperament, and emotionality.

Many portraits were painted by Kiprensky in Tver. Moreover, when he painted Ivan Petrovich Wulf, the Tver landowner, he looked with emotion at the girl standing in front of him, his granddaughter, the future Anna Petrovna Kern, to whom one of the most captivating lyrical works was dedicated - the poem by A.S. Pushkin “I remember a wonderful moment...” Such associations of poets, artists, musicians became a manifestation of a new direction in art - romanticism.

“The Young Gardener” (1817) by Kiprensky, “Italian Noon” (1827) by Bryullov, “The Reapers” or “The Reaper” (1820s) by Venetsianov are works of the same typological series. They are focused on nature and were written explicitly using it. However, the task each of the artists - to embody the aesthetic perfection of simple nature - led to a certain idealization of appearances, clothes, situations for the sake of creating an image-metaphor. Observing life, nature, the artist rethought it, poeticizing the visible. In this qualitatively new combination of nature and imagination with the experience of ancient and Renaissance masters, giving birth to images unknown to art before, and this is one of the features of romanticism of the first half of the 19th century. The metaphorical nature, generally characteristic of these works of Venetsianov and Bryullov, was one of the most important features of the romantic when Russian artists were still new to Western European romantic portraiture . "Portrait of a Father (A.K. Schwalbe)"(1804) was written by Orest Kiprensky of art and the portrait genre in particular.

The most significant achievements of Russian romanticism are works in the portrait genre. The brightest and best examples of romanticism come from the early period. Long before his trip to Italy, in 1816, Kiprensky, internally ready for a romantic vision of the world, saw paintings by old masters with new eyes. The dark coloring, figures highlighted by light, burning colors, intense drama had a strong impact on him. "Portrait of a Father" is undoubtedly inspired by Rembrandt. But the Russian artist took only external techniques from the great Dutchman. “Portrait of a Father” is an absolutely independent work, possessing its own internal energy and the power of artistic expression. A distinctive feature of album portraits is the liveliness of their execution. There is no picturesqueness here - the instant transfer of what is seen onto paper creates a unique freshness of graphic expression. Therefore, the people depicted in the pictures seem close and understandable to us.

Foreigners called Kiprensky the Russian Van Dyck; his portraits are in many museums around the world. The successor of the work of Levitsky and Borovikovsky, the predecessor of L. Ivanov and K. Bryullov, Kiprensky with his creativity gave Russian art school European fame. In the words of Alexander Ivanov, “he was the first to bring the Russian name to Europe...”.

The increased interest in a person’s personality, characteristic of romanticism, predetermined the flourishing of the portrait genre in the first half of the 19th century, where the self-portrait became dominant. As a rule, the creation of a self-portrait was not an accidental episode. Artists repeatedly wrote and drew themselves, and these works became a kind of diary, reflecting various states of mind and stages of life, and at the same time were a manifesto addressed to their contemporaries. Self-portrait was not a custom genre, the artist wrote for himself and here, more than ever, he became free in self-expression. In the 18th century, Russian artists rarely painted original images; only romanticism, with its cult of the individual and exceptional, contributed to the rise of this genre. The variety of types of self-portrait reflects the artists’ perception of themselves as a rich and multifaceted personality. They either appear in the familiar and natural role of the creator ("Self-portrait in a velvet beret" by A. G. Varnek, 1810s), then they plunge into the past, as if trying it on themselves ("Self-portrait in a helmet and armor" by F. I. Yanenko , 1792), or, most often, appears without any professional attributes, affirming the significance and self-worth of every person, liberated and open to the world, searching and rushing, such as F. A. Bruni and O. A. Orlovsky in self-portraits 1810s. The readiness for dialogue and openness characteristic of the figurative solutions of works of the 1810-1820s are gradually replaced by fatigue and disappointment, absorption, and withdrawal into oneself ("Self-Portrait" by M. I. Terebenev). This trend was reflected in the development of the portrait genre as a whole.

Kiprensky’s self-portraits appeared, it is worth noting, at critical moments of life; they testified to the rise or decline of mental strength. The artist looked at himself through his art. At the same time, he did not use a mirror, like most painters; he painted mainly himself according to his imagination; he wanted to express his spirit, but not his appearance.

“Self-portrait with brushes behind the ear” built on a refusal, and clearly demonstrative, in the external glorification of the image, its classical normativity and ideal construction. Facial features are outlined approximately, generally. Side light falls on the face, highlighting only the side features. Individual reflections of light fall on the artist’s figure, extinguishing the barely visible drapery that represents the background of the portrait. Everything here is subordinated to the expression of life, feelings, mood. This is a look at romantic art through the art of self-portraiture. The artist’s involvement in the secrets of creativity is expressed in the mysterious romantic “sfumato of the 19th century.” The peculiar greenish tone creates a special atmosphere of the artistic world, in the center of which is the artist himself.

Almost simultaneously with this self-portrait, he also painted “Self-portrait in a pink neckerchief”, where another image is embodied. Without a direct indication of the profession of a painter. The image of a young man has been recreated, feeling at ease, naturally, freely. The painting surface of the canvas is finely constructed. The artist's brush confidently applies paint. Leaving large and small strokes. The color scheme is perfectly developed, the colors are soft and harmoniously combined with each other, the lighting is calm: the light gently pours onto the young man’s face, outlining his features, without unnecessary expression or deformation.

Another outstanding portrait painter was Venetsianov. In 1811, he received from the Academy the title of academician, appointed for “Self-Portrait” and “Portrait of K.I. Golovachevsky with three students of the Academy of Arts.” These are extraordinary works.

Venetsianov declared himself to be truly skilled in "Self-Portrait" 1811. It was written differently than other artists painted themselves at that time - A. Orlovsky, O. Kiprensky, E. Varnek and even the serf V. Tropinin. All of them tended to imagine themselves in a romantic aura; their self-portraits represented a kind of poetic confrontation in relation to their surroundings. The exclusivity of the artistic nature was manifested in the pose, gestures, and the unusualness of the specially designed costume. In Venetsianov’s “Self-Portrait,” researchers note, first of all, the stern and tense expression of a busy man... Correct efficiency, different from that ostentatious “artistic negligence” indicated by the robes or coquettishly pulled caps of other artists. Venitsianov looks at himself soberly. For him, art is not an inspired impulse, but, above all, a matter that requires concentration and attention. Small in size, almost monochrome in its coloring of olive tones, exceptionally accurately written, it is simple and complex at the same time. Not attractive by the external side of the painting, it stops you with its gaze. The perfectly thin rims of the thin gold frames of the glasses do not hide, but rather emphasize the keen sharpness of the eyes, not so much directed at nature (the artist depicted himself with a palette and brush in his hands), but rather into the depths of his own thoughts. The large wide forehead, the right side of the face, illuminated by direct light, and the white shirtfront form a light triangle, first of all attracting the viewer’s gaze, which in the next moment, following the movement of the right hand holding a thin brush, slides down to the palette. Wavy strands of hair, the arms of a shiny frame, a loose tie round the collar, a soft shoulder line and, finally, a wide semicircle of the palette form a moving system of smooth, flowing lines, within which there are three main points: tiny highlights of the pupils, and the sharp end of the shirtfront, almost closing with palette and brush. This almost mathematical calculation in constructing the composition of the portrait imparts partial internal composure to the image and gives reason to assume that the author has an analytical mind, prone to scientific thinking. In “Self-Portrait” there is no trace of any romanticism, which was then so common when artists depicted themselves. This is a self-portrait of an artist-researcher, artist-thinker and worker.

Other work – portrait of Golovachevsky– conceived as a kind of plot composition: older generation masters of the Academy in the person of the old inspector gives instructions to the growing talents: a painter (with a folder of drawings. An architect and a sculptor. But Venetsianov did not allow even a shadow of any artificiality or didacticism in this picture: the kind old Golovachevsky friendlyly interprets to the teenagers some page read in the book The sincerity of expression is supported by the pictorial structure of the painting: its subdued, subtly and beautifully harmonized colorful tones create the impression of peace and seriousness. The faces are beautifully painted, full of inner significance. The portrait was one of the highest achievements of Russian portraiture.

And in Orlovsky’s work of the 1800s, portrait works appeared, mostly done in the form of drawings. Such an emotionally rich portrait sheet dates back to 1809 as “Self-portrait”. Filled with a rich, free stroke of sanguine and charcoal (backlit with chalk), Orlovsky’s “Self-Portrait” attracts with its artistic integrity, characteristic image, and artistry of execution. At the same time, it allows one to discern some unique aspects of Orlovsky’s art. Orlovsky’s “self-portrait”, of course, does not have the goal of accurately reproducing the typical appearance of the artist of those years. Before us is largely deliberate. The exaggerated appearance of an “artist”, contrasting his own “I” with the surrounding reality, he is not concerned with the “decency” of his appearance: voluminous hair the comb and brush were not touching, the edge of a checkered raincoat was on his shoulder, right over his home shirt with the collar open. A sharp turn of the head with a “gloomy” look from under knitted eyebrows, a close crop of the portrait, in which the face is depicted close-up, contrasts of light - all this is aimed at achieving the main effect of contrasting the person depicted with the environment (and thereby the viewer).

The pathos of affirmation of individuality - one of the most progressive features in the art of that time - forms the main ideological and emotional tone of the portrait, but appears in a unique aspect, almost never found in Russian art of that period. The affirmation of personality comes not so much by revealing the richness of its inner world, but by a more external way of rejecting everything around it. At the same time, the image undoubtedly looks impoverished and limited.

Such solutions are difficult to find in Russian portrait art of that time, where already in the middle of the 18th century civic and humanistic motives sounded loudly and a person’s personality never broke strong ties with the environment. Dreaming of a better, democratic social order, the best people The Russians of that era were by no means detached from reality; they consciously rejected the individualistic cult of “personal freedom” that flourished on the soil of Western Europe, loosened by the bourgeois revolution. This clearly manifested itself as a reflection of actual factors in Russian portrait art. One has only to compare Orlovsky’s “Self-Portrait” with the simultaneous “Self-portrait” Kiprensky (for example, 1809), so that the serious internal difference between both portrait painters would immediately catch the eye.

Kiprensky also “heroizes” a person’s personality, but he shows its true inner values. In the artist’s face, the viewer discerns the features of a strong mind, character, and moral purity.

Kiprensky's entire appearance is shrouded in amazing nobility and humanity. He is able to distinguish between “good” and “evil” in the world around him and, rejecting the second, love and appreciate the first, love and appreciate like-minded people. At the same time, before us is undoubtedly a strong individuality, proud of the awareness of the value of his personal qualities. Exactly the same concept of a portrait image underlies the famous heroic portrait of D. Davydov by Kiprensky.

Orlovsky, in comparison with Kiprensky, as well as with some other Russian portrait painters of that time, more limitedly, more straightforwardly and outwardly resolves the image of a “strong personality,” while clearly focusing on the art of bourgeois France. When you look at his “Self-Portrait”, the portraits of A. Gros and Gericault involuntarily come to mind. Orlovsky’s profile “Self-Portrait” of 1810, with its cult of individualistic “inner strength”, also reveals an internal closeness to French portrait art, although it is already deprived of the sharp “sketch” form of the “Self-Portrait” of 1809 or “Portrait of Duport.” In the latter, Orlovsky, just as in “Self-Portrait,” uses a spectacular, “heroic” pose with a sharp, almost cross movement of the head and shoulders. He emphasizes the irregular structure of Duport's face and his disheveled hair, with the goal of creating a portrait image that is self-sufficient in its unique, random characteristic.

“The landscape must be a portrait,” wrote K. N. Batyushkov. Most artists who turned to the genre adhered to this attitude in their work. landscape. Among the obvious exceptions, who gravitated towards the fantastic landscape, were A. O. Orlovsky ("Sea View", 1809); A. G. Varnek (“View in the vicinity of Rome”, 1809); P. V. Basin (“Sky at sunset in the vicinity of Rome”, “Evening landscape”, both - 1820s). While creating specific types, they preserved the spontaneity of sensation and emotional richness, achieving monumental sound through compositional techniques.

Young Orlrvsky saw in nature only titanic forces, not subject to the will of man, capable of causing catastrophe, disaster. The struggle of man against the raging elements of the sea is one of the artist’s favorite themes of his “rebellious” romantic period. It became the content of his drawings, watercolors and oil paintings of 1809 – 1810. the tragic scene is shown in the picture "Shipwreck"(1809(?)). In the pitch darkness that has fallen to the ground, among the raging waves, drowning fishermen frantically climb onto the coastal rocks on which their ship crashed. The color in harsh red tones enhances the feeling of anxiety. The onslaughts of mighty waves foreshadowing a storm are menacing, and in another picture - “On the seashore”(1809). The stormy sky, which occupies most of the composition, also plays a huge emotional role in it. Although Orlovsky did not master the art of aerial perspective, the gradual transition of plans is resolved here more harmoniously and softly. The color became lighter. The red spots on the fishermen's clothes play beautifully against the reddish-brown background. Restless and alarming sea elements in watercolor "Sailboat"(c.1812). And even when the wind does not ruffle the sail and ripple the surface of the water, as in watercolor “Seascape with ships”(c.1810), the viewer has a premonition that a storm will follow the calm.

With all the drama and excitement of feelings, Orlovsky’s seascapes are not so much the fruit of his observations of atmospheric phenomena as the result of direct imitation of the classics of art. In particular, J. Vernet.

The landscapes of S. F. Shchedrin were of a different nature. They are filled with the harmony of coexistence between man and nature (“Terrace on the seashore. Cappuccini near Sorrento”, 1827). Numerous views of Naples and the surrounding area by his brush enjoyed extraordinary success and popularity.

The creation of a romantic image of St. Petersburg in Russian painting is associated with the work of M. N. Vorobyov. On his canvases, the city appeared shrouded in the mysterious St. Petersburg fogs, the soft haze of white nights and an atmosphere saturated with sea moisture, where the outlines of buildings are erased and moonlight completes the mystery. The same lyrical principle distinguishes the views of the St. Petersburg environs he performed ("Sunset in the vicinity of St. Petersburg", 1832). But the artists also saw the northern capital in a different, dramatic way, as an arena for the collision and struggle of natural elements (V. E. Raev, “The Alexander Column during a Thunderstorm,” 1834).

The brilliant paintings of I.K. Aivazovsky vividly embodied the romantic ideals of the rapture of struggle and the power of natural forces, the resilience of the human spirit and the ability to fight to the end. Nevertheless, a large place in the master’s heritage is occupied by night seascapes dedicated to specific places where the storm gives way to the magic of the night, a time that, according to the views of romantics, is filled with a mysterious inner life, and where the artist’s pictorial searches are aimed at extracting extraordinary light effects ( "View of Odessa on a moonlit night", "View of Constantinople by moonlight", both - 1846).

The theme of natural elements and a person taken by surprise, a favorite theme of romantic art, was interpreted in different ways by artists of the 1800-1850s. The works were based on real events, but the meaning of the images is not an objective retelling of them. A typical example is the painting by Peter Basin "Earthquake at Rocca di Papa near Rome"(1830). It is devoted not so much to the description of a specific event, but to the depiction of the fear and horror of a person faced with the manifestation of the elements.

The luminaries of Russian painting of this era were K.P. Bryullov (1799–1852) and A.A. Ivanov (1806 – 1858). Russian painter and draftsman K.P. Bryullov, while still a student at the Academy of Arts, mastered the incomparable skill of drawing. Bryullov’s work is usually divided into before “The Last Day of Pompeii” and after. What was created before...?!

“Italian Morning” (1823), “Ermilia with the Shepherds” (1824) based on Torquatto Tasso’s poem “The Liberation of Jerusalem”, “Italian Afternoon” (“Italian Woman Picking Grapes”, 1827), “Horsewoman” (1830), “Bathsheba” (1832) - all these paintings are imbued with a bright, undisguised joy of life. Such works were consonant with the early epicurean poems of Pushkin, Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, and Delvig. The old style, based on imitation of the great masters, did not satisfy Bryullov and he wrote “Italian Morning”, “Italian Afternoon”, “Bathsheba” in the open air.

While working on the portrait, Bryullov painted only the head from life. Everything else was often suggested to him by his imagination. The fruit of such free creative improvisation is "Rider". The main thing in the portrait is the contrast of the heated, soaring animal with flared nostrils and sparkling eyes and the graceful rider calmly restraining the frenzied energy of the horse (the taming of animals is a favorite theme of classical sculptors; Bryullov solved it in painting).

IN “Bathsheba” the artist uses the biblical story as a pretext to show the naked body in the open air and convey the play of light and reflexes on fair skin. In “Bathsheba” he created the image of a young woman full of joy and happiness. The naked body glows and shines, surrounded by olive greenery, cherry clothes, and a clear pond. The soft, elastic forms of the body are beautifully combined with the whitening fabric and chocolate color of the Arab woman serving Bathsheba. The fluid lines of bodies, bodies of water, and fabrics give the composition of the painting a smooth rhythm.

The painting became a new word in painting "The last day of Pompeii"(1827-1833). She made the artist's name immortal and very famous during her lifetime.

Its plot, apparently, was chosen under the influence of his brother Alexander, who intensively studied the ruins of Pompeii. But the reasons for painting the picture are deeper. Gogol noticed this, and Herzen said directly that in “The Last Day of Pompeii” they found their place, perhaps, an unconscious reflection of the artist’s thoughts and feelings caused by the defeat of the Decembrist uprising in Russia. It is not without reason that Bryullov placed his self-portrait among the victims of the raging disaster in dying Pompeii and gave the features of his Russian acquaintances to other characters in the picture.

Bryullov’s Italian entourage also played a role, which could tell him about the revolutionary storms that swept across Italy in previous years, about the sad fate of the Carbonari during the years of reaction.

The grandiose picture of the death of Pompeii is imbued with the spirit of historicism; it shows the change from one historical era to another, the suppression of ancient paganism and the onset of a new Christian faith.

The artist perceives the course of history dramatically, the change of eras as a shock to humanity. In the center of the composition, a woman who fell from a chariot and died, apparently personified the end of the ancient world. But the artist placed a living baby near the mother’s body. Depicting children and parents, a young man and an old mother, sons and a decrepit father, the artist showed old generations passing into history and new ones replacing them. The birth of a new era on the ruins of an old world crumbling into dust is the true theme of Bryullov’s painting. No matter what changes history brings, the existence of humanity does not cease, and its thirst for life remains unfading. This is the main idea of ​​“The Last Day of Pompeii”. This picture is a hymn to the beauty of humanity, which remains immortal in all the cycles of history.

The canvas was exhibited in 1833 at the Milan Art Exhibition, it caused a flurry of enthusiastic responses. The battered Italy was conquered. Bryullov’s student G.G. Gagarin testifies: “This great work aroused boundless enthusiasm in Italy. The cities where the painting was exhibited gave the artist receptions, poems were dedicated to him, he was carried through the streets with music, flowers and torches... Everywhere he was received with honor as a well-known, triumphant genius, understood and appreciated by everyone.”

The English writer Walter Scott (a representative of romantic literature, famous for his historical novels) spent a whole hour in Bryullov’s studio, about which he said that it was not a painting, but a whole poem. The Academies of Arts of Milan, Florence, Bologna and Parma elected the Russian painter as an honorary member.

Bryullov's canvas evoked enthusiastic responses from Pushkin and Gogol.

Vesuvius opened its mouth - smoke poured out in a cloud of flames

Widely developed as a battle flag.

The earth is agitated - from the shaky columns

Idols fall!..

Pushkin wrote under the impression of the painting.

Starting with Bryullov, turning points in history became the main subject of Russian historical painting, which depicted grandiose folk scenes, where every person is a participant in a historical drama, where there is no main and secondary.

“Pompeii” belongs, in general, to classicism. The artist masterfully brought out the plasticity of the human body on canvas. All the emotional movements of people were conveyed by Bryullov primarily in the language of plasticity. Individual figures, given in violent movement, are collected into balanced, frozen groups. Flashes of light emphasize the shapes of bodies and do not create strong painterly effects. However, the composition of the painting, which has a strong breakthrough in depth in the center, depicting an extraordinary event in the life of Pompeii, was inspired by romanticism.

Romanticism in Russia as a worldview existed in its first wave from the end of the 18th century to the 1850s. The line of the romantic in Russian art did not stop in the 1850s. The theme of the state of being, discovered by the romantics for art, was later developed by the artists of the Blue Rose. The direct heirs of the romantics were undoubtedly the symbolists. Romantic themes, motifs, and expressive techniques have entered the art of different styles, trends, and creative associations. The romantic worldview or worldview turned out to be one of the most vibrant, tenacious, and fruitful.

Romanticism as a general attitude, characteristic mainly of youth, as a desire for ideal and creative freedom, still constantly lives in world art.

c) Music

Romanticism in its purest form is a phenomenon Western European art. In Russian music of the 19th century. from Glinka to Tchaikovsky, the features of classicism were combined with the features of romanticism, the leading element being a bright, original national principle. Romanticism in Russia gave an unexpected rise when this trend seemed to be a thing of the past. Two 20th-century composers, Scriabin and Rachmaninov, again resurrected such features of romanticism as unbridled flights of fantasy and sincerity of lyrics. Therefore, the 19th century called the century of musical classics.

Time (1812, the Decembrist uprising, the subsequent reaction) left its mark on the music. Whatever genre we take - romance, opera, ballet, chamber music - everywhere Russian composers have said their new word.

The music of Russia, with all its salon elegance and strict adherence to the traditions of professional instrumental writing, including sonata-symphonic writing, is based on the unique modal coloring and rhythmic structure of Russian folklore. Some rely widely on everyday songs, others on original forms of music-making, and still others on the ancient modality of ancient Russian peasant modes.

Beginning of the 19th century These are the years of the first and brightest flowering of the romance genre. The modest, sincere lyrics still resonate and delight listeners. Alexander Alexandrovich Alyabyev (1787-1851). He wrote romances based on poems by many poets, but the immortal ones are "Nightingale" to poems by Delvig, “Winter road", "I love you" based on Pushkin's poems.

Alexander Egorovich Varlamov (1801-1848) wrote music for dramatic performances, but we know him best from famous romances “Red sundress”, “Don’t wake me up at dawn”, “The lonely sail is white”.

Alexander Lvovich Gurilev (1803-1858)- composer, pianist, violinist and teacher, he wrote such romances as “The bell rings monotonously”, “At the dawn of foggy youth” and etc.

The most prominent place here is occupied by Glinka's romances. No one else had yet achieved such a natural fusion of music with the poetry of Pushkin and Zhukovsky.

Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (1804-1857)- a contemporary of Pushkin (5 years younger than Alexander Sergeevich), a classic of Russian literature, became the founder of musical classics. His work is one of the pinnacles of Russian and world musical culture. It harmoniously combines the riches of folk music and the highest achievements of composing skills. Glinka’s deeply folk realistic creativity reflected the powerful flowering of Russian culture in the 1st half of the 19th century, associated with the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist movement. The bright, life-affirming character, the harmony of forms, the beauty of expressively melodious melodies, the variety, colorfulness and subtlety of harmonies are the most valuable qualities of Glinka’s music. In the most famous opera “Ivan Susanin”(1836) the idea was brilliantly expressed people's patriotism; the moral greatness of the Russian people is glorified in the fairy-tale opera “ Ruslan and Ludmila". Orchestral works by Glinka: “Waltz Fantasy”, “Night in Madrid” and especially “Kamarinskaya”, form the basis of Russian classical symphonism. The music for the tragedy is remarkable for the power of dramatic expression and brightness of characteristics. "Prince Kholmsky". Glinka's vocal lyrics (romances "I remember wonderful moment", "Doubt") is an unsurpassed embodiment of Russian poetry in music.

6. WESTERN EUROPEAN ROMANTICISM

a) Painting

If France was the founder of classicism, then “to find the roots... of the romantic school,” wrote one of his contemporaries, “we should go to Germany. There she was born, and there the modern Italian and French romantics formed their tastes.”

Fragmented Germany did not know the revolutionary upsurge. The pathos of advanced social ideas was alien to many of the German romantics. They idealized the Middle Ages. They gave themselves over to unaccountable emotional impulses and talked about the abandonment of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. They created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.

An outstanding portrait painter was Otto Runge (1777-1810). The portraits of this master, while outwardly calm, amaze with their intense and intense inner life.

The image of a romantic poet is seen by Runge in "Self-portrait". He carefully examines himself and sees a dark-haired, dark-eyed, serious, full of energy, thoughtful, self-absorbed and strong-willed young man. The romantic artist wants to know himself. The manner of execution of the portrait is fast and sweeping, as if the spiritual energy of the creator should be conveyed in the texture of the work; In a dark color scheme, contrasts of light and dark appear. Contrast is a characteristic painting technique of the Romantic masters.

A romantic artist will always try to catch the changing play of a person’s moods and look into his soul. And in this regard, children's portraits will serve as fertile material for him. IN Portrait of the Huelsenbeck children(1805) Runge not only conveys liveliness and spontaneity childish character, but also finds a special technique for a bright mood that delights the plein air openings of the 2nd floor. XIX century The background in the painting is a landscape, which testifies not only to the artist’s gift for color and admiring attitude towards nature, but also to the emergence of new problems in the masterful reproduction of spatial relationships, light shades of objects in the open air. The master romantic, wanting to merge his “I” with the vastness of the Universe, strives to capture the sensually tangible appearance of nature. But with this sensuality of the image he prefers to see a symbol of the big world, “the artist’s idea.”

Runge was one of the first romantic artists who set himself the task of synthesizing the arts: painting, sculpture, architecture, music. The ensemble sound of the arts was supposed to express the unity of the divine forces of the world, each particle of which symbolizes the cosmos as a whole. The artist fantasizes, reinforcing his philosophical concept with the ideas of the famous German thinker of the 1st floor. XVII century Jacob Boehme. The world is a kind of mystical whole, each particle of which expresses the whole. This idea is akin to the romantics of the entire European continent. In poetic form, the English poet and artist William Blake expressed the same thing as follows:

See eternity in one moment,

A huge world in the mirror of sand,

In a single handful - infinity

And the sky is in the cup of a flower.

Runge's cycle, or, as he called it, “a fantastic-musical poem” “Times of the day”– morning, noon, night, is an expression of this concept. He left an explanation of his conceptual model of the world in poetry and prose. The image of a person, landscape, light and color act as symbols of the ever-changing cycle of natural and human life.

Another outstanding German romantic painter, Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), preferred landscape to all other genres and painted only nature paintings throughout his seventy-year life. The main motive of Friedrich's work is the idea of ​​the unity of man and nature.

“Listen to the voice of nature that speaks inside us,” the artist instructs his students. The inner world of a person personifies the infinity of the Universe, therefore, having heard himself, a person is able to comprehend the spiritual depths of the world.

The listening position determines the basic form of human “communication” with nature and its image. This is the greatness, mystery or enlightenment of nature and the conscious state of the observer. True, very often Friedrich does not allow a figure to “enter” the landscape space of his paintings, but in the subtle penetration of the figurative structure of the sprawling expanses one can feel the presence of a feeling, a human experience. Subjectivism in the depiction of landscapes comes to art only with the work of the romantics, foreshadowing the lyrical revelation of nature among the masters of the 2nd gender. XIX century Researchers note in Friedrich’s works an “expansion of the repertoire” of landscape motifs. The author is interested in the sea, mountains, forests and various shades of the state of nature at different times of the year and day.

1811-1812 marked by the creation of a series of mountain landscapes as a result of the artist’s journey to the mountains. “Morning in the mountains” picturesquely represents a new natural reality emerging in the rays of the rising sun. Pinkish-purple tones envelop and deprive them of volume and material weight. The years of battle with Napoleon (1812-1813) turned Frederick to patriotic themes. Illustrating, inspired by Kleist's drama, he writes “Tomb of Arminius”- landscape with the graves of ancient German heroes.

Friedrich was a subtle master of seascapes: “Ages”, “Moonrise over the sea”, “The death of “Nadezhda” in the ice”.

The artist’s latest works are “Rest in the Field”, “Big Swamp” and “Memory of the Gigantic Mountains”, “Giant Mountains” - a series of mountain ranges and stones in the foreground darkened ground. This is, apparently, a return to the experienced feeling of a person’s victory over himself, the joy of ascension to the “top of the world,” the desire for brightening, unconquered heights. The artist’s feelings compose these mountain masses in a special way, and again one can read the movement from the darkness of the first steps to the future light. The mountain peak in the background is highlighted as the center of the master’s spiritual aspirations. The picture is very associative, like any creation of the romantics, and suggests different levels of reading and interpretation.

Friedrich is very precise in his drawing, musically harmonious in the rhythmic construction of his paintings, in which he tries to speak through the emotions of color and lighting effects. “Many are given little, few are given much. The soul of nature is revealed to everyone differently. Therefore, no one dares to convey to another his experience and his rules as a mandatory unconditional law. No one is the standard for everyone. Each one carries within himself a measure only for himself and for natures more or less related to himself,” this reflection of the master proves the amazing integrity of his inner life and creativity. The uniqueness of the artist is palpable only in the freedom of his creativity - this is what the romantic Friedrich stands for.

It seems more formal to differentiate with the “classic” artists – representatives of the classicism of another branch of romantic painting in Germany – the Nazarenes. Founded in Vienna and settled in Rome (1809-1810), the “Union of St. Luke” united masters with the idea of ​​reviving monumental art with religious themes. The Middle Ages were the favorite period of history for the romantics. But in their artistic quest, the Nazarenes turned to the traditions of painting of the early Renaissance in Italy and Germany. Overbeck and Geforr were the initiators of the new alliance, which was later joined by Cornelius, J. Schnoff von Carolsfeld, and Veit Furich.

This movement of the Nazarenes corresponded to their own forms of opposition to the classicist academicians in France, Italy, and England. For example, in France, the so-called “primitive” artists emerged from David’s workshop, and in England, the Pre-Raphaelites. In spirit romantic tradition they considered art the “expression of the times,” the “spirit of the people,” but their thematic or formal preferences, which at first sounded like a slogan of unification, after some time turned into the same doctrinaire principles as those of the Academy, which they denied.

The art of romanticism in France developed in special ways. The first thing that distinguished it from similar movements in other countries was its active offensive (“revolutionary”) character. Poets, writers, musicians, and artists defended their positions not only by creating new works, but also by participating in magazine and newspaper polemics, which researchers characterize as a “romantic battle.” The famous V. Hugo, Stendhal, George Sand, Berlioz and many other writers, composers, and journalists of France “sharpened their pens” in romantic polemics.

Romantic painting in France arose as an opposition to the classicist school of David, to academic art called the “school” in general. But this needs to be understood more broadly: it was opposition to the official ideology of the reactionary era, a protest against its petty-bourgeois limitations. Hence the pathetic nature of romantic works, their nervous excitement, attraction to exotic motifs, to historical and literary subjects, to everything that can lead away from the “dull everyday life”, hence this play of the imagination, and sometimes, on the contrary, daydreaming and a complete lack of activity.

Representatives of the “school”, academicians, rebelled primarily against the language of the romantics: their excited hot coloring, their modeling of form, not the statue-plastic, usual for the “classics”, but built on strong contrasts of color spots; their expressive drawing, which deliberately abandoned accuracy and classic precision; their bold, sometimes chaotic composition, devoid of majesty and unshakable calm. Ingres, an implacable enemy of the romantics, said until the end of his life that Delacroix “paints with a mad broom,” and Delacroix accused Ingres and all the artists of the “school” of being cold, rational, lacking movement, and not writing, but “painting.” your paintings. But this was not a simple clash of two bright, completely different individuals; it was a struggle between two different artistic worldviews.

This struggle lasted almost half a century, romanticism in art did not win victories easily and not immediately, and the first artist of this movement was Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) - a master of heroic monumental forms, who combined in his work both classicist features and the features of romanticism itself, and, finally, a powerful realistic beginning, which had a huge influence on the art of realism in the mid-19th century. But during his lifetime he was appreciated only by a few close friends.

The name of Theodore Jaricot is associated with the first brilliant successes of romanticism. Already in his early paintings (portraits of military men, images of horses), ancient ideals retreated before the direct perception of life.

In the salon in 1812, Géricault shows a painting “Officer of the Imperial Horse Chasseurs during the attack.” This was the year of the apogee of Napoleon's glory and the military power of France.

The composition of the painting presents the rider in an unusual perspective of a “sudden” moment when the horse reared up and the rider, maintaining an almost vertical position of the horse, turned towards the viewer. The depiction of such a moment of instability, the impossibility of a pose, enhances the effect of movement. The horse has one point of support; it must fall to the ground, screw itself into the fight that brought it to this state. Much came together in this work: Gericault’s unconditional faith in the possibility of a person mastering his own powers, a passionate love for depicting horses and the courage of a novice master in showing what previously could only be conveyed by music or the language of poetry - the excitement of battle, the beginning of an attack, the utmost tension of the forces of a living creature . The young author based his image on conveying the dynamics of movement, and it was important for him to encourage the viewer to “think through”, complete the drawing with “inner vision” and a feeling of what he wanted to depict.

France had practically no tradition of such dynamics in the pictorial narrative of romance, except perhaps in the reliefs of Gothic temples, therefore, when Gericault first came to Italy, he was stunned by the hidden power of Michelangelo’s compositions. “I trembled,” he writes, “I doubted myself and for a long time I could not recover from this experience.” But Stendhal pointed to Michelangelo as the forerunner of a new stylistic direction in art even earlier in his polemical articles.

Géricault's painting not only announced the birth of a new artistic talent, but also paid tribute to the author's passion and disappointment with the ideas of Napoleon. Several more works are related to this topic: “ Carabinieri officer”, “Cuirassier officer before the attack”, “Portrait of a carabinieri”, “Wounded cuirassier”.

In the treatise “Reflections on the State of Painting in France,” he writes that “luxury and the arts have become... a necessity and, as it were, food for the imagination, which is the second life of a civilized person... Not being an object of prime necessity, the arts appear only when essential needs are met and when abundance occurs. Man, freed from everyday worries, began to seek pleasure in order to get rid of boredom, which would inevitably overtake him in the midst of contentment.

This understanding of the educational and humanistic role of art was demonstrated by Gericault after returning from Italy in 1818 - he began to engage in lithography, replicating the most different topics, including the defeat of Napoleon ( “Return from Russia”).

At the same time, the artist turns to the image of the death of the frigate “Medusa” off the coast of Africa, which agitated the society of that time. The disaster occurred due to the fault of an inexperienced captain appointed to the position under patronage. The surviving passengers of the ship, surgeon Savigny and engineer Correar, spoke in detail about the accident.

The sinking ship managed to drop a raft, which carried a handful of rescued people. For twelve days they were carried along the stormy sea until they met salvation - the ship "Argus".

Gericault became interested in the situation of extreme tension of human spiritual and physical strength. The painting depicted 15 survivors on a raft when they saw the Argus on the horizon. “The raft of the Medusa” was the result of the artist’s long preparatory work. He made many sketches of the raging sea, portraits of rescued people in the hospital. At first, Gericault wanted to show the struggle of people on a raft with each other, but then he settled on the heroic behavior of the winners of the sea elements and state negligence. The people bravely endured the misfortune, and hope for salvation did not leave them: each group on the raft had its own characteristics. In constructing the composition, Gericault chooses a point of view from above, which allowed him to combine the panoramic coverage of the space (sea distances are visible) and depict all the inhabitants of the raft, very close to the foreground. The movement is based on the contrast of the figures lying powerlessly in the foreground and the impetuous ones in the group giving signals to the passing ship. The clarity of the rhythm of increasing dynamics from group to group, the beauty of naked bodies, and the dark coloring of the picture set a certain note of conventionality in the image. But this is not the essence of the matter for the perceiving viewer, for whom the conventions of language even help to understand and feel the main thing: a person’s ability to fight and win. The ocean roars. The sail is groaning. The ropes are ringing. The raft is cracking. The wind drives the waves and tears the black clouds to shreds.

Isn't this France itself, driven by the storm of history? – thought Eugene Delacroix, standing by the painting. “The raft of the Medusa shocked Delacroix, he cried and, like crazy, jumped out of Gericault’s workshop, which he often visited.

David's art did not know such passions.

But Gericault’s life ended tragically early (he was terminally ill after falling from a horse), and many of his plans remained unfinished.

Gericault's innovation opened up new opportunities for conveying the movement that excited the romantics, the hidden feelings of a person, and the coloristic, textured expressiveness of the picture.

Eugene Delacroix became Géricault's heir in his quest. True, Delacroix was given twice as much life, and he managed not only to prove the correctness of romanticism, but also to bless a new direction in painting of the 2nd floor. XIX century – impressionism.

Before starting to paint on his own, Eugene studied at Lerain’s school: he painted from life, copied the great Rubens, Rembrandt, Veronese, Titian in the Louvre... The young artist worked 10-12 hours a day. He remembered the words of the great Michelangelo: “Painting is a jealous lover, it requires the whole person...”

After Géricault’s demonstrations, Delacroix was well aware that times of strong emotional upheaval had come in art. First, he tries to comprehend a new era for him through well-known literary plots. His picture “Dante and Virgil”, presented at the salon of 1822, is an attempt to look at the boiling cauldron, the “hell” of the modern era, through the historical associative images of two poets: Antiquity - Virgil and the Renaissance - Dante. Once upon a time, in his “Divine Comedy,” Dante took Virgil as his guide through all spheres (heaven, hell, purgatory). In Dante's work, a new Renaissance world emerged through the medieval experience of the memory of antiquity. The symbol of the romantic as a synthesis of antiquity, the Renaissance and the Middle Ages arose in the “horror” of the visions of Dante and Virgil. But complicated philosophical allegory It turned out to be a good emotional illustration of the pre-Renaissance era and an immortal literary masterpiece.

Delacroix will try to find a direct response in the hearts of his contemporaries through his own heartache. Young people of that time, burning with freedom and hatred of the oppressors, sympathize liberation war Greece. The romantic bard of England, Byron, goes there to fight. Delacroix sees the meaning of the new era in the depiction of a more concrete historical event– the struggles and suffering of freedom-loving Greece. He dwells on the plot of the death of the population of the Greek island of Chios, captured by the Turks. At the Salon of 1824 Delacroix shows a painting “Massacre on the island of Chios.” against the backdrop of an endless expanse of hilly terrain. Which still screams from the smoke of the fires and the ongoing battle, the artist shows several groups of wounded, exhausted women and children. They had the last minutes of freedom before the approach of enemies. The Turk on a rearing horse on the right seems to hang over the entire foreground and the many sufferers there. The bodies and faces of passionate people are beautiful. By the way, Delacroix would later write that Greek sculpture was turned by artists into hieroglyphs, hiding the real Greek beauty of the face and figure. But, revealing the “beauty of the soul” in the faces of the defeated Greeks, the painter dramatizes the events so much that in order to maintain a single dynamic pace of tension, he goes to great lengths to deform the angles. These “mistakes” were already “resolved” by the work of Géricault, but Delacroix once again demonstrates the romantic credo that painting is “not the truth of a situation, but the truth of a feeling.”

In 1824, Delacroix lost his friend and teacher, Géricault. And he became the leader of new painting.

Years passed. One by one the pictures appeared: “Greece on the ruins of Missalunga”, “The Death of Sardanapalus” and others. The artist became an outcast in official circles of painting. But the July Revolution of 1830 changed the situation. She ignites the artist with the romance of victories and achievements. He is painting a picture “Freedom on the barricades.”

In 1831, at the Paris Salon, the French first saw Eugene Delacroix’s painting “Freedom on the Barricades,” dedicated to the “three glorious days” of the July Revolution of 1830. The painting made a stunning impression on its contemporaries with its power, democracy and boldness of artistic design. According to legend, one respectable bourgeois exclaimed: “You say - the head of the school? Better say - the head of the rebellion! After the closing of the Salon, the government, frightened by the formidable and inspiring appeal emanating from the painting, hastened to return it to the author. During the revolution of 1848, it was again put on public display at the Luxembourg Palace. And again they returned it to the artist. Only after the painting was exhibited at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1855 did it end up in the Louvre. This is still one of the the best creatures French romanticism- an inspired eyewitness testimony and an eternal monument to the people’s struggle for their freedom.

What artistic language did the young French romantic find to merge these two seemingly opposite principles - a broad, all-encompassing generalization and a concrete reality cruel in its nakedness?

Paris of the famous days of July 1830. The air is saturated with blue smoke and dust. A beautiful and majestic city, disappearing in a haze of gunpowder. In the distance, barely noticeable, but proudly rise the towers of Notre Dame Cathedral - a symbol of history, culture, and the spirit of the French people. From there, from the smoke-filled city, over the ruins of the barricades, over the dead bodies of their fallen comrades, the rebels stubbornly and decisively step forward. Each of them may die, but the step of the rebels is unshakable - they are inspired by the will to victory, to freedom.

This inspiring power is embodied in the image of a beautiful young woman, passionately calling for her. With her inexhaustible energy, free and youthful swiftness of movement, she is like a Greek goddess

Nike wins. Her strong figure is dressed in a chiton dress, her face with ideal features, with burning eyes, is turned towards the rebels. In one hand she holds the tricolor flag of France, in the other - a gun. On the head is a Phrygian cap - an ancient symbol of liberation from slavery. Her step is swift and light - the way goddesses walk. At the same time, the image of the woman is real - she is the daughter of the French people. She is the guiding force behind the group's movement on the barricades. From it, as from a source of light in the center of energy, rays emanate, charging with thirst and the will to win. Those in close proximity to her, each in their own way, express their participation in this encouraging and inspiring call.

On the right is a boy, a Parisian gamen, waving pistols. He is closest to Freedom and, as it were, ignited by its enthusiasm and joy of free impulse. In his swift, boyishly impatient movement, he is even slightly ahead of his inspiration. This is the predecessor of the legendary Gavroche, portrayed twenty years later by Victor Hugo in the novel Les Misérables: “Gavroche, full of inspiration, radiant, took upon himself the task of putting the whole thing into motion. He scurried back and forth, went up, went down

down, rose again, made noise, sparkled with joy. It would seem that he came here to encourage everyone. Did he have any motive for this? Yes, of course, his poverty. Did he have wings? Yes, of course, his gaiety. It was some kind of whirlwind. It seemed to fill the air, being present everywhere at the same time... Huge barricades felt it on their ridges.”

Gavroche in Delacroix’s painting is the personification of youth, “beautiful impulse,” joyful acceptance of the bright idea of ​​Freedom. Two images - Gavroche and Freedom - seem to complement each other: one is fire, the other is a torch lit from it. Heinrich Heine told how the figure of Gavroche evoked a lively response among Parisians. "Damn it! - exclaimed some grocery merchant. “These boys fought like giants!”

On the left is a student with a gun. Previously, it was seen as a self-portrait of the artist. This rebel is not as swift as Gavroche. His movement is more restrained, more concentrated, more meaningful. The hands confidently grip the barrel of the gun, the face expresses courage, a firm determination to stand to the end. This is a deeply tragic image. The student is aware of the inevitability of losses that the rebels will suffer, but the victims do not frighten him - the will to freedom is stronger. Behind him stands an equally courageous and determined worker with a saber. There is a wounded man at the feet of Freedom. He rises with difficulty to once again look up at Freedom, to see and feel with all his heart the beauty for which he is dying. This figure brings a sharply dramatic element to the sound of Delacroix’s canvas. If the images of Gavroche, Liberty, a student, a worker - almost symbols, the embodiment of the unyielding will of freedom fighters - inspire and call on the viewer, then the wounded man calls for compassion. Man says goodbye to Freedom, says goodbye to life. He is still an impulse, a movement, but already a fading impulse.

His figure is transitional. The viewer's gaze, still fascinated and carried away by the revolutionary determination of the rebels, falls down to the foot of the barricade, covered with the bodies of the glorious dead soldiers. Death is presented by the artist in all the bareness and obviousness of the fact. We see the blue faces of the dead, their naked bodies: the struggle is merciless, and death is the same inevitable companion of the rebels, like the beautiful inspirer Freedom.

But not quite the same! From the terrible sight at the bottom edge of the picture, we again raise our gaze and see a young beautiful figure - no! life wins! The idea of ​​freedom, embodied so visibly and tangibly, is so focused on the future that death in its name is not scary.

The artist depicts only a small group of rebels, living and dead. But the defenders of the barricade seem unusually numerous. The composition is built in such a way that the group of fighters is not limited, not closed in on itself. She is just part of an endless avalanche of people. The artist gives, as it were, a fragment of the group: the picture frame cuts off the figures on the left, right, and below.

Typically, color in Delacroix's works acquires a highly emotional sound and plays a dominant role in creating a dramatic effect. The colors, now raging, now fading, muted, create a tense atmosphere. In "Freedom on the Barricades" Delacroix departs from this principle. Very precisely, carefully choosing paint and applying it with broad strokes, the artist conveys the atmosphere of the battle.

But the color scheme is restrained. Delacroix focuses attention on the relief modeling of the form. This was required by the figurative solution of the picture. After all, while depicting a specific yesterday’s event, the artist also created a monument to this event. Therefore, the figures are almost sculptural. Therefore, each character, being part of a single whole of the picture, also constitutes something closed in itself, is a symbol cast into a completed form. Therefore, color not only has an emotional impact on the viewer’s feelings, but also carries a symbolic meaning. In the brown-gray space, here and there, a solemn triad of red, blue, white - the colors of the banner of the French Revolution of 1789 - flashes. The repeated repetition of these colors maintains the powerful chord of the tricolor flag flying over the barricades.

Delacroix's painting “Freedom on the Barricades” is a complex work, grandiose in scope. Here the reliability of the directly seen fact and the symbolism of the images are combined; realism, reaching brutal naturalism, and ideal beauty; rough, terrible and sublime, pure.

The painting “Freedom on the Barricades” cemented the victory of romanticism in French painting. In the 30s, two more historical paintings: “Battle of Poitiers” And “Murder of the Bishop of Liege.”

In 1822, the artist visited North Africa, Morocco, and Algeria. The trip made an indelible impression on him. In the 50s, paintings inspired by memories of this journey appeared in his work: “Lion hunt”, “Moroccan saddling a horse” etc. Bright contrasting colors create a romantic sound for these paintings. The broad stroke technique appears in them.

Delacroix, as a romantic, recorded the state of his soul not only with his tongue picturesque images, but also formalized his thoughts literary. He described the process well creative work a romantic artist, his experiments in color, reflections on the relationship between music and other forms of art. His diaries became favorite reading for artists of subsequent generations.

The French romantic school made significant changes in the field of sculpture (Rud and his relief “Marseillaise”), landscape painting (Camille Corot with his light-air images of the nature of France).

Thanks to romanticism, the artist's personal subjective vision takes the form of law. Impressionism will completely destroy the barrier between the artist and nature, declaring art to be an impression. Romantics talk about the artist’s imagination, “the voice of his feelings,” which allows him to stop the work when the master considers it necessary, and not as required by academic standards of completeness.

If Gericault's fantasies focused on conveying movement, Delacroix - on the magical power of color, and the Germans added to this a certain “spirit of painting”, then Spanish Romantics in the person of Francisco Goya (1746-1828) showed the folklore origins of the style, its phantasmagoric and grotesque character. Goya himself and his work seem far from any stylistic framework, especially since the artist very often had to follow the laws of the material of execution (when, for example, he created paintings for woven trellis carpets) or the requirements of the customer.

His phantasmagoria came to light in etching series “Caprichos” (1797-1799),"Disasters of War" (1810-1820),“Disparantes (“Follies”)(1815-1820), paintings of the “House of the Deaf” and the Church of San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid (1798). Serious illness in 1792 resulted in the artist's complete deafness. After suffering physical and spiritual trauma, the master’s art becomes more focused, thoughtful, and internally dynamic. The external world, closed due to deafness, activated Goya’s inner spiritual life.

In etchings “Caprichos” Goya achieves exceptional power in conveying instant reactions and rapid feelings. Black and white execution, thanks to the bold combination of large spots and the absence of linearity characteristic of graphics, acquires all the properties of a painting.

Goya creates the murals of the Church of St. Anthony in Madrid, it seems, in one breath. The temperament of the brushstroke, the laconicism of the composition, the expressiveness of the characteristics of the characters, whose type Goya took straight from the crowd, are amazing. The artist depicts the miracle of Anthony of Florida, who forced the murdered man to rise and speak, who named the murderer and thereby saved an innocent man from execution. The dynamism of the brightly reacting crowd is conveyed by Goya in both the gestures and facial expressions of the depicted persons. In the compositional scheme of distribution of paintings in the space of the church, the painter follows Tiepolo, but the reaction he evokes in the viewer is not baroque, but purely romantic, affecting the feelings of every viewer, calling him to turn to himself.

Most of all, this goal is achieved in the painting of Conto del Sordo (“House of the Deaf”), in which Goya lived since 1819. The walls of the rooms are covered with fifteen compositions of a fantastic and allegorical nature. Perceiving them requires deep empathy. The images appear as certain visions of cities, women, men, etc. The color, flashing, pulls out first one figure, then another. The painting as a whole is dark, it is dominated by white, yellow, pinkish-red spots, disturbing the senses with flashes. The etchings of the series can be considered a graphic parallel to “The House of the Deaf.” “Disparantes” .

Goya spent the last 4 years in France. It’s unlikely that he knew that Delacroix never parted with his “Caprichos.” And he could not foresee how Hugo and Baudelaire would be carried away by these etchings, what a huge influence his painting would have on Manet, and how in the 80s of the 19th century. V. Stasov will invite Russian artists to study his “Disasters of War”

But we, taking this into account, know what a huge influence this “styleless” art of a bold realist and an inspired romantic had on the artistic culture of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The fantastic world of dreams is also realized in his works by the English romantic artist William Blake (1757-1827). England was a classic country of romantic literature. Byron. The Shelleys became the banner of this movement far beyond the borders of Foggy Albion. In France, in magazine criticism during the “romantic battles,” the romantics were called “Shakespeareans.” The main feature of English painting has always been an interest in the human personality, which allowed the portrait genre to fruitfully develop. Romanticism in painting is very closely related to sentimentalism. The interest of the romantics in the Middle Ages gave rise to great historical literature. The recognized master of which is W. Scott. In painting, the theme of the Middle Ages determined the appearance of the so-called Peraphaelites.

William Blake - an amazing type of romantic in English cultural scene. He writes poetry, illustrates his own and other people's books. His talent sought to embrace and express the world in holistic unity. His most famous works are illustrations for the biblical “Book of Job”, “Dante’s Divine Comedy”, “ To Paradise Lost"Milton. He populates his compositions with titanic figures of heroes, which correspond to their surroundings of an unreal, enlightened or phantasmagoric world. A feeling of rebellious pride or a harmony intricately created from dissonance overwhelms his illustrations.

The landscape engravings for the “Pastorals” of the Roman poet Virgil seem somewhat different - they are more idyllically romantic than their previous works.

Blake's romanticism tries to find its artistic formula and form of existence of the world.

William Blake, having lived his life in extreme poverty and obscurity, after his death was ranked among the classics of English art.

In the works of English landscape painters of the early 19th century. romantic hobbies are combined with a more objective and sober view of nature.

William Turner (1775-1851) creates romantically elevated landscapes. He loved to depict thunderstorms, showers, storms at sea, bright, fiery sunsets. Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and intensified the sound of color even when he painted the calm state of nature. For greater effect, he used watercolor techniques and applied oil paint in a very thin layer and painted directly on the ground, achieving rainbow tints. An example would be the picture “Rain, steam and speed”(1844). But even the famous critic of that time, Thackeray, could not correctly understand what was perhaps the most innovative picture in both concept and execution. “Rain is indicated by spots of dirty putty,” he wrote, “smeared onto the canvas with a palette knife, sunlight a dull shimmer breaks out from under very thick lumps of dirty yellow chrome. The shadows are conveyed by cold shades of scarlet specks and spots of cinnabar in muted tones. And although the fire in the locomotive firebox seems red, I cannot say that it is not painted in cabalt or pea color.” Another critic found Turner’s coloring to be the color of “scrambled eggs and spinach.” The colors of late Turner generally seemed completely unthinkable and fantastic to his contemporaries. It took more than a century to see the grain of real observations in them. But as in other cases, it was here too. An interesting story has been preserved from an eyewitness, or rather, a witness to the birth of “Rain, Steam and Speed.” A certain Mrs. Simon was traveling in a compartment of the Western Express with an elderly gentleman sitting opposite her. He asked permission to open the window, stuck his head out into the pouring rain and remained in this position for quite a long time. When he finally closed the window. Water dripped from him in streams, but he blissfully closed his eyes and leaned back, clearly enjoying what he had just seen. An inquisitive young woman decided to experience his feelings for herself - she also stuck her head out the window. I got wet too. But I got an unforgettable impression. Imagine her surprise when a year later she saw “Rain, Steam and Speed” at an exhibition in London. Someone behind her critically remarked: “Extremely typical of Turner, right. No one has ever seen such a mixture of absurdities.” And she, unable to resist, said: “I saw it.”

Perhaps this is the first image of a train in painting. the point of view was taken from somewhere above, which allowed for a wide panoramic coverage. The Western Express flies across the bridge at a speed that was absolutely exceptional for that time (exceeding 150 km per hour). In addition, this is probably the first attempt to depict light through rain.

English art of the mid-19th century. developed in a completely different direction than Turner’s painting. Although his skill was generally recognized, none of the youth followed him.

Turner has long been considered a forerunner of Impressionism. It would seem that his search for color from the world should have been further developed by French artists. But this is not true at all. In fact, the view of Turner's influence on the Impressionists goes back to Paul Signac's 1899 book From Delacroix to Neo-Impressionism, where he described how “in 1871, during their long stay in London, Claude Manet and Camille Pissarro discovered Turner. They marveled at the confident and magical quality of his paints, they studied his work, analyzed his technique. At first they were amazed by his rendering of snow and ice, shocked by the way in which he was able to convey a feeling of whiteness of snow that they themselves could not achieve, using large spots of silvery white, laid flat with broad brush strokes. They saw that this impression was achieved not only with whitewash. And a mass of multi-colored strokes. Applied one next to the other, which gave this impression when looked at from a distance.”

During these years, Signac looked everywhere for confirmation of his theory of pointillism. But in none of Turner’s paintings, which French artists could see in the National Gallery in 1871, there is the pointillism technique described by Signac, nor, indeed, are there “wide spots of white.” Essentially, Turner’s influence on the French was stronger not in 1870 -e, and in the 1890s.

Paul Signac studied Turner most carefully - not only as a forerunner of impressionism, which he wrote about in his book, but also as a great innovative artist. About Turner’s late paintings “Rain, Steam and Speed”, “Exile”, “Morning” and “Evening of the Flood” Signac wrote to his friend Angrand: “These are no longer paintings, but accumulations of paints (polychromine), scatterings of precious stones, painting in itself in the wonderful sense of the word."

Signac's enthusiastic assessment marked the beginning modern understanding Turner's pictorial quest. But for last years sometimes it happens that they do not take into account the subtext and complexity of the directions of his search, one-sidedly selecting examples from Turner’s truly unfinished “underpaintings”, trying to discover in him the predecessor of impressionism.

Of all the newest artists, a comparison naturally arises with Monet, who himself recognized the influence of Turner on him. There is even one plot that is absolutely similar for both - namely the western portal of the Rouen Cathedral. But if Monet gives us a study of the solar illumination of a building, he does not give us the Gothic, but some kind of naked model, with Turner you understand why the artist, completely absorbed in nature, was carried away by this theme - in his image what is striking is precisely the combination of the overwhelming grandeur of the whole and the infinite a variety of details that brings the creations of Gothic art closer to works of nature.

The special character of English culture and romantic art opened up the possibility of the appearance of the first plein air painter who laid the foundations for the light-air depiction of nature in the 19th century - John Constable (1776-1837). The Englishman Constable chooses landscape as the main genre of his painting: “The world is great; there are no two similar days or even two similar hours; Since the creation of the world, there have not been two identical leaves on one tree, and all works of true art, like the creations of nature, differ from each other,” he said.

Constable painted large plein air sketches in oil with subtle observations of different states of nature. In them he was able to convey the complexity of the inner life of nature and its everyday life (“View of Highgate from the Hampstead Hills”, OK. 1834; "Hay cart" 1821; “Detham Valley”, ca. 1828) achieved this using writing techniques. He painted with moving strokes, sometimes thick and rough, sometimes smoother and more transparent. The impressionists will come to this only at the end of the century. Constable's innovative painting influenced the works of Delacroix, as well as the entire development of French landscape.

Constable's art, as well as many aspects of Gericault's work, marked the emergence of a realistic movement in European art of the 19th century, which initially developed in parallel with romanticism. Later their paths diverged.

Romantics open the world of the human soul, an individual, unlike anyone else, but sincere and therefore close to everyone sensual vision of the world. The immediacy of the image in painting, as Gelacroix said, and not its consistency in literary execution, determined the artists’ focus on the most complex transmission of movement, for which new formal and coloristic solutions were found. Romanticism left a legacy to the second half of the 19th century. all these problems and artistic individuality liberated from the rules of academicism. The symbol, which among the romantics was supposed to express the essential connection of idea and life, in the art of the second half of the 19th century. dissolves in the polyphony of the artistic image, capturing the diversity of ideas and the surrounding world.

b) Music

The idea of ​​a synthesis of arts found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. Romanticism in music developed in the 20s of the 19th century under the influence of the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (appeal to synthetic genres, primarily opera, song, instrumental miniatures and musical programming). The appeal to the inner world of man, characteristic of romanticism, was expressed in the cult of the subjective, the craving for emotional intensity, which determined the primacy of music and lyrics in romanticism.

Music of the 1st half of the 19th century. quickly evolved. A new musical language has emerged; in instrumental and chamber-vocal music, miniature has received a special place; the orchestra sounded with a varied spectrum of colors; the possibilities of the piano and violin were revealed in a new way; the music of the romantics was very virtuosic.

Musical romanticism manifested itself in many different branches associated with different national cultures and with different social movements. So, for example, there is a significant difference between the intimate, lyrical style of the German romantics and the “oratorical” civic pathos characteristic of the work of French composers. In turn, representatives of new national schools that arose on the basis of a broad national liberation movement (Chopin, Moniuszko, Dvorak, Smetana, Grieg), as well as representatives of the Italian opera school, closely associated with the Risorgimento movement (Verdi, Bellini), in many ways differ from their contemporaries in Germany, Austria or France, in particular, in their tendency to preserve classical traditions.

And yet, they are all marked by some common artistic principles that allow us to talk about a single romantic system of thought.

Thanks to the special ability of music to deeply and soulfully reveal the rich world of human experiences, it was put in first place among other arts by romantic aesthetics. Many romantics emphasized the intuitive nature of music and attributed to it the ability to express the “unknowable.” The work of outstanding romantic composers had a strong realistic basis. Interest in life ordinary people, fullness of life and truth of feelings, reliance on everyday music determined the realism of the work of the best representatives of musical romanticism. Reactionary tendencies (mysticism, escapism) are inherent in only a relatively small number of works by the romantics. They appeared partly in Weber’s opera “Euryanthe” (1823), in some of Wagner’s musical dramas, in Liszt’s oratorio “Christ” (1862), etc.

By the beginning of the 19th century, fundamental studies of folklore, history, and ancient literature appeared; medieval legends, Gothic art, and Renaissance culture were resurrected. It was at this time that many national schools of a special type emerged in the compositional work of Europe, which were destined to significantly expand the boundaries of pan-European culture. Russian, which soon took, if not the first, then one of the first places in world cultural creativity (Glinka, Dargomyzhsky, the “Kuchkists”, Tchaikovsky), Polish (Chopin, Moniuszko), Czech (Smetana, Dvorak), Hungarian (Liszt), then Norwegian (Grieg), Spanish (Pedrel), Finnish (Sibelius), English (Elgar) - all of them, joining the general mainstream of European compositional creativity, in no way opposed themselves to the established ancient traditions. A new circle of images emerged, expressing the unique national features of the national culture to which the composer belonged. The intonation structure of a work allows you to instantly recognize by ear whether you belong to a particular national school.

Composers incorporate the intonation patterns of ancient, predominantly peasant folklore of their countries into the pan-European musical language. They, as it were, cleansed Russian folk song from varnished opera; they introduced song turns of folk genres into the cosmopolitan intonation system of the 18th century. The most striking phenomenon in the music of romanticism, especially clearly perceived when compared with the figurative sphere of classicism, is the dominance of the lyrical-psychological principle. Of course, the distinctive feature musical art in general – the refraction of any phenomenon through the sphere of feelings. Music of all eras is subject to this pattern. But the romantics surpassed all their predecessors in the importance of the lyrical principle in their music, in the strength and perfection in conveying the depths of a person’s inner world, the subtlest shades of mood.

The theme of love occupies a dominant place in it, because it is this state of mind that most comprehensively and fully reflects all the depths and nuances of the human psyche. But it is highly characteristic that this theme is not limited to the motives of love in the literal sense of the word, but is identified with the widest range of phenomena. The purely lyrical experiences of the characters are revealed against the backdrop of a broad historical panorama. A person’s love for his home, for his fatherland, for his people runs like a through thread through the work of all romantic composers.

A huge place is given to the image of nature in musical works of small and large forms, which is closely and inextricably intertwined with the theme of lyrical confession. Like images of love, the image of nature personifies the hero’s state of mind, so often colored by a feeling of disharmony with reality.

The theme of fantasy often competes with images of nature, which is probably generated by the desire to escape from the captivity of real life. Typical of the romantics was the search for a wonderful world sparkling with a wealth of colors, opposed to gray everyday life. It was during these years that literature was enriched with fairy tales and ballads of Russian writers. For composers of the romantic school, fairy-tale, fantastic images acquire a unique national coloring. The ballads are inspired by Russian writers, and thanks to this, works of a fantastic grotesque plan are created, symbolizing, as it were, the reverse side of faith, striving to reverse the ideas of fear of the forces of evil.

Many romantic composers also acted as music writers and critics (Weber, Berlioz, Wagner, Liszt, etc.). The theoretical works of representatives of progressive romanticism made a very significant contribution to the development of the most important issues of musical art. Romanticism also found expression in the performing arts (violinist Paganini, singer A. Nurri, etc.).

The progressive meaning of Romanticism during this period lies mainly in the activities Franz Liszt. Liszt's work, despite the contradictory worldview, was fundamentally progressive and realistic. One of the founders and classics of Hungarian music, an outstanding national artist.

Hungarian national themes were widely reflected in many of Liszt’s works. Liszt's romantic, virtuosic works expanded the technical and expressive capabilities of piano playing (concertos, sonatas). Liszt’s connections with representatives of Russian music, whose works he actively promoted, were significant.

At the same time, Liszt played a major role in the development of world musical art. After Liszt, “everything became possible for the piano.” The characteristic features of his music are improvisation, romantic elation, and expressive melody. Liszt is valued as a composer, performer, and musical figure. The composer's major works: the opera “ Don Sancho or the Castle of Love”(1825), 13 symphonic poems “ Tasso ”, ” Prometheus ”, “Hamlet” and others, works for orchestra, 2 concerts for piano and orchestra, 75 romances, choirs and other equally famous works.

One of the first manifestations of romanticism in music was creativity Franz Schubert(1797-1828). Schubert went down in the history of music as one of the greatest founders of musical romanticism and the creator of a number of new genres: the romantic symphony, the piano miniature, and the lyric-romantic song (romance). The greatest significance in his work is song, in which he showed especially many innovative tendencies. In Schubert's songs, the inner world of a person is most deeply revealed, his characteristic connection with folk music is most noticeable, one of the most significant features of his talent is most clearly manifested - the amazing variety, beauty, charm of melodies. The best songs of the early period include “ Margarita at the spinning wheel ”(1814) , “Forest king" Both songs are written to the words of Goethe. In the first of them, an abandoned girl remembers her beloved. She is lonely and deeply suffering, her song is sad. The simple and soulful melody is echoed only by the monotonous hum of the breeze. “Forest King”-- complex work. This is not a song, but rather a dramatic scene where three characters appear before us: a father galloping on a horse through the forest, a sick child whom he is carrying with him, and a formidable forest king who appears to a boy in a feverish delirium. Each of them is endowed with its own melodic language. No less famous and beloved are Schubert’s songs “Trout”, “Barcarolle”, “Morning Serenade”. Written in more later years, these songs are distinguished by a surprisingly simple and expressive melody and fresh colors.

Schubert also wrote two song cycles - “ Beautiful miller's wife”(1823), and “ winter journey”(1872) - based on the words of the German poet Wilhelm Müller. In each of them, the songs are united by one plot. The songs in the “Beautiful Miller's Wife” cycle tell about a young boy. Following the flow of the stream, he sets off on a journey to seek his happiness. Most of the songs in this cycle have a light character. The mood of the “Winter Retreat” cycle is completely different. A poor young man is rejected by a rich bride. In despair, he leaves his hometown and goes to wander around the world. His companions are the wind, a blizzard, and an ominously cawing raven.

The few examples given here allow us to talk about the peculiarities of Schubert's songwriting.

Schubert loved to write music for piano. He wrote a huge number of works for this instrument. Like songs, his piano works were close to everyday music and just as simple and understandable. His favorite genres of compositions were dances, marches, and in the last years of his life - impromptu.

Waltzes and other dances usually appeared in Schubert at balls and on country walks. There he improvised them and recorded them at home.

If you compare Schubert's piano pieces with his songs, you can find many similarities. First of all, there is great melodic expressiveness, grace, and colorful juxtaposition of major and minor.

One of the largest French composers of the second half of the 19th century Georges Bizet, creator of an immortal creation for musical theater - operas “Carmen” and wonderful music for the drama by Alphonse Daudet “ Arlesian ”.

Bizet's work is characterized by precision and clarity of thought, novelty and freshness of expressive means, completeness and grace of form. Bizet is characterized by the sharpness of psychological analysis in comprehending human feelings and actions, characteristic of the work of the composer's great compatriots - the writers Balzac, Flaubert, Maupassant. Central location In Bizet's work, which is varied in genre, it belongs to opera. The composer's operatic art arose on national soil and was nurtured by the traditions of the French opera theater. Bizet considered the first task in his work to be overcoming the genre restrictions existing in French opera that hampered its development. “Big” opera seems to him dead genre, lyrical - annoying with its tearfulness and petty-bourgeois limitations, comic more than others deserves attention. For the first time in Bizet's opera, rich and lively everyday and crowd scenes, anticipating vital and vivid scenes.

Music by Bizet for the drama by Alphonse Daudet “Arlesian” is known mainly for two concert suites, composed of her best numbers. Bizet used some authentic Provençal melodies : “March of the Three Kings” And “Dance of the Frisky Horses.”

Bizet's Opera Carmen” is a musical drama that unfolds before the viewer with convincing truthfulness and breathtaking artistic power the story of love and death of its heroes: the soldier Jose and the gypsy Carmen. The opera Carmen was created on the basis of the traditions of French musical theater, but at the same time it introduced a lot of new things. Based on the best achievements of the national opera and reforming its most important elements, Bizet created a new genre - realistic musical drama.

In the history of the opera theater of the 19th century, the opera “Carmen” occupies one of the first places. In 1876, her triumphal march began on the stages of the opera houses of Vienna, Brussels, and London.

The manifestation of a personal attitude towards the environment was expressed among poets and musicians primarily in spontaneity, emotional “openness” and passion of expression, in the desire to convince the listener with the help of the constant intensity of the tone of recognition or confession.

These new trends in art had a decisive influence on the emergence lyric opera. It arose as the antithesis of “big” and comic opera, but she could not ignore their conquests and achievements in the field of operatic drama and means of musical expression.

A distinctive feature of the new opera genre was the lyrical interpretation of any literary plot - on a historical, philosophical or modern theme. The heroes of the lyric opera are endowed with the features of ordinary people, devoid of exclusivity and some hyperbolism characteristic of romantic opera. The most significant artist in the field of lyric opera was Charles Gounod.

Among Gounod’s rather numerous operatic heritage is the opera “ Faust" occupies a special and, one might say, exclusive place. Its worldwide fame and popularity are unmatched by Gounod's other operas. The historical significance of the opera “Faust” is especially great because it was not only the best, but essentially the first among the operas of the new direction, about which Tchaikovsky wrote: “It is impossible to deny that “Faust” was written, if not brilliantly, then with extraordinary skill and without significant originality.” In the image of Faust, the acute inconsistency and “doubleness” of his consciousness, the eternal dissatisfaction caused by the desire to understand the world, are smoothed out. Gounod was unable to convey all the versatility and complexity of the image of Goethe's Mephistopheles, who embodied the spirit of militant criticism of that era.

One of the main reasons for the popularity of “Faust” was that it concentrated the best and fundamentally new features of the young genre of lyric opera: the emotionally direct and vividly individual conveyance of the inner world of the opera’s heroes. The deep philosophical meaning of Goethe's Faust, which sought to reveal the historical and social destinies of all humanity through the example of the conflict of the main characters, was embodied in Gounod in the form of the humane lyrical drama of Margarita and Faust.

French composer, conductor, music critic Hector Berlioz entered the history of music as the largest romantic composer, creator of the program symphony, innovator in the field of musical form, harmony and especially instrumentation. The features of revolutionary pathos and heroism were vividly embodied in his work. Berlioz knew M. Glinka, whose music he highly valued. He was on friendly terms with the leaders of the “Mighty Handful,” who enthusiastically accepted his writings and creative principles.

He created 5 musical stage works, including operas “ Benvenuto Chillini ”(1838), “ Trojans ”,”Beatrice and Benedick”(based on Shakespeare’s comedy “Much Ado About Nothing”, 1862); 23 vocal-symphonic works, 31 romances, choirs, he wrote the books “Great Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration” (1844), “Evenings in the Orchestra” (1853), “Through Songs” (1862), “Musical Curiosities” ( 1859), “Memoirs” (1870), articles, reviews.

German composer, conductor, playwright, publicist Richard Wagner entered the history of world musical culture as one of the greatest musical creators and major reformers of the art of opera. The goal of his reforms was to create a monumental programmatic vocal-symphonic work in dramatic form, designed to replace all types of opera and symphonic music. Such a work was a musical drama, in which the music flows in a continuous stream, merging all the dramatic links together. Abandoning the finished singing, Wagner replaced them with a kind of emotionally charged recitative. A large place in Wagner's operas is occupied by independent orchestral episodes, which are a valuable contribution to world symphonic music.

Wagner’s hand belongs to 13 operas: “ The Flying Dutchman” (1843), “Tannhäuser” (1845), “Tristan and Isolde” (1865), “Das Rheingold” (1869) and etc.; choirs, piano pieces, romances.

Another outstanding German composer, conductor, pianist, teacher, and musical figure was Felix Mendelssohn–Bartholdy. At the age of 9 he began performing as a pianist, and at the age of 17 he created one of his masterpieces - the overture to the comedy “ C he's on a midsummer night" Shakespeare. In 1843 he founded the first conservatory in Germany in Leipzig. The works of Mendelssohn, “a classic among the romantics,” combine romantic features with a classical way of thinking. His music is characterized by bright melody, democratic expression, moderation of feelings, calmness of thought, predominance of bright emotions, lyrical moods, not without a slight touch of sentimentality, impeccable forms, brilliant craftsmanship. R. Schumann called him “Mozart of the 19th century,” G. Heine called him “a musical miracle.”

Author of landscape romantic symphonies (“Scottish”, “Italian”), program concert overtures, a popular violin concerto, cycles of pieces for piano “Song without Words”; opera “Camacho's Wedding”. Wrote music for dramatic performance“Antigone” (1841), “Oedipus at Colonus” (1845) by Sophocles, “Athalia” by Racine (1845), “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” by Shakespeare (1843) and others; oratorios “Paul” (1836), “Elijah” (1846); 2 concertos for piano and 2 for violin.

IN Italian musical culture has a special place with Giuseppe Verdi - outstanding composer, conductor, organist. The main area of ​​Verdi's work is opera. He acted mainly as a spokesman for the heroic-patriotic feelings and national liberation ideas of the Italian people. In subsequent years, he paid attention to dramatic conflicts generated by social inequality, violence, oppression, and exposed evil in his operas. Characteristic features of Verdi's work: folk music, dramatic temperament, melodic brightness, understanding of the laws of the stage.

He wrote 26 operas: “ Nabucco”, “Macbeth”, “Troubadour”, “La Traviata”, “Othello”, “Aida”" and etc . , 20 romances, vocal ensembles .

Young Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) strived for development national music. This was expressed not only in his work, but also in the promotion of Norwegian music.

During his years in Copenhagen, Grieg wrote a lot of music: “ Poetic pictures” And "Humoresque" sonata for piano and first violin sonata, songs. With each new work, Grieg's image as a Norwegian composer emerges more clearly. In the subtle lyrical “Poetic Pictures” (1863), national features still timidly make their way. The rhythmic figure is often found in Norwegian folk music; it became characteristic of many of Grieg's melodies.

Grieg's creativity is vast and multifaceted. Grieg wrote works of various genres. The Piano Concerto and Ballads, three sonatas for violin and piano and a sonata for cello and piano, the quartet testify to Grieg's constant attraction to large-scale form. At the same time, the composer’s interest in instrumental miniatures remained constant. To the same extent as the piano, the composer was also attracted to chamber vocal miniatures - romances, songs. Without Grieg’s main focus, the field of symphonic creativity is marked by such masterpieces as the suites “ Pere Gounod ”, “From the time of Holberg" One of the characteristic types of Grieg's creativity is the processing of folk songs and dances: in the form of simple piano pieces, a suite cycle for piano four hands.

Grieg's musical language is clearly unique. The individuality of the composer's style is most determined by his deep connection with Norwegian folk music. Grieg widely uses genre features, intonation structure, and rhythmic formulas of folk song and dance melodies.

Grieg's remarkable mastery of variational and variant development of melody is rooted in folk traditions repeated repetition of the melody with its changes. “I recorded the folk music of my country.” Behind these words lies Grieg’s reverent attitude towards folk art and recognition of its decisive role for his own creativity.

7. CONCLUSION

Based on all of the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

The emergence of romanticism was influenced by three main events: the Great French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and the rise of the national liberation movement in Europe.

Romanticism as a method and direction in artistic culture was a complex and contradictory phenomenon. In every country it had a strong national expression. Romantics occupied different social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had their own ideal. But for all its diversity and diversity, romanticism has stable features:

All of them came from the denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist’s creative initiative.

They discovered the principle of historicism (enlightenmentists judged the past ahistorically; for them there was “reasonable” and “unreasonable”). We saw in the past human characters formed by their time. Interest in the national past has given rise to a lot of historical works.

Interest in a strong personality that opposes itself to the entire world around it and relies only on itself.

Attention to the inner world of a person.

Romanticism was widely developed both in Western Europe and in Russia. However, romanticism in Russia differed from Western Europe due to a different historical situation and a different cultural tradition. The real reason for the emergence of romanticism in Russia was the Patriotic War of 1812, in which the full power of popular initiative was demonstrated.

Features of Russian romanticism:

Romanticism was not opposed to the Enlightenment. Enlightenment ideology weakened, but did not collapse, as in Europe. The ideal of an enlightened monarch has not exhausted itself.

Romanticism developed in parallel with classicism, often intertwined with it.

Romanticism in Russia different types art manifested itself in different ways. It was not readable in architecture at all. In painting it dried up by the middle of the 19th century. It manifested itself only partially in music. Perhaps only in literature did romanticism manifest itself consistently.

In the fine arts, romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, less expressively in sculpture and architecture.

Romantics open the world of the human soul, an individual, unlike anyone else, but sincere and therefore close to everyone sensual vision of the world. The immediacy of the image in painting, as Delacroix said, and not its consistency in literary execution, determined the artists’ focus on the most complex transmission of movement, for which new formal and coloristic solutions were found. Romanticism left a legacy to the second half of the 19th century. all these problems and artistic individuality liberated from the rules of academicism. The symbol, which among the romantics was supposed to express the essential connection of idea and life, in the art of the second half of the 19th century. dissolves in the polyphony of the artistic image, capturing the diversity of ideas and the surrounding world. Romanticism in painting is closely related to sentimentalism.

Thanks to romanticism, the artist's personal subjective vision takes the form of law. Impressionism will completely destroy the barrier between the artist and nature, declaring art to be an impression. Romantics talk about the artist’s imagination, “the voice of his feelings,” which allows him to stop the work when the master considers it necessary, and not as required by academic standards of completeness.

Romanticism left an entire era in world artistic culture, its representatives were: in Russian literature Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov and others; in fine arts E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. Runge, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. Kiprensky, A. Venetsianov, A. Orlorsky, V. Tropinin and others; in music F. Schubert, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin and others. They discovered and developed new genres, paid close attention to the fate of the human personality, revealed the dialectic of good and evil, masterfully revealed human passions, etc.

The types of art more or less equalized in importance and produced magnificent works of art, although the romantics gave primacy to music in the ladder of the arts.

Romanticism in Russia as a worldview existed in its first wave from the end of the 18th century to the 1850s. The line of the romantic in Russian art did not stop in the 1850s. The theme of the state of being, discovered by the romantics for art, was later developed by the artists of the Blue Rose. The direct heirs of the romantics were undoubtedly the symbolists. Romantic themes, motifs, and expressive techniques have entered the art of different styles, trends, and creative associations. The romantic worldview or worldview turned out to be one of the most vibrant, tenacious, and fruitful.

Romanticism as a general attitude, characteristic mainly of youth, as a desire for ideal and creative freedom, still constantly lives in world art.

8. REFERENCES

1. Amminskaya A.M. Alexey Gavrilovich Vnetsianov. -- M: Knowledge, 1980

2. Atsarkina E.N. Aleksandr Osipovich Orlovsky. - M: Art, 1971.

3. Belinsky V.G. Essays. A. Pushkin. – M: 1976.

4. Great Soviet Encyclopedia (Chief editor: Prokhorov A.M.).– M: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1977.

5. Vainkop Yu., Gusin I. Brief biographical dictionary of composers. – L: Music, 1983.

6. Vasily Andreevich Tropiin (edited by M.M. Rakovskaya). -- M: Fine Arts, 1982.

7. Vorotnikov A.A., Gorshkovoz O.D., Yorkina O.A. History of art. – Mn: Literature, 1997.

8. Zimenko V. Alexander Osipovch Orlovsky. - M: State Publishing House of Fine Arts, 1951.

9. Ivanov S.V. M.Yu. Lermontov. Life and art. – M: 1989.

10. Musical literature of foreign countries (edited by B. Levik).- M: Music, 1984.

11. Nekrasova E.A. Turner. -- M: Fine Arts, 1976.

12. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. – M: State Publishing House of Foreign and Russian Dictionaries, 1953.

13. Orlova M. J. Constable. - M: Art, 1946.

14. Russian artists. A.G. Venetsianov. – M: State Publishing House of Fine Arts, 1963.

15. Sokolov A.N. Russian history literature of the 19th century century (1 half). – M: Higher School, 1976.

16. Turchin V.S. Orest Kiprensky. -- M: Knowledge, 1982.

17. Turchin V.S. Theodore Gericault. -- M: Fine Arts, 1982.

18. Filimonova S.V. History of world artistic culture.-- Mozyr: White Wind, 1997.

Romanticism is movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. Romanticism contrasted the mechanistic concept of the world created by modern science and adopted by the Enlightenment with the image of a historically becoming world-organism; discovered new dimensions in man associated with the unconscious, imagination, and sleep. The Enlightenment's belief in the power of reason and at the same time in the dominance of chance, thanks to romanticism, lost its force: romanticism showed that in the world-organism, permeated with endless correspondences and analogies, chance does not reign, and reason does not rule over a person given to the mercy of irrational elements. In literature, romanticism created new free forms that reflected the sense of openness and infinity of existence, and new types of heroes that embodied the irrational depths of man.

Origin of the concept – romanticism

Etymologically the term romanticism is associated with the designation in Romance languages ​​of a narrative work on a fictional plot (Italian romanzo, 13th century; French rommant, 13th century). In the 17th century, the epithet “romantic” appeared in England, meaning: “fictional,” “bizarre,” “fantastic.” In the 18th century, the epithet became international (in the 1780s it appeared in Russia), most often denoting a bizarre landscape that appeals to the imagination: “romantic locations” have a “strange and amazing appearance” (A.T. Bolotov, 1784; quoted by: Nikolyukin A.N. On the history of the concept of “romantic”). In 1790, the esthetician A. Edison put forward the idea of ​​“romantic reverie” as a special way of reading, in which the text serves only as “a hint that awakens the imagination” (Adison A. Essays on the nature and principles of taste. Hartford, 1821). In Russia, the first definition of romantic in literature was given in 1805: “An object becomes romantic when it takes on the appearance of the miraculous, without losing its truth” (Martynov I.I. Northern Bulletin. 1805). The prerequisites for romanticism were the mystical theosophical teachings of the 18th century (F. Hemsterhuis, L.K. Saint-Martin, I.G. Hamann), the historical and philosophical concept of I.G. Herder about the poetic individuality of nations (“the spirit of the people”) as a manifestation of the “world spirit” "; various phenomena of literary pre-romanticism. The formation of romanticism as a literary movement occurred at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, with the publication of “The Heartfelt Outpourings of a Monk Loving Art” (1797) by W.G. Wackenroder, “Lyrical Ballads” by S.T. Coleridge and W. Wordsworth (1798), “ The Wanderings of Franz Sternbald" by L. Tieck (1798), a collection of fragments from Novalis "Pollen" (1798), the story "Atala" by F.R. de Chateaubriand (1801).

Having begun almost simultaneously in Germany, England and France, the romantic movement gradually spread to other countries: in the 1800s - Denmark (poet and playwright A. Elenschläger, who had close ties with the German romantics), Russia (V.A. Zhukovsky, in his own words) definition, “the parent of German romanticism in Rus'”; letter to A.S. Sturdze, March 10, 1849); in the 1810-20s - Italy (G. Leopardi, U. (N.) Foscolo, A. Manzoni), Austria (playwright F. Grillparzer, later poet N. Lenau), Sweden (poet E. Tegner), USA ( W. Irving, J. F. Cooper, E. A. Poe, later N. Hawthorne, G. Melville), Poland (A. Mickiewicz, later J. Slowacki, Z. Krasiński), Greece (poet D. Solomos); in the 1830s, romanticism found expression in other literatures (the most significant representatives were the novelist J. van Lennep in Holland, the poet S. Petőfi in Hungary, J. de Espronceda in Spain, the poet and playwright D. J. Gonçalves de Magalhães in Brazil ). As a movement associated with the idea of ​​nationality, with the search for a certain literary “formula” of national self-awareness, romanticism gave rise to a galaxy of national poets who expressed the “spirit of the people” and acquired cult meaning in their homeland (Ehlenschläger in Denmark, Pushkin in Russia, Mickiewicz in Poland, Petőfi in Hungary, N. Baratashvili in Georgia). A general periodization of romanticism is impossible due to its heterogeneous development in different countries: in the main countries of Europe, as well as in Russia, romanticism in the 1830-40s lost its leading importance under the pressure of new literary movements - Biedermeier, realism; in countries where romanticism appeared later, it retained a strong position much longer. The concept of “late romanticism,” often applied to the main line in the development of European romanticism, usually assumes as a turning point the mid-1810s (Congress of Vienna 1815, the beginning of a pan-European reaction), when the first wave of romanticism (Jena and Heidelberg romantics, “Lake school”, E.P.de Senancourt, Chateaubriand, A.L.J.de Stael) comes the so-called “second generation of romantics” (Swabian romanticists, J. Byron, J. Keats, P.B. Shelley, A. de Lamartine , V. Hugo, A. Musset, A. de Vigny, Leopard, etc.).

Romanticism and Jena Romantics

Jena romantics (Novalis, F. and A. Schlegel) were the first theorists of romanticism who created this concept. Their definitions of romanticism contain motives for the destruction of customary boundaries and hierarchies, a spiritualizing synthesis that replaced the rationalistic idea of ​​“connection” and “order”: “romantic poetry” “must either mix or merge together poetry and prose, genius and criticism” (Schlegel F. Aesthetics. Philosophy. Criticism), the romantic is like a “true fairy tale”, in which “everything should be wonderfully mysterious and incoherent - everything is alive... All nature should be somehow miraculously mixed with the whole world of spirits” (Novalis. Schriften. Stuttgart , 1968). In general, the Jena romantics, having linked the concept of romanticism with a number of related ideas (“magical idealism”, “transcendental poetry”, “universal poetry”, “wit”, “irony”, “musicality”), not only did not give romanticism a complete definition, but approved the idea that “romantic poetry” “cannot be exhausted by any theory” (F. Schlegel, ibid.), which, in essence, retains its force in modern literary criticism.

National characteristics of romanticism

As an international movement, romanticism also had pronounced national characteristics. The inclination of German romanticism towards philosophical speculation, the search for the transcendental and the magically synthetic vision of the world were alien to French romanticism, which recognized itself primarily as the antithesis of classicism (which had strong traditions in France), was distinguished by psychological analyticism (novels by Chateaubriand, de Stael, Senancourt, B .Constan) and created a more pessimistic picture of the world, permeated with motifs of loneliness, exile, nostalgia (which was associated with the tragic impressions of the French Revolution and the internal or external emigration of French romantics: “The revolution expelled my spirit from real world, making it too terrible for me” (Joubert J. Diary. March 25, 1802). English romanticism, represented by the poets of the “lake school” (Coleridge, Wordsworth), like German, gravitated towards the transcendental and otherworldly, but found it not in philosophical constructs and mystical visionaryism, but in direct contact with nature and childhood memories. Russian romanticism was distinguished by significant heterogeneity: the characteristic interest in romanticism in antiquity, in the reconstruction of archaic language and style, in “night” mystical moods already appeared among the “archaist” writers of the 1790-1820s (S.S. Bobrov, S.A. Shirinsky -Shikhmatov); Later, along with the influence of English and French romanticism (widespread Byronism, sentiments of “worldly sorrow,” nostalgia for the ideal natural states of man), the ideas of German romanticism were also implemented in Russian romanticism - the doctrine of the “world soul” and its manifestation in nature, the presence of the otherworldly in the earthly world, about the poet-priest, the omnipotence of the imagination, the Orphic idea of ​​the world as the prison of the soul (the works of the wise men, the poetry of Zhukovsky, F.I. Tyutchev). The idea of ​​“universal poetry” in Russia was expressed in the opinion that “the whole world, visible and dreamy, is the property of the poet” (O.M. Somov. On romantic poetry, 1823); hence the variety of themes and images of Russian romanticism, which combined experiments in recreating the distant past (the harmonic “golden age” of antiquity in the idylls of A.A. Delvig, the Old Testament archaic in the works of V.K. Kuchelbecker, F.N. Glinka) with visions of the future, often colored in the tones of dystopia (V.F. Odoevsky, E.A. Baratynsky), who created artistic images of many cultures (up to the unique imitation of the Muslim worldview in “Imitations of the Koran” (1824) by A.S. Pushkin) and a wide range of moods (from bacchanalian hedonism of K.N. Batyushkov, D.V. Davydov to a detailed development of the theme of the “living dead” with reports on the sensations of dying, burial alive, decomposition in the poetry of M.Yu. Lermontov, A.I. Polezhaev, D.P. Oznobishin and other romantics of the 1830s). The romantic idea of ​​nationality found its original embodiment in Russian romanticism, which not only recreated the structure of national consciousness with its deep archaic-mythological layers (Ukrainian stories by N.V. Gogol), but also drew a picture that has no analogues in modern literature the image of the people themselves as an aloof and ironic observer of the dirty struggle for power (“Boris Godunov” by Pushkin, 1824-25).

With all the national differences, Romanticism also had integrity of mentality, manifested primarily in the consciousness that “the infinite surrounded man” (L. Uland. Fragment “On the Romantic”, 1806). The boundaries between different spheres of existence that defined the classical world order lost their power over the romantic personality, who came to the idea that “we are connected with all parts of the universe, as well as with the future and with the past” (Novalis. Pollen. No. 92). For the romantics, man no longer serves as the “measure of all things,” but rather contains “all things” in their past and future, being an incomprehensible secret record of nature, which romanticism is called upon to decipher: “The secret of nature ... is completely expressed in the form of man ... The whole history of the world lies dormant in each of us,” wrote the romantic natural philosopher G. Steffens (Steffens N. Caricaturen des Heiligsten. Leipzig, 1821). Consciousness no longer exhausts a person, since “everyone carries within himself his own somnambulist” (I.V. Ritter. Letter to F. Baader, 1807; see Beguin. Vol. 1); Wordsworth creates an image of the “lower part of the soul” (under soul - the poem “Prelude”), unaffected by the external movements of life. The soul of a person no longer belongs to him alone, but serves as a playground for mysterious forces: at night “that which is not ours in us is awake in us” (P.A. Vyazemsky. Longing, 1831). In place of the principle of hierarchy, which organized the classical model of the world, romanticism brings the principle of analogy: “What moves in the celestial spheres should reign in the images of the earth, and the same thing worries in the human breast” (Tick, Genoveva, 1799. Scene “Field” battles"). The analogies reigning in the romantic world abolish the vertical subordination of phenomena, equate nature and man, inorganic and organic, high and low; The romantic hero endows “natural forms” with “moral life” (Wordsworth. Prelude), and comprehends his own soul in external, physical forms, turning it into an “inner landscape” (P. Moreau’s term). By discovering connections in each object that lead to the world as a whole, to the “world soul” (the idea of ​​nature as a “universal organism” was developed in F.V. Schelling’s treatise “On the World Soul,” 1797), romanticism destroys the classical scale of values; W. Hazlitt (“The Spirit of the Age,” 1825) calls “Wordsworth’s muse” an “equalizer” based on the “principle of equality.” Ultimately, this approach leads in late romanticism of the 1830s (the French school of “violent romantics”) to the cultivation of the terrible and ugly, and even to the appearance in 1853 of the “Aesthetics of the Ugly” by Hegelian K. Rosenkranz.

The fundamental openness of the romantic person, his desire to “be everything” (F. Hölderlin. Hyperion, 1797-99) determined many of the essential features of literary romanticism. The hero of the Enlightenment with his conscious struggle for a certain place in life is replaced in romanticism by the hero-wanderer, who has lost his social and geographical roots and moves freely between regions of the earth, between sleep and reality, guided more by premonition and magical coincidences than by a clearly stated purpose; he can accidentally acquire earthly happiness (J. Eichendorff. From the life of a slacker, 1826), go into a transcendent other existence (Heinrich’s transition to the “land of Sophia” in the project for completing the novel “Heinrich von Ofterdingen” by Novalis, 1800) or remain an “eternity wanderer” , whose ship sails and sails and anchors nowhere” (Byron. Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, 1809-18). For romanticism, the distant is more important than the close: “Distant mountains, distant people, distant events - all this is romantic” (Novalis. Schriften). Hence the interest of romanticism in otherness, in the “world of spirits”, which ceases to be otherworldly: the boundary between the heavenly and the earthly is either overcome in an act of poetic insight (“Hymns to the Night” by Novalis, 1800), or the “other world” itself breaks into everyday life (fantasy stories by E.T.A. Hoffman, Gogol). Related to this is the interest in geographic and historical otherness, the mastery of foreign cultures and eras (the cult of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, which supposedly combined creativity and direct religious feeling, in Wackenroeder; the idealization of the morals of the American Indians in Chateaubriand’s “Atal”). The otherness of the alien is overcome by the romantics in the act of poetic transformation, spiritual migration to another reality, which at the literary level manifests itself as stylization (recreation of the “Old German” narrative style in Tieck’s “The Wanderings of Franz Sternbald”, folk songs among the Heidelberg romantics, various historical styles in Pushkin’s poetry; attempt to reconstruct Greek tragedy by Hölderlin).

Romanticism reveals the historical volume of the artistic word, recognized from now on as the “common property” of the entire history of literature: “When we speak, with every word we stir up the ashes of a thousand meanings assigned to this word over centuries, and in different countries, and even by individuals"(Odoevsky. A. N. Nikolyukin Russian Nights. Epilogue. 1834). The very movement of history is understood as the constant resurrection of eternal, original meanings, the constant consonance of the past, present and future, therefore the self-awareness of the older romantics is formed not in repulsion from the past (in particular, from classicism), but in search of prototypes of romantic art in the past: “ “Romantic” were declared by W. Shakespeare and M. de Cervantes (F. Schlegel. Conversation on Poetry. 1800), I. V. Goethe (as the author of the novel “The Years of Wilhelm Meister’s Teaching,” 1795-96), as well as the entire Middle Ages ( where did the idea of ​​romanticism as a return to the Middle Ages come from, developed in de Stael’s book “On Germany”, 1810, and presented in Russian criticism by V.G. Belinsky). The Middle Ages serve as the subject of a lovingly nostalgic recreation in the historical novel, which reached its pinnacle in the work of W. Scott. The romantic poet places himself above history, giving himself the right to move through different eras and historical styles: “ New era our poetry should present, as if in a perspective abbreviation, the entire history of poetry” (A.V. Schlegel. Lectures on fine literature and art, 1801-04). The poet is credited with a higher, synthetic view of the world, excluding any incompleteness of vision and understanding: the poet “rises above his era and floods it with light... In a single moment of life, he embraces all generations of humanity” (P.S. Ballanche. Experience on social institutions, 1818 Part 1. Chapter 10). As a result, poetry loses the character of a purely aesthetic expression, henceforth understood as “a universal language in which the heart finds harmony with nature and with itself” (W. Hazlitt. On poetry in general, 1818); the boundaries of poetry open into the area of ​​religious experience, prophetic practice (“Truly poetic inspiration and the prophetic are akin to each other,” G. G. Schubert. The symbolism of dreams, 1814. Chapter 2), metaphysics and philosophy, and finally, into life itself (“Life and Poetry is one thing." Zhukovsky. "I am a young Muse, it used to be...", 1824). The main tool of poetic creativity, as well as any thinking, for romanticism is imagination (its theory was developed in the treatise of I. G. E. Maas “An Essay on Imagination”, 1797, in the texts of the Jena romantics, articles by Coleridge, dialogue by K. W. F. .Zolger "Erwin", 1815). In theory, the novel is proclaimed to be the highest literary genre as a magical fusion of all forms of verbal creativity - philosophy, criticism, poetry and prose, but attempts to create such a novel in reality (“Lucinda” by F. Schlegel, 1799, “Heinrich von Ofterdingen” by Novalis) do not reach theoretically proclaimed ideal. The feeling of fundamental incompleteness, the openness of any statement brought the genre of the fragment to the forefront in romanticism (which, however, could grow to significant proportions: the subtitle “fragment” has the only major completed work of Novalis “Christianity and Europe”, 1799; Byron’s poem “The Giaour”, 1813), and in the field of expressive means led to the cultivation of irony, understood as the constant critical elevation of the artist above his own statement. Romantic irony in drama took the form of destruction of stage illusion, playing with the course of action (Ticke's plays "Puss in Boots", 1797, where the audience interferes with the performance, and "Zerbino", 1798, where the hero tries to run the action in the opposite direction), in prose it manifested itself in the destruction of the integrity of the action and the unity of the book itself (in the novel “Godvi”, 1800, by C. Brentano, the characters quote the novel itself, the heroes of which are; in “The Everyday Views of the Cat Murr”, 1820-22, by Hoffman, the main action is interrupted by “ waste paper sheets" with the biography of Kapellmeister Kreisler).

At the same time, the idea of ​​a poetic utterance as a direct “sudden outpouring of powerful feelings” (Wordsworth. Preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, 1800) also takes root in romanticism, which leads to the development of the genre of lyrical meditation, sometimes growing to the scale of a monumental poem (“ Prelude" by Wordsworth). And in the epic genres, the author-narrator with his subjective position and clearly expressed emotions comes to the fore; arbitrarily arranging narrative episodes, interspersing them with lyrical digressions (the novels of Jean Paul with their whimsical composition; “Don Juan”, 1818-23, by Byron; “The Wanderer”, 1831-32, by A.F. Veltman; “Eugene” also joins this tradition Onegin”, 1823-31, Pushkin), he himself becomes a formative factor: thus, Byron’s personality determined the form of his poems, since “he began to tell from the middle of the incident or from the end, not caring at all about soldering the parts together” (“Son of the Fatherland”. 1829). Free cyclic forms with alternation of philosophical and lyrical comments and inserted short stories are also characteristic of romanticism (“Serapion’s Brothers”, 1819-21, by Hoffmann; “Russian Nights”, 1844, by Odoevsky). The idea of ​​a world-organism permeated with analogies also corresponds to the literary form, in which fragmentation is often combined with fluidity, the predominance of unity over distinct divisions of form. Novalis defines this form as a “magical romantic order”, “for which rank and value have no meaning, which does not distinguish between beginning and end, great and small” (Schriften); Coleridge defends the poetic principle of "lines flowing into each other, instead of forming a conclusion at the end of each couplet" (Biographia literaria. Chapter 1) and implements this principle in the "vision" of Kubla Khan (1798). The language of poetry is compared with the languages ​​of music (see Musicality in Literature) and sleep; this latter is “more rapid, spiritual and brief in its course or flight” than ordinary language (Schubert. The Symbolism of Dreams. Chapter 1).

The evolution of the romantic worldview

The evolution of the romantic worldview from the second half of the 1810s moved towards the disintegration of the original synthetically integral vision, the discovery of irreconcilable contradictions and the tragic foundations of existence. Romanticism in this period (especially in the 1820s) is increasingly understood by the romantics themselves in a negative protest spirit, as a rejection of norms and laws in the name of individualism; Romanticism - “liberalism in literature” (Hugo. Preface to “The Poems of S. Dovalle”, 1829), “Parnassian atheism” (Pushkin. To Rodzianka, 1825). In the historical consciousness of romanticism, eschatological sentiments are growing, the feeling is growing that “the drama of human history is perhaps much closer to the end than to the beginning” (F. Schlegel. Signature of the era, 1820), the theme of the “last man” is affirmed in literature (“ The Last Death", 1827 and "The Last Poet", 1835, Baratynsky; novel "The Last Man", 1826, Mary Shelley). The past no longer enriches, but burdens the world (“The world is tired of the past, it must either perish or finally rest.” - P.B. Shelley, Hellas, 1821); “People and time are a slave, the Earth has grown old in captivity” - P.A. Vyazemsky. Sea, 1826); history is now thought of tragically, as an alternation of sin and redemptive sacrifice: already the title character of Hölderlin’s tragedy “The Death of Empedocles” (1798-99) felt called to die in order to atone for his era, and in the 1820s P.S. Ballanche builds the concept of history as repeating sacrificial-redemptive cycles (“Prolegomena to the experiments of social palingenesis”, 1827). Late romanticism experiences with renewed vigor the Christian sense of the original sinfulness of man., which is perceived as his irrational guilt before nature: man, “this mixture of dust with divinity,” with his “mixed essence” only “introduces conflict into the elements of nature” (Byron. Manfred, 1817). The theme of inherited guilt, the inevitability of fate, damnation and redemption by blood is heard in the “tragedies of fate” (Z. Werner, F. Grillparzer), the tragedy of G. Kleist “Pentesileia” (1808), and the dramas of Hugo. The principle of analogy, which allowed early romanticism to “make dazzling leaps over impassable ditches” (Berkowski), loses its force; the unity of the world turns out to be either imaginary or lost (this worldview was anticipated by Hölderlin in the 1790s: “Blessed unity... is lost to us.” - Hyperion. Preface).

In late romanticism, with its conflict between ideal and reality (romantic “two worlds”), the hero is irrevocably alienated from the world, society and state: “a wandering spirit, expelled from another world, he seemed a stranger in this world of the living” (Byron. Lara, 1814 ); “I live alone among the dead” (Lermontov. Azrael, 1831); poets in the world turn out to be not priests, but “wanderers on earth, homeless and orphaned” (N.A. Polevoy, Essays on Russian Literature). The romantic person himself undergoes a split, becoming “a battlefield on which passions fight with will” (A.A. Marlinsky. About N. Polevoy’s novel “The Oath at the Holy Sepulcher”, 1833); he either realizes an irreconcilable contradiction in himself, or is faced with his demonic double (“Elixirs of the Devil”, 1815-16, Hoffmann; “The city has fallen asleep, I wander alone...” from the cycle “Return to the Homeland”, 1826, G. Heine) . The duality of reality at the metaphysical level is understood as an irreconcilable and hopeless struggle between good and evil, Divine and demonic (“Eloa”, 1824, A. de Vigny, where an angel tries to save Lucifer with his love, but finds himself in his power; “Demon”, 1829- 39, Lermontov). Dead mechanism, from which romanticism seemed to have gotten rid of thanks to its metaphor of the world as a living organism, returns again, personified in the image of an automaton, a doll (Hoffmann’s prose; “On the Puppet Theater”, 1811, Hugeist), a golem (L. Arnim’s short story “ Isabella of Egypt", 1812). The gullibility inherent in early romanticism, the confidence that “the filial ties of Nature connected him with the world” (W. Wordsworth. Prelude), gives way to suspicion and a feeling of betrayal: “There is poison in everything that the heart values” (Delvig. Inspiration, 1820) ; “Although you are a man, you have not betrayed me,” Byron addresses his sister in Stanzas to Augusta (1816). Salvation is seen in escape (romantic “escapism”, partly represented already in early romanticism in the prose of Senancourt and Chateaubriand) into other forms of life, which can be nature, exotic and “natural” cultures, the imaginary world of childhood and utopia, as well as altered states of consciousness: now, not irony, but madness is proclaimed as a natural reaction to the antinomies of life; madness expands a person’s mental horizons, since a madman “finds relationships between objects that seem impossible to us” (Odoevsky. Russian Nights. The Second Night). Finally, “emigration from the world” (Chateaubriand’s expression: quoted from Schenk) can be realized in death; This motif becomes especially widespread in late romanticism, which widely developed the Orphic metaphor of the body and life as a prison, which is already present in Hölderlin (“we are now languishing in our sick flesh.” - Hyperion) and Wordsworth (“The shadows of the prison begin to close over the growing child.” - Ode: Signs of Immortality, 1802-04). The motive of love for death appears (in Shelley’s story “Una Favola”, 1820-22, the poet is in love with life and death, but only the latter is faithful to him, “dwelling with love and eternity”), the idea that “perhaps it is death that leads to higher knowledge" (Byron. Cain, 1821). The antithesis of escape from a divided world in late romanticism can be an atheistic rebellion or a stoic acceptance of evil and suffering. If early romanticism almost destroys the distance between man and God, amicably uniting them almost on equal terms (“God wants gods”; “we appointed ourselves as people and chose God for ourselves, like choosing a monarch” - Novalis), then in late romanticism their mutual estrangement takes place. Romanticism now creates the image of a heroic skeptic - a man who fearlessly broke with God and remains in the middle of an empty, alien world: “I do not believe, O Christ, Your holy word, I came too late into a too old world; from a century devoid of hope will be born a century in which there will be no fear,” says the hero Musset (Rolla. 1833); in “Faust” by N. Lenau (1836), the hero refuses to serve as a “shoe” for Christ’s foot and decides to independently establish his own “unyielding Self”; to the “eternal silence of the Divine” such a hero “responds with only cold silence” (Vigny. The Mount of Olives, 1843). The stoic position often leads the romantic to an apology for suffering (Baratynsky. “Believe me, my friend, we need suffering...”, 1820), to its fetishization (“Nothing gives us such greatness as great suffering.” - Musset. May Night, 1835 ), and even to the idea that the blood of Christ does not atone for human suffering: Vigny is planning a work about the Last Judgment, where God, as a defendant, appears before humanity as a judge in order to “explain why creation, why the suffering and death of the innocent” (Vigny A .de.Journal d'un poete).

Aesthetics of realism and naturalism

The aesthetics of realism and naturalism, which largely determined the literary process of the second half of the 19th century, painted the concept of romanticism in negative tones, associating it with rhetorical verbosity, the predominance of external effects, melodrama, truly characteristic of the epigones of romanticism. However, the problematic circle outlined by romanticism (themes of lost paradise, alienation, guilt and redemption, motives of fighting against God, abandonment of God and “nihilistic consciousness”, etc.) turned out to be more durable than romantic poetics itself: it retains its significance in later literature, using other stylistic means and no longer aware of its continuity with the romantic tradition.

Romanticism is often understood not only as a historical concept, but also as a universal aesthetic category (the Jena romantics already saw in the “romantic” an element inherent in all poetry; in the same spirit, Charles Baudelaire considered “romantic” any “modern art” in which there is “subjectivity, spirituality, colors, aspiration to the infinite.” - “Salon 1846”). G.W.F. Hegel defined with the word “romantic” one of the three (along with symbolic and classical) global “art forms”, in which the spirit, breaking with the external, turns to its inner being in order to “enjoy its infinity and freedom” "(Aesthetics. Part 2. Section 3, introduction). There is also an idea of ​​the romantic as an ever-repeating phenomenon, alternating with the same eternal “classicism” (“All classicism presupposes a romanticism that precedes it.” - P. Valery. Variete, 1924). Thus, romanticism can also be understood as a timeless spiritual and aesthetic orientation inherent in works of different eras (romance).

The word romanticism comes from German Romantik, French romantisme, English romanticism.