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Lesson 30. Religion of the ancient Greeks.
Subject: history.

Date: 01/23/2012.

Teacher: Khamatgaleev E. R.

• 
  New concepts:pantheon.

Task 1 – homework questions:

1. 
   What is the main content of the poem "Odyssey"?
2. 
   How many years did it take for Odysseus to return home?
3. 
   Odysseus was the king of which island?
4. 
   List what difficulties Odysseus and his comrades had to face upon returning home?
5. 
   Why were the gods angry with Odysseus?

Task 2 – reading by heart.
Listen to students who want to read excerpts from the work.
Plan for learning new material
Greek pantheon of gods.
Studying the issue of the plan.
Working with the textbook: find the drawing “Gods and Goddesses of Greece” in the textbook, look at it carefully.

Working with the class. While explaining new material, students fill out a table, which by the end of the lesson should look like this:

Teacher's opening speech. In the north of the land inhabited by the Hellenes is the country of Thessaly. On the border with Macedonia, among the mountains surrounding the Thessalian plain on all sides, Mount Olympus rises - the highest of all the mountains of Hellas. Its slopes are covered with dense forests. Oaks and chestnuts, evergreen shrubs, grow there. It is difficult to climb this mountain, its rocky slopes are steep, and there is eternal snow on the top.

Snow on clear days A Olympus burns in the sun, but the top of the mountain is always shrouded in thick clouds. Up there are the golden palaces of the immortal gods. It is impossible for a mortal to penetrate them. In the kingdom of the gods it is always summer and it is light in the palaces. A bright blue light pours from the sky. Immortal gods feast in their halls. The place dedicated to all the gods is called pantheon.

Zeus, the king of gods and men, sits on a high golden throne. Next to him is his wife Hera, the queen of the gods and protector of the family hearth. Here are the children of Zeus - the twins Apollo and Artemis, Athena, Hermes, Ares and Hephaestus. Each of the gods controls the affairs and destinies of people.

Vocabulary work.

The Pantheon is a place dedicated to all the gods.

Student 1. But the strongest of them is Zeus, the son of the god Cronus. Cronus was born from Uranus the sky and Gaia the Earth. By deception and cunning Cronus overthrew Uranus. Fearing that the children would deprive him of power, Cronus ordered his wife Rhea to bring him newly born babies - he swallowed them. The last son“Zeus,” she regretted. Rhea brought the swaddled stone to Kron, and he swallowed it. She hid Zeus on the island of Crete, in one of mountain caves. The bees fed him with honey, and the goat with milk. If Zeus cried, the young men guarding the cave began a war dance and, with weapons striking the shields, drowned out the child’s cry so that Cronus would not find out about his existence. They say that in Crete even now young men dance war dances in honor of Zeus.

When Zeus grew up, he forced his father to vomit out the swallowed children, and he himself was chained and thrown into a dark abyss in Tartarus, where a ray of sun never penetrates. After the victory, Zeus, in a chariot drawn by four horses, headed to Olympus along with other gods. He shared dominion over the sea with his brothers, who helped him defeat Kron. Hades gained power over the kingdom of the dead, Poseidon became the ruler of the sea. Zeus has ruled since then heaven and earth.

Student 2. Zeus is the strongest of all gods. Storms and thunderstorms, winds and rains, lightning and thunder - all this happens by the will of Zeus, he is the cloudmaker and the thunderer. Woe to him who violates the order established by Zeus on Earth! The mighty god will wave right hand and will strike the oathbreaker with fiery lightning. Therefore, those who swear always call Zeus as a witness. “I swear by Zeus!” - they say among the Hellenes.

Zeus protects home order. For the Hellenes, in two of each house there is an altar to the great god. He is the patron saint of strangers, each of them can find protection at the altar of Zeus. In many places the oak is considered a sacred tree. It is under the sacred oak tree, in the grove of Dodona, that Zeus loves to rest. Zeus can convey his will to people by sending the sacred bird - the eagle. If the Greeks see an eagle, they believe that they will have good luck.

Student 3. In the city of Miletus they honor more gods than other gods ruler of the seas Poseidon. For the Milesians, maritime trade is the basis of life. And the fate of the navigator is in the hands of Poseidon. The formidable god of the seas strikes with his trident, and a terrible storm rises on the sea, huge foaming waves rise up like light shells, they throw ships, overwhelm them or forcefully smash them against the coastal rocks. But Poseidon put aside his trident - the waves subside, the endless expanse of the sea is calm, and the sailors can continue their journey. And Poseidon on a chariot drawn by golden-maned horses, descends to the bottom of the sea into a magnificent palace, where he lives with his wife Amphitrite. The inhabitants of the depths - sea monsters - are obedient to the god of the seas and his wife. With blows of his trident, he shakes the earth, moves mountains, creates bottomless abysses, and reverses the flow of rivers. Woe to him who offends the lord of the seas!

Question: Which Greek experienced the wrath of Poseidon and why?

Student 4. The darkest of gods - Hades - reigns deep underground, in kingdom of the dead. The entrance to his kingdom is where the sun sets; a deep abyss leads to the kingdom of Hades from the surface of the earth. There is no return from there. In the kingdom of the dead the rivers Styx and Acheron roll their waves. The gloomy ferryman Charon transports the souls of the dead across the gloomy waters of Acheron. The three-headed dog Cerberus guards the entrance to the kingdom of Hades.

Only a few powerful heroes were allowed by the gods to visit the kingdom of the dead and return to earth. Odysseus visited there and saw the shadows of the heroes of the Trojan War. Achilles told Odysseus that it was better to be a living day laborer on earth than a king in the kingdom of Hades. Hercules also visited there. He brought the hellish dog Cerberus from the kingdom of the dead; this was one of the twelve labors of the hero.

Question: Think about what connection there is between the pyramids in Egypt and the kingdom of the dead, where Hades rules?

Student 5. The souls of men underground kingdom Hades commands the souls of women - his wife Persephone, daughter goddess of fertility Demeter. Hades kidnapped her when she, as a young girl, was helplessly picking flowers in a field. Persephone cried bitterly and fought back, but the gloomy Hades sped away on a chariot drawn by black horses. Demeter heard her daughter’s pitiful cry. For nine days the goddess wandered the earth, with torches in her hands she looked for her daughter and on dark nights. On the tenth day, Demeter turned to the all-seeing sun god Helios and learned from him that her daughter, by the will of Zeus, was in the kingdom of the dead.

Demeter's grief was boundless. She left the gods and, so that no one could recognize her, took on the image of an old woman. Shedding bitter tears, she wandered across the earth. But as soon as Demeter left Olympus, vineyards and olive trees began to dry up on the earth, plants and animals died from drought. Famine began among mortals, people stopped making sacrifices to the gods. Fearing the death of all living things, Zeus sent Iris, the messenger of the gods, to Demeter. The messenger of the gods persuaded Demeter for a long time. But Demeter announced that she would not return to Olympus until she saw Persephone. Then Zeus sent Hermes to Hades, who announced to him the will of the great Zeus: Hades must release Persephone to her mother. With great joy, Persephone rushed to the chariot and rushed to the ground. But before leaving, Hades gave her a pomegranate seed to eat - a symbol of marriage - and thus forever connected her with the kingdom of the dead.

By decision of Zeus, Persephone spends two thirds of the year - spring and summer - with her mother on earth. At this time, trees and flowers bloom, and fields produce grain. And for a third of the year, Persephone descends underground to the gloomy Hades, and the earth freezes, the vegetation dries up, in order to bloom magnificently when Persephone returns to the earth again.

Student 6. Zeus has many children, feasting with him in the bright halls of Olympus. The most beautiful of them - god of sunlight, patron of the arts, golden-haired Apollo, favorite of Zeus. The arrows of his bow strike enemies without a miss. He struck with them a terrible monster - the dragon Python, who lived in the Delphic Gorge. And since then, the sanctuary of Apollo has been located in Delphi.

Honor golden-haired god and on Delos, where he was born. Everyone falls silent when Apollo appears with his companions - the muses. There are nine of them, and each of them is the patroness of science or art. The gods listen with delight to the choir of muses and the playing of Apollo on the strings.

The beautiful god plays wonderfully, but he does not tolerate ridicule or remarks. Apollo cruelly punished the Phrygian god of the fields, the satyr Marsyas, because he dared to compete with him in music. The victory was awarded to Apollo, and Apollo hanged Marcia, flaying him.

Student 7. People are afraid of meeting Apollo's sister, the forever young beauty Artemis - goddess of nature and patroness of hunting. With a quiver on her back and a bow in her hands, light and fast, she pursues game through the mountains and forests. Her favorite companions and friends are nymphs - goddesses of fields and forests. Hunters dedicate the first killed animals, the heads and tusks of wild boars, to Artemis. Woe to the mortal who approaches the young goddess! Her arrows strike as accurately as the arrows of the divine Apollo. Apollo and Artemis brutally dealt with the mortal woman Niobe, who insulted their mother Latona. Niobe had seven sons and seven daughters. Proud, Niobe refused to make sacrifices to Latona, who gave birth to only two children. Hearing the mother's complaints, Apollo and Artemis killed all of Niobe's children with small arrows. The unfortunate mother was petrified from grief; she turned into a rock from which a spring gushes. Niobe always cries for her children.

Student 8. There is no goddess on Olympus more beautiful than Aphrodite. From the snow-white foam of sea waters a beautiful goddess was born, near the island of Cythera. Poets call her “born from foam.” First of all, the inhabitants of the islands of Cythera and Cyprus, where the beautiful goddess grew up, began to honor Aphrodite. The gods of Olympus gladly accepted her into their palaces. Wherever the goddess steps, flowers smell everywhere. Wild animals follow her like tame ones. Aphrodite is the goddess of love and beauty. She is kind and gentle to everyone, except those who love only themselves. Thus, she punished the cold and proud handsome young man Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection in the water. Narcissus did not eat or drink, admiring himself. Exhausted by hunger and anguish, he died, but his body was not found. In the place where Narcissus died, a beautiful white flower grew.

Student 9. Terrible to both people and gods, bloodthirsty Ares is the god of war. Thrace, where warlike tribes live, is considered the birthplace of Ares. In honor of Ares, warriors going into battle emit a wild war cry. With a sword in his hand, in full armor, Ares rushes on a chariot across the battlefield. Ares is terrible during battle. He strikes even those to whom he promised help. The great Zeus does not like Ares. Ares was defeated more than once by the beloved daughter of Zeus, the formidable and warlike Athena. Fully armed, wearing a helmet and carrying a sharp spear, Athena emerged from the head of Zeus. Olympus trembled when the goddess descended to earth. The formidable goddess helped the heroes of Hellas. She returned Odysseus to his homeland. Athena is revered as the patroness of city life. She is the goddess of order and reason, the patroness of crafts. The goddess gave her beloved city, Athens, a sacred olive tree. She taught the Hellenes various crafts and was herself skilled in various men's and women's work. She helped the Argonauts build a ship, and the Hellenes who fought at Troy - a wooden horse. The goddess Athena is especially skilled in weaving.

Like all gods, Athena cannot stand the competition of mortals. She turned the girl Arachne, who dared to compete with her in the art of weaving a bedspread, into an ugly spider. Arachne's work was not inferior in beauty to the goddess's veil, but the girl was severely punished for her insolence.

Student 10. Athena is not the only one skilled in crafts. The god Hephaestus is also famous for his craft. Little Hephaestus, frail and ugly, was thrown from Olympus by an angry Hera. But the goddess Thetis hid him at the bottom of the sea. There he learned to forge “twisted rings, clasps, hairpieces, necklaces.” At the request of Thetis, Hephaestus forged wonderful weapons for her son, the glorious hero Achilles.

Hephaestus is the god of fire and blacksmithing.

Hephaestus also made a golden chair for Hera. The chair was very beautiful, but as soon as the goddess sat down in it, indestructible bonds wrapped around her, and she could no longer rise. Only Hephaestus could free Hera, but it was not easy to persuade him to do so. Then a cup of wine was offered to the god of fire and blacksmiths. Hephaestus forgot his grievances, freed Hera and remained among the gods. He built a golden palace for the gods on Olympus.

Student 11. Skilled and Hermes is the swift messenger of the gods, the patron of roads and travelers. In Hellas, at all crossroads there are stone pillars with the head of Hermes at the top - herms. He escorts the souls of the dead to the underworld of Hades, takes care of the herds and lost sheep. Hermes also patronizes trade affairs, sending wealth. He taught people the alphabet and the art of counting, and invented weight measures for them. Hermes is cunning, dexterous and resourceful. He is a skilled thief. As a child, he stole a herd of cows from Apollo. The cheerful prankster Hermes loves to joke with the gods - he once stole a scepter from Zeus, a trident from Poseidon, a sword from Ares, and a bow and golden arrows from Apollo. Hermes is revered by travelers, merchants and even thieves.

Final words from the teacher. These are the Greek gods. They are beautiful and powerful. Centuries have passed. The slopes of Mount Olympus were deserted, the dense forests disappeared. Nobody now believes that gods live on the top of Olympus. People no longer pray to the Olympian gods, just as they do not pray to the gods of the ancient Egyptians. All that remains of the belief in the Olympian gods are legends, or myths, as we call them. By studying the myths of the ancient Greeks, scientists proved that in the images of gods people worshiped powerful forces and formidable natural phenomena that they could not correctly explain.

By studying the mythology of the ancient Greeks, you can learn a lot of useful things. Without knowledge is ancient Greek mythology you cannot study art, since for many centuries wonderful artists and sculptors, writers and poets from all countries have used ancient myths in painting, sculpture, music, and literature.

The Olympian gods spend their time in feasts and entertainment. They can be capricious, cruel, insidious and vindictive. Sometimes they quarrel among themselves. They interfere in people's affairs, participate in their wars, and punish those who dare to violate their will. The Greeks explained rain and drought, sea storms, changing seasons, crop failures, and diseases by the actions of the gods.

The main activities of the Greeks had their own patron gods: Deme true, DionAnd sa, Hephaestus and others. The Greeks made sacrifices to the gods, built temples in their honor, and created legends about them.

The myth of Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Young beauty PersephO on I was picking flowers in the meadow. Suddenly the earth opened up, and the god Hades, the gloomy ruler of the underground “kingdom of the dead,” appeared before her.

O beautiful Persephone! Do not resist the will of Zeus. The king of the gods gave you to me as my wife.

Hades grabbed the frightened maiden, put her on a golden chariot and rode off on fast horses to his underground domain. The shadows of the dead wander there, the rays of the sun do not penetrate there. The entrance to the kingdom of Hades guards Ce rber – a monstrous ferocious dog with three heads and a snake tail.

Persephone's mother, the goddess of agriculture Demeter, plunged into sadness. She is angry with Zeus for giving Persephone to Hades. From Demeter’s melancholy, the ears of arable land dry up, the leaves fly off the trees, the flowers wither, and the grass turns yellow. Hunger threatens all living things.

Zeus became alarmed and sent a messenger of the gods to Hades Herme sa. Wearing golden winged sandals and holding a magic wand in his hand, Hermes appeared in the palace of Hades.

O lord of the dead! Release Persephone to her mother. She will live two thirds of the year on earth and only one third in your terrifying kingdom.

In an instant, Hermes delivered Persephone to her mother. She hugged her beloved daughter Demeter. Because of her joy, flowers bloomed, arable lands and vineyards turned green.

The myth of Prometheus. Once upon a time, people lived in dark caves, did not know fire, did not know how to raise livestock or grow useful plants. The terrible Zeus decided to destroy them all. No one dared to resist Zeus, but the grandson of the Earth goddess Prome tey dared: he saved the unfortunate from death. Prometheus taught people to build houses of stone, plow fields on oxen, harness horses to carts, sew strong sails and sail the seas. Thanks to Prometheus, people mastered writing and counting.

Contrary to the prohibition of Zeus, Prometheus stole fire from the forge of his friend the god Hephaestus and brought it to people. Then Zeus ordered Hephaestus to chain the disobedient man to a wild cliff. Cursing his craft as a blacksmith, and feeling compassion for his friend, Hephaestus fulfilled the will of Zeus. Great were the torments of Prometheus: every day an eagle flew to the cliff and pecked at his liver, and during the night it grew back.

Prometheus was saved by his ability to predict the future. At that time, Zeus conceived a new marriage, this time with the sea goddess FetAnd doy. Prometheus revealed to him a fatal secret: Thetis is destined to give birth to a son who will become stronger than his father. Zeus was afraid of losing power and abandoned thoughts of marriage. The torment of Prometheus also ended. By the will of Zeus, his son Hercules shot the eagle, broke the chains and freed the sufferer. And Thetis married a mortal man and gave birth to the future hero of the Trojan War - Achilles.
The myth of Dionysus and the sea robbers. A young man came out onto the deserted seashore unprecedented beauty. It was the god Dionysus. He once taught people how to grow grapes and make wine.

A sail was visible in the distance. It was a ship of sea robbers.

Hey, helmsman,” ordered the pirate leader. - Head to the shore! There's a young man. Grab him, tie him up and bring him here!

The order was carried out. But a miracle! The ropes fell from the prisoner's hands.

“Madmen! – the helmsman shouted, “you have captured God!” “Shut up,” the leader interrupted him. “We will sell the young man and be his slave.”

Suddenly, a grape vine entwined the mast, and streams of wine began to gurgle throughout the ship. Instantly Dionysus changed his appearance and appeared in the form of a roaring lion. Out of horror, the pirates jumped into the sea and turned into dolphins.

Only the helmsman was spared by Dionysus.
Myths about Hercules. Here are some of the labors of Hercules, the son of Zeus and a mortal woman.

A lion of monstrous size attacked livestock and people. Hercules went to the mountains in search of a lion. Finally, he saw a terrible beast with a shaggy mane. Hercules shot three arrows at him from his bow, one after another. But the arrows bounced off the hard skin without harming the predator! The lion roared menacingly and rushed at the brave hero. The club of Hercules flashed like lightning. Stunned by the blow, the lion fell to the ground. Hercules strangled the beast.

Tsar A vgyy promised to give a tenth of his herds to Hercules if he could clear the dirt from the farmyard in just a day: the animals there stood up to their necks in slurry. Hercules, having filled up the beds of two rivers with stones, changed their course. Water flows rushed into the barnyard and carried away all the manure.

The king of the city of Mycenae instructed Hercules to bring three golden apples from magic garden on the edge of the world. On the way, Hercules had to fight an evil strongman Ante eat - son of the earth goddess Ge And. As soon as Hercules threw Antaeus to the ground, his mother gave him new strength. Then Hercules lifted Antaeus into the air and strangled him. A giant stood at the edge of the world AtlA nt and held the vault of heaven on his shoulders. “I will bring apples for you, son of Zeus,” he promised, “and you hold up the sky for me!” A heavy load fell on Hercules’ shoulders, sweat covered his body... Atlas finally returned. He suggested that he himself would take the apples to Mycenae. Pretending to agree, Hercules only wished to make himself a pillow of grass to put on his shoulders. The giant stood in his place, and Hercules took the apples and said: “Farewell, Atlas, only you can hold the firmament!”

1. 
   What natural phenomena were reflected in the religious beliefs of the Greeks? What are people's occupations?
2. 
   Why did the Greeks especially reverence Zeus and Poseidon, but in the religion of the Egyptians there was no god of thunder and lightning, nor a god of the sea?
3. 
   What attracts us to the heroes of the myths about Hercules and Prometheus?
4. 
   Which people, unlike the ancient Greeks, believed in only one God who created the whole world?

It is difficult to speak briefly about Ancient Greece. After all, this country had a huge influence on the formation of not only Western culture, but also the entire world civilization. Europeans' ideas about politics, philosophy, architecture, literature, medicine, astronomy, and art are based on the ideas of the ancient Greeks.

For example, a person cannot be considered educated if he does not know the basics of Greek mythology. At any art gallery Without this knowledge, it is generally impossible to understand what is depicted on most paintings. European languages ​​contain a large percentage of Greek definitions and words. And in the Russian language, the Cyrillic alphabet is based on Greek writing.

It is surprising that such a huge role in the history of human civilization was played by a small people inhabiting a small territory. People lived in city-states located in the southernmost part of the Balkan Peninsula.

Even in their heyday, the total population of residents did not exceed one million people. This was much less than in Egypt, Persia, Babylonia, and other great ancient monarchies. But we all know that often it’s not a matter of quantity, but quality. Alexander the Great said that one Hellene (ancient Greek) can be equated to a hundred barbarians.

The inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula called the peoples living in their neighborhood barbarians. This definition also applied to the eastern powers. The Greeks themselves considered themselves the flagships of human civilization. It should be noted that this opinion is largely correct.

Natural features of Greece

Nature has divided the Balkan Peninsula into three parts. These are northern, middle and southern. Northern part begins south of Macedonia. In ancient times, it included states located in the north of the peninsula. Currently, the historical regions of Epirus and Thessaly are located here.

middle part Greece separated from the north high mountains. Communication is carried out through the Thermopylae Passage along the coast of the Aegean Sea. In ancient times, areas such as Boeotia, Aetolia, Phocis, as well as the most developed and richest of them, Attica, were located here. Its main center was the city of Athens.

Southern part represents the Peloponnese Peninsula. It is separated from the middle regions by the Isthmus of Corinth. Here the main region was considered Laconia. It is better known to modern people by the name of the militarily strong city of Sparta.

Near the Balkan Peninsula there are many islands located in the Aegean Sea. The largest of them are Crete, Rhodes, Euboea, Chios, Lesbos. Ancient people also inhabited the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea. In these places there were areas such as Caria, Ionia, and Aeolis.

Everyone understands that mountainous terrain limits areas suitable for agriculture. Here, great skill is required to cultivate the land. Therefore, it was difficult with arable land and crops in these places. But the rugged and difficult-to-pass coastline became the reason for the rapid development of navigation.

Ancient era

In ancient times, the lands of Ancient Greece were inhabited by people called Pelasgians. Their skin was light and their hair was dark. In the 3rd millennium BC. e. they knew writing, lived in fortified settlements, engaged in various crafts and agriculture.

At the end of this millennium, invaders from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded the fertile lands. Historians call them proto-Greeks, but they are better known as the Achaeans. As a result of aggression indigenous people was either destroyed or driven out of their rightful lands. Those who survived and managed to adapt to the new situation mixed with the invaders.

City of Mycenae

The Achaeans created large city-states. The largest and strongest of them was the city of Mycenae. The emergence of the city of Troy dates back to this same period. It was inhabited by the Teucr tribe. Homer in the 8th century BC. e. wrote a poem telling about the campaign of the Achaeans against the Trojans.

For a long time, historians considered the Trojan War a fiction. But archaeologist G. Schliemann discovered the ruins of the ancient city in the 19th century and put forward the idea that it was destroyed by a strong fire. The fire consuming everything could have arisen as a result of the siege and assault of Troy by Achaean troops.

Minoan civilization

Speaking briefly about Ancient Greece, the island of Crete should also be mentioned. It was a prosperous area in 2000-1400 BC. e. This period is referred to as the Minoan civilization or Minoan culture.

The name comes from the luxurious palace in the city of Knossos. According to ancient legend, King Minos lived in it. The entire island was under his rule. It was by order of Minos that a huge fleet was built. With his help, the formidable ruler subjugated the neighboring islands. It is believed that even proud Athens paid tribute to the all-powerful ruler.

Ancient Greek dishes

However, as King Solomon said, everything passes. At the end of the 15th century BC. e. A natural disaster occurred in Crete. As a result of this, the Minoan civilization died. Experts believe that the cause was a volcanic eruption on the island of Fera. The eruption caused a tsunami. A huge wave destroyed the Cretan cities along with their inhabitants. After this, the Achaeans occupied the island of Crete and settled on it.

There is every reason to believe that it was a natural disaster in Crete that became the source of the legend of Atlantis. People distorted the historical truth and came up with a powerful power that existed on a huge continent in the Atlantic Ocean.

Archaic era

The Achaeans, who settled in the Balkans, lived calmly and prosperously until the end of the 13th century. It was at this time that the sea peoples appeared on the fertile and well-fed lands of Ancient Greece. Almost nothing is known about them. Only ancient Egyptian sources describe them as slender, white-faced people with dark and blond hair.

These warlike tribes destroyed most Achaean cities. Their population was slaughtered. Only those who managed to escape to the mountains and settled in hard-to-reach places were saved.

It is assumed that the vacated lands were settled by the Dorians. These people stood at a much lower stage of development. Therefore, the culture fell into decay. The construction of stone buildings stopped, and tools became primitive and crude. The old writing was forgotten, but a new one was not created. The period of general decline occurred in the 12th-9th centuries BC. e. Historians call it the “Dark Ages.”

In the Balkans, people lived in small villages ruled by local kings. The backbone of society was made up of patriarchal families who had their own household. At that time there were extremely few slaves. They were owned only by temples, sanctuaries and rulers.

But then came the 8th century BC. e. It is characterized by rapid growth in all areas of life. In just 200 years there have been dramatic changes in ancient Greek society. What caused the rapid evolution is unclear. But in place of wretched villages, prosperous city-states appeared.

Trade and money turnover. A new writing arose, based on the Phoenician alphabet. The construction of temples, theaters, stadiums, and public buildings began. Greek ships began to ply the waters of the entire Mediterranean Sea. Colonies of settlers appeared in Asia Minor, Southern Italy, Sicily, and on the shores of the Black Sea.

Writing utensils and papyrus sheet in Ancient Greece

City-states or, more correctly, policies (polis in Greek means city) were headed by kings. An aristocracy formed around them. Below there was a large stratum of the common population, and at the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. At the same time, their numbers rapidly increased.

Thus, speaking briefly about Ancient Greece, we can conclude that in the 8th century BC. e. A completely new state was formed. It took as a basis the culture that was inherent to the Achaeans. Based on these core values, an even more progressive culture was created. In addition, a new writing arose, science and philosophy began to develop rapidly. The period of the ancient world began, about which modern people know quite a lot.

The culture of Ancient Greece existed since the 28th century. BC. and until the middle of the 2nd century. BC. It is also called ancient - to distinguish it from other ancient cultures, and Ancient Greece itself - Hellas, since that is what the Greeks themselves called their country. Ancient Greek culture reached its highest rise and prosperity in the V-IV centuries. BC, becoming an exceptional, unique and in many ways unsurpassed phenomenon in the history of world culture.

The flowering of the culture of Ancient Hellas turned out to be so amazing that it still evokes deep admiration and gives reason to talk about the real mystery of the “Greek miracle”. The essence of this miracle lies primarily in the fact that only the Greek people, almost simultaneously and in almost all areas of culture, managed to reach unprecedented heights. No other people - neither before nor after - could do anything like this.

Giving such a high assessment of the achievements of the Hellenes, it should be clarified that they borrowed a lot from the Egyptians and Babylonians, which was facilitated by the Greek cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, which served as a kind of windows open to the East. However, they used everything borrowed rather as source material, bringing it to classical forms and true perfection.

And if the Greeks were not the first, they were the best, and to such an extent that in many respects they remain so today. The second clarification concerns the fact that in the field of economics and material production, the successes of the Hellenes may not have been so impressive. However, even here they were not only not inferior to some of their contemporaries, but also surpassed them, as evidenced by the victories in the Persian Wars, where they acted not so much in numbers as in skill and intelligence. True, militarily Athens - the cradle of democracy - was inferior to Sparta, where the entire way of life was military. As for other areas of social life and especially spiritual culture, then in all this the Greeks knew no equal.

Hellas became the birthplace of all modern forms of state and government, and above all - republics and democracies, the highest flourishing of which occurred during the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). In Greece for the first time Two types of labor were clearly distinguished: physical and mental, the first of which was considered unworthy of a person and was the lot of a forced slave, while the second was the only one worthy of a free person.

Although city-states existed in other ancient civilizations, it was the Greeks who had this type of social organization that adopted policy form, showed all its advantages with the greatest force. The Greeks successfully combined state and private form property, collective and individual interest. Likewise, they united the aristocracy with the republic, spreading the values ​​of aristocratic ethics - adversarial principle, the desire to be the first and the best, achieving this in an open and fair fight - for all citizens of the policy.

Competitiveness formed the basis of the entire way of life of the Hellenes; it permeated all its spheres, be it Olympic Games, a debate, a battlefield or a theater stage, when several authors took part in festive performances, presenting their plays to the audience, from which the best was then selected.

Polis democracy, which excluded despotic power, allowed the Greeks to fully enjoy the spirit freedom, which was the highest value for them. For her sake they were ready to die. They looked at slavery with deep contempt. This is evidenced by the well-known myth of Prometheus, who did not want to be in the position of a slave even to Zeus himself, the main deity of the Hellenes, and paid for his freedom with martyrdom.

Lifestyle of the ancient Greeks it is impossible to imagine without understanding the place that occupied them a game. They loved the game. That's why they are called real children. However, the game for them was not just fun or a way to kill time. It permeated all types of activities, including the most serious ones. The playful principle helped the Greeks move away from the prose of life and crude pragmatism. The game led to the fact that they received pleasure and enjoyment from every activity.

The way of life of the Hellenes was also determined by such values ​​as truth, beauty and goodness who were in close unity. The Greeks had a special concept of “kalokagathia”, which meant “beautiful-good”. “Truth” in their understanding was close to what the Russian word “truth-justice” means, i.e. it went beyond the boundaries of “truth-truth”, correct knowledge, and acquired a moral value dimension.

No less important was for the Greeks measure, which was inextricably linked with proportionality, moderation, harmony and order. A well-known maxim has come down to us from Democritus: “Proper measure in everything is excellent.” The inscription above the entrance to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi exhorted: “Nothing too much.” Therefore, the Greeks, on the one hand, believed own an integral attribute of a person: along with the loss of property, the Hellene lost all civil and political rights, ceasing to be a free person. At the same time, the desire for wealth was condemned. This feature was also evident in architecture, The Greeks did not, like the Egyptians, create gigantic structures; their buildings were commensurate with the capabilities of human perception, they did not suppress man.

The ideal of the Greeks was a harmoniously developed, free person, beautiful soul and body. The formation of such a person was ensured by thoughtful education and upbringing system. which included two directions - “gymnastic” and “musical”. The goal of the first was physical perfection. Its pinnacle was participation in the Olympic Games, the winners of which were surrounded by glory and honor. During the Olympic Games, all wars stopped. The musical, or humanitarian, direction involved training in all types of arts, mastering scientific disciplines and philosophy, including rhetoric, i.e. the ability to speak beautifully, conduct dialogue and debate. All types of education were based on the principle of competition.

All this did Greek polis exceptional, unique phenomenon in the history of mankind. The Hellenes perceived the polis as the highest good, not imagining their life outside its framework, and were its true patriots.

True, pride in their polis and patriotism contributed to the formation of Greek cultural ethnocentrism, due to which the Hellenes called their neighboring peoples “barbarians” and looked down on them. Nevertheless, it was precisely this kind of policy that gave the Greeks everything they needed to show unprecedented originality in all areas of culture, to create everything that constitutes the “Greek miracle.”

In almost all areas, the Greeks put forward “founding fathers” who laid the foundation for their modern forms. First of all, this concerns philosophy. The Greeks were the first to create the modern form of philosophy, separating it from religion and mythology, beginning to explain the world from itself, without turning to the help of the gods, based on the primary elements, which for them were water, earth, air, fire.

The first Greek philosopher was Thales, for whom water was the basis of all things. The pinnacles of Greek philosophy were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The transition from a religious-mythological view of the world to a philosophical understanding of it meant a fundamental change in the development human mind. At the same time, philosophy became modern both in its method - scientific and rational, and in its way of thinking, based on logic and evidence. The Greek word "philosophy" has entered almost all languages.

The same can be said about other sciences and, first of all, about mathematics. Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes are the founders of both mathematics itself and the basic mathematical disciplines - geometry, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics. IN astronomy Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose the idea of ​​heliocentrism, according to which the Earth moves around the stationary Sun. Hippocrates became the founder of modern clinical medicine, Herodotus is rightfully considered the father stories like science. Aristotle's "Poetics" is the first fundamental work that no modern art theorist can ignore.

Approximately the same situation is observed in the field of art. Almost all types and genres of modern art were born in Ancient Greece, and many of them reached classical forms and the highest level. The latter primarily applies to sculpture, where the Greeks are rightly given the palm. It is represented by a whole galaxy of great masters led by Phidias.

This applies equally to literature and its genres - epic, poetry. The Greek tragedy, which reached the highest level, deserves special mention. Many Greek tragedies are still performed on stage today. Born in Greece order architecture, which has also reached a high level of development. It should be emphasized that art was of great importance in the life of the Greeks. They wanted not only to create, but also to live according to the laws of beauty. The Greeks were the first to feel the need to fill all spheres of human life high art. They quite consciously strove to aestheticize life, to comprehend the “art of existence”, in order to make a work of art out of their life.

The ancient Greeks showed exceptional originality in religion. Outwardly, their religious and mythological ideas and cults are not too different from others. Initially, the growing multitude of Greek gods was quite chaotic and conflicting. Then, after a long struggle, the third generation of Olympian gods are established, between whom a relatively stable hierarchy is established.

Zeus, the lord of the sky, thunder and lightning, becomes the supreme deity. Second after him comes Apollo - the patron of all arts, the god of healers and the bright, calm principle in nature. Apollo's sister Artemis was the goddess of the hunt and patroness of youth. An equally important place was occupied by Dionysus (Bacchus) - the god of the productive, violent forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Many rituals and merry festivals - Dionysia and Bacchanalia - were associated with his cult. The sun god was Geli os (Helium).

The goddess of wisdom, Athena, who was born from the head of Zeus, was especially revered by the Hellenes. Her constant companion was the goddess of victory Nike. The symbol of Athena's wisdom was the owl. The goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite, born from sea foam, attracted no less attention. Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility. Hermes' competence apparently included greatest number responsibilities: he was the messenger of the Olympian gods, the god of trade, profit and material wealth, the patron of deceivers and thieves, shepherds and travelers, speakers and athletes. He also escorted the souls of the dead to the underworld. into the domain of the god Hades (Hades, Pluto).

In addition to those named, the Greeks had many other gods. They liked to come up with more and more new gods, and they did it with passion. In Athens they even erected an altar with a dedication: “to an unknown god.” However, the Hellenes were not very original in inventing gods. This was also observed among other nations. Their real originality lay in the way they treated their gods.

The basis of the religious ideas of the Greeks there was no idea about the omnipotence of the gods. They believed that the world was ruled not so much by divine will as by natural laws. At the same time, it soars above the whole world, all gods and people. irresistible Rock, whose decisions even the gods cannot change. Fatal fate is beyond the control of anyone, so the Greek gods are closer to people than to supernatural forces.

Unlike the gods of other peoples, they are anthropomorphic, although in the distant past the Greeks also had zoomorphic deities. Some Greek philosophers declared that people themselves invented gods in their own likeness, and that if animals decided to do the same, their gods would be like themselves.

The clearest and most significant difference between gods and people was that they were immortal. The second difference was that they were also beautiful, although not all of them: Hephaestus, for example, was lame. However, their divine beauty was considered quite achievable for humans. In all other respects, the world of the gods was similar to the world of people. The gods suffered and rejoiced, loved and were jealous, quarreled among themselves, harmed and took revenge on each other, etc. The Greeks did not identify, but did not draw an insurmountable line between people and gods. The intermediaries between them were heroes, who were born from the marriage of a god with an earthly woman and who, for their exploits, could be introduced to the world of the gods.

The closeness between man and God had a significant influence on the religious consciousness and practice of the Hellenes. They believed in their gods, worshiped them, built temples to them and made sacrifices. But they did not have blind admiration, awe, and especially fanaticism. We can say that long before Christianity, the Greeks already adhered to the well-known Christian commandment: “Do not make yourself an idol.” The Greeks could afford to make critical statements about the gods. Moreover, they often challenged them. A striking example of this is the same myth about Prometheus, who challenged the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to people.

If other peoples deified their kings and rulers, then the Greeks did not do this. The leader of Athenian democracy, Pericles, under whom it reached its highest point, had at his disposal nothing other than an outstanding mind, arguments, oratory and eloquence to convince his fellow citizens of the correctness of his point of view.

Has a special originality Greek mythology. Everything that happens in it is as human as the gods themselves, who are described in Greek myths. Along with the gods, a significant place in myths is occupied by the deeds and exploits of “god-like heroes”, who are often the main characters in the narrated events. In Greek mythology there is practically no mysticism; mysterious, supernatural forces are not of too much importance. The main thing in it is artistic imagery and poetry, the beginning of the game. Greek mythology is much closer to art than to religion. That is why it formed the foundation of great Greek art. For the same reason, Hegel called the Greek religion “the religion of beauty.”

Greek mythology, like all Greek culture, contributed to the glorification and exaltation not so much of the gods as of man. It is in the person of the Hellenes that man first begins to realize his limitless powers and capabilities. Sophocles remarks on this matter: “There are many great forces in the world. But there is nothing stronger in nature than man.” The words of Archimedes sound even more meaningful: “Give me a point of support and I will turn the whole world upside down.” In all this one can already clearly see the future European, the transformer and conqueror of nature.

Evolution of Ancient Greek Culture

Preclassical periods

In the evolution of the culture of Ancient Greece, it is usually distinguished five periods:

• Aegean culture (2800-1100 BC).
• Homeric period (XI-IX centuries BC).
• The period of archaic culture (VIII-VI centuries BC).
• Classical period (V-IV centuries BC).
• Hellenistic era (323-146 BC).

Aegean culture

Aegean culture often called Crete-Mycenaean, considering the island of Crete and Mycenae as its main centers. It is also called the Minoan culture, named after the legendary king Minos, under whom the island of Crete, which occupied a leading position in the region, reached its greatest power.

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. In the Peloponnese and the island of Crete, early class societies took shape and the first centers of statehood arose. This process proceeded somewhat faster on the island of Crete, where by the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The first four states appeared with palace centers in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia and Kato Zakro. Given the special role of palaces, the civilization that emerged is sometimes called “palace.”

Economic basis Cretan civilization was Agriculture, in which bread, grapes and olives were primarily grown. Cattle breeding also played an important role. Crafts, especially bronze smelting, reached a high level. Ceramic production also developed successfully.

The most famous monument of Cretan culture was the Palace of Knossos, which went down in history under the name "Labyrinth" of which only the first floor has survived. The palace was a grandiose multi-story structure, which included 300 rooms on a common platform that occupied more than 1 hectare. It was equipped with an excellent water supply and sewerage system and had terracotta baths. The palace was at the same time a religious, administrative and commercial center; it housed craft workshops. The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur is associated with it.

Reached a high level in Crete sculpture small forms. In the cache of the Knossos Palace, figurines of goddesses with snakes in their hands were found, which are full of grace, elegance and femininity. The best achievement of Cretan art is painting, as evidenced by the surviving fragments of paintings at Knossos and other palaces. As an example, we can point to such bright, colorful and rich drawings as “Flower Gatherer”, “Cat Watching a Pheasant”, “Playing with a Bull”.

The highest flowering of Cretan civilization and culture occurred in the 16th-15th centuries. BC, especially during the reign of King Minos. However, at the end of the 15th century. BC. a flourishing civilization and culture suddenly perishes. The cause of the disaster was most likely a volcanic eruption.

Emerging in the south of the Balkans part of the Aegean culture and civilization was close to Cretan. It also rested on the palace centers that developed in Mycenae, Tiryns, Athens, Nilos, Thebes. However, these palaces were noticeably different from the Cretan ones: they were powerful citadels-fortresses, surrounded by high (more than 7 m) and thick (more than 4.5 m) walls. At the same time, this part of the Aegean culture can be considered more Greek, since it was here, in the south of the Balkans, in the 3rd millennium BC. The Greek tribes themselves came - the Achaeans and Danaans. Due to the special role of the Achaeans, this culture and civilization is often called Achaean Each dvorep center was an independent state; There were a variety of relationships between them, including contradictions and conflicts. Sometimes they united in an alliance - as was done for the campaign against Troy. The hegemony among them most often belonged to the Mycenaeans.

As in Crete, the basis economy Achaean civilization consisted of agriculture and cattle breeding. The owner of the lands was the palace, and the entire economy had a palace character. It included all kinds of workshops in which agricultural products were processed, metals were smelted, fabrics were woven and clothing was sewn, and tools and military equipment were made.

The earliest monuments of Achaean culture were of a cultic, funerary nature. These include, first of all, the so-called “mine tombs”, hollowed out in the rocks, where many beautiful items made of gold, silver, ivory, as well as a huge amount of weapons have been preserved. Golden funeral masks of the Achaean rulers were also discovered here. Later (XV-XIIJ centuries BC) the Achaeans built more grandiose funeral structures - “dome tombs”, one of which - the “Tomb of Agamemnon” - included several rooms.

A magnificent monument to secular architecture There was a Mycenaean palace, decorated with columns and frescoes. Also reached a high level painting, as evidenced by the paintings of the surviving walls of Mycenaean and other palaces. Among the most bright examples murals include the frescoes “Lady with a Necklace”, “Fighting Boys”, as well as images of hunting and battle scenes, stylized animals - monkeys, antelopes.

Apogee of culture Achaean Greece falls on the XV-XIII centuries. BC, but by the end of the 13th century. BC. it begins to decline, and during the 12th century. BC. all the palaces are destroyed. The most likely cause of death was invasion northern peoples, among whom were the Dorian Greeks, but the exact causes of the disaster have not been established.

Homeric period

Period XI-IX centuries. BC. in the history of Greece it is customary to call Homeric. since the main sources of information about him are the famous poems “ Iliad" And "Odyssey". It is also called "Dorian" - referring to the special role of the Dorian tribes in the conquest of Achaean Greece.

It should be noted that information from Homer’s poems cannot be considered completely reliable and accurate, because they actually contained mixed narratives about three different eras: the final stage of the Achaean era, when the campaign against Troy took place (XIII century BC); Dorian period (XI-IX centuries BC); early archaic, when Homer himself lived and worked (8th century BC). To this we must add the characteristic epic works artistic fiction, hyperbolization and exaggeration, temporary and other confusions, etc.

Nevertheless, based on the content of Homer's poems and data from archaeological excavations, it can be considered that from the point of view of civilization and material culture, the Dorian period meant a certain break in continuity between eras and even a rollback, since some elements of the already achieved level of civilization were lost.

In particular, was lost statehood, as well as urban or palace way of life, writing. These elements Greek civilization were actually born again. At the same time, the arose and became widespread iron use contributed to the accelerated development of civilization. The main occupation of the Dorians was still agriculture and cattle breeding. Horticulture and winemaking developed successfully, and olives remained the leading crop. Trade retained its place, where cattle acted as the “universal equivalent”. Although the main form of organization of life was the rural patriarchal community, the future urban polis was already emerging in its depths.

Concerning spiritual culture, here continuity was preserved. Homeric poems convincingly speak about this, from which it is clear that the mythology of the Achaeans, which forms the basis of spiritual life, remained the same. Judging by the poems, myth continued to spread as a special form of consciousness and perception of the surrounding world. There was also a streamlining of Greek mythology, which acquired more and more complete, perfect forms.

Archaic culture period

Archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC) became a time of rapid and intensive development of Ancient Greece, during which all the necessary conditions and prerequisites were created for the subsequent amazing rise and prosperity. Profound changes are taking place in almost every area of ​​life. Over the course of three centuries, ancient society made a transition from village to city, from tribal and patriarchal relations to relations of classical slavery.

The city-state, the Greek polis, becomes the main form of socio-political organization of public life. Society, as it were, tries all possible forms of government and government - monarchy, tyranny, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republics.

Intensive development of agriculture leads to the release of people, which contributes to the growth of crafts. Since this does not solve the “employment problem,” the colonization of near and far territories, which began in the Achaean period, is intensifying, as a result of which Greece is growing geographically to an impressive size. Economic progress promotes the expansion of markets and trade, based on the emerging monetary circulation system. Started coinage speeds up these processes.

Even more impressive successes and achievements take place in spiritual culture. In its development, an exceptional role was played by the creation alphabetic letter, which became the greatest achievement of the culture of archaic Greece. It was developed on the basis of Phoenician writing and is characterized by amazing simplicity and accessibility, which made it possible to create an extremely effective education system, thanks to which ancient Greece there were no illiterate people, which was also a huge achievement.

During the archaic period, the main ethical standards and values ancient society, in which the asserting sense of collectivism is combined with an agonistic (competitive) principle, with the affirmation of the rights of the individual and personality, and the spirit of freedom. Patriotism and citizenship occupy a special place. Defending one's policy is perceived as the highest virtue of a citizen. During this period, the ideal of a person is also born, in which the spirit and body are in harmony.

The embodiment of this ideal was facilitated by the arose in 776 BC. Olympic Games. They were held every four years in the city of Olympia and lasted five days, during which a “sacred peace” was observed, stopping all hostilities. The winner of the games was highly respected and had significant social privileges (tax exemption, lifelong pension, permanent seats in the theater and at holidays). The winner of the games three times ordered his statue from the famous sculptor and placed it in the sacred grove surrounding the main shrine of the city of Olympia and all of Greece - the Temple of Zeus.

In the archaic era, such phenomena of ancient culture arise as philosophy And spider. Their ancestor was Fal her, in whom they are not yet strictly separated from each other and are within the framework of a single natural philosophy. One of the founders of ancient philosophy and science is also the semi-legendary Pythagoras, whose science takes the form mathematics, is already a completely independent phenomenon.

Reaches a high level in the archaic era art culture. At this time it develops architecture, resting on two types of order - Doric and Ionic. The leading type of construction is the sacred temple as the abode of God. The temple of Apollo in Delphi becomes the most famous and revered. There is also monumental sculpture - first wooden and then stone. Two types are most widespread: a naked male statue, known as a kouros (the figure of a young athlete), and a draped female statue, an example of which was the kora (an upright girl).

Poetry is experiencing a real flourishing in this era. The greatest monuments of ancient literature were the above-mentioned epic poems of Homer “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. A little later, another famous Greek poet, Hesiod, wrote Homer. His poems "Theogony", i.e. the genealogy of the gods, and the “Catalog of Women” complemented and completed what Homer created, after which ancient mythology acquired a classic, perfect look.

Among other poets, the work of Archilochus, the founder of lyric poetry, deserves special mention, whose works are filled with personal suffering and experiences associated with the difficulties and hardships of life. The lyrics of Sappho, the great ancient poetess from the island of Lesbos, who experienced the feelings of a loving, jealous and suffering woman, deserve the same emphasis.

The work of Anacreon, who glorified beauty, love, joy, fun and enjoyment of life, had a great influence on European and Russian poetry, in particular on A.S. Pushkin.

Classical period and Hellenism

The classical period (V-IV centuries BC) became the time of the highest rise and flowering of ancient Greek civilization and culture. It was this period that gave birth to everything that would later be called the “Greek miracle.”

At this time, it is established and fully reveals all its amazing capabilities. antique policy, in which lies the main explanation of the “Greek miracle”. becomes one of the highest values ​​for the Hellenes. Democracy also reaches its highest flourishing, which it owes primarily to Pericles, an outstanding political figure of antiquity.

During the classical period, Greece experienced turbulent economic development, which intensifies even more after the victory over the Persians. Agriculture continued to be the basis of the economy. Along with it, crafts are intensively developing - especially metal smelting. Commodity production, in particular grapes and olives, is growing rapidly, and as a result there is a rapid expansion of exchange and trade. Athens is becoming a major trading center not only within Greece, but throughout the Mediterranean. Egypt, Carthage, Crete, Syria, and Phenicia trade briskly with Athens. Construction is underway on a large scale.

Reaches the highest level . It was during this period that such great minds of antiquity as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle created. Socrates was the first to focus attention not on questions of knowledge of nature, but on problems human life, problems of good, evil and justice, problems of a person’s knowledge of himself. He also stood at the origins of one of the main directions of all subsequent philosophy - rationalism, the actual creator of which was Plato. For the latter, rationalism fully becomes an abstract theoretical way of thinking and extends to all spheres of existence. Aristotle continued the line of Plato and at the same time became the founder of the second main direction of philosophy - empiricism. according to which the actual source of knowledge is sensory experience, directly observed data.

Along with philosophy, other sciences are also successfully developing - mathematics, medicine, history.

Artistic culture experienced an unprecedented flourishing in the era of classics, and first of all - architecture And urban planning. A significant contribution to the development of urban planning was made by Hippodamus, an architect from Miletus, who developed the concept of a regular city layout, according to which functional parts were distinguished: a public center, a residential area, as well as trade, industrial and port areas. The main type of monumental building is still the temple.

The Acropolis of Athens became a true triumph of ancient Greek architecture, one of the greatest masterpieces of world art. This ensemble included the front gate - the Propylaea, the temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory), the Erechtheion and the main temple of Athens, the Parthenon - the temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). The Acropolis, built by the architects Ictinus and Kalikrates, was located on a high hill and seemed to float above the city and was far visible from the sea. Special admiration evoked the Parthenon, which was decorated with 46 columns and rich sculptural and relief decoration. Plutarch, writing about his impressions of the Acropolis, noted that it included buildings “grandiose in size and inimitable in beauty.”

Among the famous architectural monuments there were also two structures classified as one of the seven wonders of the world. The first was the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built on the site of a beautiful predecessor temple that bore the same name and was burned by Herostratus, who decided to become famous in such a monstrous way. Like the previous one, the restored temple had 127 columns, and the inside was decorated with magnificent statues by Praxiteles and Scopas, as well as beautiful paintings.

The second monument was the tomb of Mausolus, the ruler of Karia, which later received the name “Mausoleum in Gali-karnassus”. The structure had two floors 20 m high, the first of which was the tomb of Mausolus and his wife Artemisia. The second floor, surrounded by a colonnade, housed sacrifices. The roof of the mausoleum was a pyramid topped with a marble quadriga, in the chariot of which stood sculptures of Mausolus and Artemisia. Around the tomb were statues of lions and galloping horsemen.

In the era of the classics, the Greek language reaches its highest perfection. sculpture. In this genre of art, Hellas is recognized as having undeniable superiority. Antique sculpture is represented by a whole galaxy brilliant masters. The greatest among them is Phidias. His statue of Zeus, which was 14 m high and adorned the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, is also one of the Seven Wonders of the World. He also created the 12 m high statue of Athena Parthenos, which was located in the center of the Athens Acropolis. Another statue of him - the statue of Athena Promachos (Athena the Warrior) 9m high - depicted a goddess in a helmet with a spear and embodied the military power of Athens. In addition to the named creations. Phidias also took part in the design of the Athenian Acropolis and in the creation of its plastic decoration.

Among other sculptors, the most famous are Pythagoras of Rhegium, who created the statue “Boy Taking out a Splinter”; Myron is the author of the sculptures “Discobolus” and “Athena and Marsyas”; Polykleitos is a master of bronze sculpture, who created Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) and the Wounded Amazon, and also wrote the first theoretical work on proportions human body- "Canon".

The late classics are represented by the sculptors Praxiteles, Scopas, and Lysippos. The first of them was glorified primarily by the statue “Aphrodite of Knidos,” which became the first nude female figure in Greek sculpture. The art of Praxiteles is characterized by a richness of feelings, exquisite and subtle beauty, and hedonism. These qualities were manifested in such works as “The Satyr Pouring Wine” and “Eros”.

Scopas participated together with Praxiteles in the plastic design of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and the mausoleum in Halicarnassus. His work is distinguished by passion and drama, grace of lines, expressiveness of poses and movements. One of his famous creations is the statue “Bacchae in Dance”. Lysippos created a bust of Alexander the Great, at whose court he was an artist. Other works include the statues “Resting Hermes”, “Hermes Tying His Sandal”, “Eros”. In his art he expressed the inner world of man, his feelings and experiences.

In the era of the classics, the Greek culture reaches its highest point literature. Poetry was represented primarily by Pindar. who did not accept Athenian democracy and expressed nostalgia for the aristocracy in his work. He also created iconic hymns, odes and songs in honor of the winners of the Olympic and Delphic Games.

Main literary event becomes the birth and flourishing of Greek tragedy and theater. The father of tragedy was Aeschylus, who, like Pindar, did not accept democracy. His main work is “Chained Prometheus”, the hero of which - Prometheus - became the embodiment of the courage and strength of man, his godliness and willingness to sacrifice his life for the freedom and well-being of people.

In the works of Sophocles, who glorified democracy, Greek tragedy reaches a classical level. The heroes of his works are complex natures; they combine commitment to the ideals of freedom with wealth inner world, depth of psychological and moral experiences, spiritual subtlety. His most famous tragedy was Oedipus the King.

The art of Euripides, the third great tragedian of Hellas, reflected the crisis of Greek democracy. His attitude towards her was ambivalent. On the one hand, she attracted him with the values ​​of freedom and equality. At the same time, she frightened him by allowing an unreasonable crowd of citizens, depending on their mood, to decide issues that were too important. In the tragedies of Euripides, people are shown not “as they should be,” as was the case, in his opinion, in Sophocles, but “as they really were.” His most famous creation was Medea.

Along with the tragedy, it is developing successfully comedy, whose “father” is Aristophanes. His plays are written in a lively, conversational language. Their content consisted of current and topical topics, among which one of the central ones was the theme of peace. Aristophanes' comedies were accessible to the common people and were very popular.

Hellenism(323-146 BC) became the final stage of ancient Greek culture. During this period, the high level of Hellenic culture as a whole was preserved. Only in some areas, for example in philosophy, does it fall somewhat. At the same time, the expansion of Hellenic culture took place on the territory of many eastern states that arose after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great. where it connects with eastern cultures. It is this synthesis of Greek and Eastern cultures that forms it. what is called Hellenistic culture.

Her education was influenced primarily by the Greek way of life and the Greek educational system. It is noteworthy that the process of spreading Greek culture continued even after Greece became dependent on Rome (146 BC). Politically, Rome conquered Greece, but Greek culture conquered Rome.

Of the areas of spiritual culture, science and art developed most successfully in the Hellenistic era. In science leading positions still takes mathematics, where such great minds as Euclid and Archimedes work. Thanks to their efforts, mathematics not only progresses theoretically, but also finds wide applied and practical use in mechanics, optics, statics, hydrostatics, construction. Archimedes is also the author of many technical inventions. Astronomy, medicine, and geography have also made significant progress.

In art, the greatest success accompanies architecture and sculpture. IN architecture Along with traditional sacred temples, civil public buildings are widely built - palaces, theaters, libraries, gymnasiums, etc. In particular, a famous library was built in Alexandria, where about 799 thousand scrolls were kept. The Museyon was also built there, which became the largest center of science and art of antiquity. Among other architectural structures, the 120 m high Alexandria Lighthouse, included among the Seven Wonders of the World, deserves mention. Its author was the architect Sostratus.

Sculpture also continues the classical traditions, although new features appear in it: the internal tension, dynamics, drama and tragedy. Monumental sculpture sometimes takes on grandiose proportions. Such, in particular, was the statue of the sun god Helios, created by the sculptor Jerez and known as the Colossus of Rhodes. The statue is also one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It had a height of 36 m, stood on the shore of the harbor of the island of Rhodes, but crashed during an earthquake. This is where the expression “colossus with feet of clay” comes from. Famous masterpieces are Aphrodite (Venus) de Milo and Nike of Samothrace.

In 146 BC. Ancient Hellas ceased to exist, but ancient Greek culture still exists today.

Ancient Greece had a huge influence on the entire world culture. It wouldn't exist without her modern Europe. The Eastern world would be completely different without Hellenic culture.

Berdina V.A.

Candidate of Cultural Studies, Ukhta State Technical University

THANATOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS ABOUT THE SOUL

annotation

The article is devotedstudying pre-philosophical ideas about the afterlife of the inhabitants ancient Hellas. The author identifies the main types traditional beliefs into the posthumous existence of the soul. Analyzes the main places of residence of the soul after death. Tries to trace the evolution of the religious ideas of the ancient Greeks, who dominated before the cult of the heavenly deity, based on the texts of Homer, Plato, Hesiod, Pausanias.

Keywords: soul; religious ideas; Ancient Greece; afterworld.

Berdina V.A.

Candidate of Culturology, Ukhta State Technical University

THANATOLOGICAL PRESENTATION OF ANCIENT GREEKS ABOUT THE SOUL

Abstract

The paper studies ideas about the afterlife inhabitants of ancient Hellas. The author reveals the main types of traditional beliefs in the existence of the soul after death. It analyzes the main seat of the soul after death. Attempts to trace the evolution of religious ideas of the ancient Greeks, to the prevailing cult of the heavenly deity, based on the texts of Homer, Plato, Hesiod, Pausanias.

Keywords: soul; religious representations; Ancient Greece; afterworld.

IN ancient art the soul was depicted in the form of butterflies, birds, etc., but often acquired a personified image (an example is the image of Psyche). Ideas about the mystical ascent of the soul were formed in the bosom of mythology and were later expressed in the ideas and works of ancient philosophers and poets. In this there is a sequence of development of ideas about the soul, but in general we can talk about the formation single concept the soul is still early, since long before it was preceded by the thanatological views of the ancients.

In antiquity, there were three types of traditional beliefs that prevailed before the cult of the heavenly deity. Let's look at them briefly. First of all, let us highlight three main beliefs about the place of a person’s stay after death, which were widespread in ancient times: the grave, the underworld and heaven.

All these ideas about the afterlife were based on the belief in life after death. Like most other peoples, this “primitive” faith, in all likelihood, grew into the construction of an afterlife, underground world. Let's highlight the most important points here.

Firstly, another world, supposedly existing in the depths of the earth, becomes a kind of reflection of the overworld: it is inhabited by various mythical creatures; it has its own hierarchy, headed by its own ruler, as well as its own underground geography.

Secondly, there is a more than close connection between the external and underground worlds. The souls of the dead not only go to Hades after death, they go there along a certain route, along a path connecting two worlds. The deepest caves and volcanic vents are entrances to the underground kingdom, and theoretically anyone can enter there. The fundamental idea is the presence of a direct connection between the upper and lower worlds and, as a consequence, the possibility of traveling to the lower world with a return return. Even in mature mythologies, not only the descent of a deceased (or living hero) into the underworld is allowed, but also his return to earth.

Thirdly, not all the dead could cross the waters of the Styx. Deceased for whom the necessary rites were not performed or who were not buried properly, were not allowed into the kingdom of the dead until the moment of burial.

Fourthly, the presence of an extensive hierarchy of inhabitants of the underworld is usually associated with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death. After death, a person is put on trial for his earthly accomplishments and, depending on the results of the trial, ends up in a good or bad place. For example, to the Champs Elysees or to Tartarus.

It is known, however, that by the beginning of our era, beliefs maintained according to the canons of classical Greek mythology, established by Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, no longer stand the test of time, nor the criticism of philosophers and scientists. Religion turns into customs and superstitions. At the end of the last era, ancient beliefs experienced amazing transformations: the underworld extended to heaven. This transition is described by Plato at the conclusion of the treatise “The Republic”, where Er, killed on the battlefield, tells people after his resurrection about the structure of the afterlife and how the souls of the dead are distributed by the court for their further residence either in the underworld or in heaven, describes punishments , which await sinners and tyrants, speaks of metempsychosis and the reincarnation of souls.

From the 1st century BC. In the Mediterranean, the belief in the posthumous heavenly ascension of the dead became widespread. This was obviously facilitated by philosophers, mystics and aesthetes. Subterranean regions and topographical features are transferred to the celestial spheres, and subterranean geography becomes cosmography. Now the Champs Elysees (Isles of the Blessed) are located in the sky, usually in the area of ​​seven planets (for the Pythagoreans - on the Moon, for the Stoics - just above it). The road leads to this monastery - Milky Way. The Milky Way itself was often considered paradise. The celestial river Styx is, of course, the border sphere of the Moon. The latter often plays the role of Charon. The role of a translator, or “pusher of the soul,” Psychopomp is often assigned to the Sun. It is curious that even hell (in Latin usually read as infernus and inferi, i.e. “under the earth”), a place where people cannot see, and this means both the coffin and more deep place) moved to the sky: it became the zone of winds, water and fire, i.e. the lowest celestial sphere.

There are many ways in which the souls of the dead ascended to heaven: on foot, up stairs, in a cart, on a boat, on a horse or on another animal; they could fly there on birds or on their own. All this indicates not just the proximity of earth and sky, thanks to which such a journey is possible, but also the incredible proximity of saving immortality.

But how exactly did the ancient Greeks imagine the kingdom of the dead - Hades? If we analyze the myths and poetic descriptions of the habitat of souls after death, then a rather gloomy picture. Hades seemed to the Greeks full of horror; the rivers Cocytus and Acheron flowed along its bottom, as well as the sacred river Styx, whose icy black waters even the gods swore by. According to the thanatological ideas of the inhabitants of ancient Hellas, the unfortunate souls of the dead wandered along the banks of these rivers, filling the underground kingdom with lamentations full of sadness and melancholy. Having moved to the kingdom of Hades, the dead were forever deprived of the opportunity to see the sun and communicate with the human world. Like the ancient Babylonians, the Greeks believed that the underworld was a place of eternal sorrow. In the Old Testament the dead are called rephaim, i.e. “weak”, “powerless”, and Jesus, the son of Sirach, says the following: “For no joy can be found in hell” (Sir.14:17). And when Homer’s Odysseus consoles Achilles - as if he continues to reign in the underworld - he responds with bitterness: “O Odysseus, do not hope to give me consolation in death; I would rather be alive, like a day laborer, working in the field, To earn my daily bread by serving a poor plowman, Than to reign dead here over the soulless dead.”

According to numerous descriptions, in the underworld there are neither green valleys nor beautiful meadows, only dried up rocky land on which not a blade of grass grows, and the river banks are covered with thickets of asphodel, whose pale petals fall into Lethe - the river of oblivion. Once someone who tasted the waters from Lethe forgot about his life on Earth with its joys and sorrows, eternal darkness settled in his soul, so the souls of the dead wander among the flowers of asphodel, moaning and complaining about the evil fate that interrupted their lives. No mortal can return from the underworld. Charon will not take the soul back to the world of the living. The dead man had to pay something to the carrier (2 obols). Initially, this money had a different meaning. This is shown by an epigram from the Palatine anthology, where the soul is addressed with the following words: “When you die, then take with you only an obol from your goods.” This means that the payment to Charon initially played the role of “compensation”, which the living paid to the dead so that he would no longer lay claim to his property and would not try to return for it.

There is no return from the dark kingdom, since the gates of Hades are guarded by the giant dog Cerberus, he has three heads, and snakes wriggle around his neck with a menacing hiss. And the Greeks, at least initially, imagined not one, but several such monsters, as follows from the famous myth of Hercules. After all, the Lernaean Hydra, which Hesiod calls the sister of Cerberus, and the Nemean lion - according to Hesiod, her half-brother, and the two-headed dog of the three-headed Geryon - all of them were originally guards of Hades.

Hesiod describes the genealogy mythical creatures, living in Hades: “...So, not knowing either death or old age, the nymph Echidna, the bringer of death, spent her life underground in Arimah. As they say, the proud and terrible lawless Typhon was united with that quick-eyed maiden in a hot embrace. And she conceived from him, and gave birth to strong-hearted children. For Geryon, first, she gave birth to Orph the dog; Following her - the indescribable Cerberus, terrible in appearance, the Copper-voiced dog of hell, the bloodthirsty beast, brazenly shameless, evil, with fifty heads. She then gave birth to the third, the evil Lernaean Hydra. Also the Nemean Lion, united in love with Orff."

Near the gates of the underworld wander the restless souls of warriors who were not buried and over whom the burial rite was not performed. This is how the soul of Patroclus groans in the Iliad: “Oh! bury me, so that I may enter the abode of Hades! Souls, shadows of the dead, are driving me away from the gates. And the shadows are not allowed to join themselves across the river; I wander in vain before wide-gate Hades."

Caring for a decent burial for the deceased and respect for his grave were considered one of the most sacred duties. They believed that the deceased would not find peace if his body was not buried properly, and that the gods would punish those who did not observe funeral rites. Thus, before the duel with Achilles, Hector sets a condition according to which his body, in case of death, was to be given to relatives for a decent burial. Dying, he asks Achilles not to give his body to be torn to pieces by dogs, but to return it to relatives who would mourn him and bury him. Therefore, duty obliged us to take the bodies of the dead at all costs, so that they would not be captured and disgraced by the enemy. The Iliad describes the events associated with the battle for the corpse of Patroclus as a terrible battle in which Menelaus, Ajax and Hector, leading their squads, fight with varying success - some to protect Patroclus’ body, others to drag it away to desecration.

It was the greatest grief for the relatives of the deceased if the corpse remained unburied. In battles between Greek tribes, with rare exceptions, there was always a mutual exchange of killed, sometimes even by agreement. Generals were obliged to take care of the burial of corpses dead soldiers. Neglect of this duty entailed severe punishment, as, for example, in the case that occurred during the Battle of Arginus in 406 BC. e., described by Xenophon. Even if a Greek accidentally came across the corpse of an unknown person, for example, killed or drowned, in order not to commit a sin, he was obliged to bury it properly. If for some reason the body could not be buried, it was necessary to sprinkle it with several handfuls of earth and thus perform a symbolic burial. Only traitors or criminals were deprived of an honorable burial and their bodies were thrown away. The suicide was buried quietly, without any solemn funeral rites.

But let's return to the description of the underworld. The stern and unforgiving ruler of the underworld, who sits on a golden throne, and sad Persephone sits next to him. The terrible goddess of vengeance Erinyes surrounds the throne of Hades. The soul of the one who committed the crime will not find peace until he enters the underground kingdom of Hades - the Erinyes pounce on him, beat him with their whips, sting with their snakes, do not allow the unfortunate soul to forget for a minute, pursue him everywhere, subjecting him to torture and it is impossible to hide from them.

At the foot of the throne of Lord Hades sit the judges Minos and Rhadamanthus, they judge all those who appear before Hades. Here, at the throne of the ruler, is Tanat, the god of death, with a bright sword and in a black cloak, he stretches out his black wings, from which the cold of the grave emanates. It is he who appears near the dying man’s bed to tear out his soul by cutting off a strand of hair with his sharp sword, and the freed soul goes to the kingdom of Hades.

The ancients experienced sacred horror before the kingdom of Hades also because, according to their ideas, it was there that the highest judgment was carried out over the souls of the dead. Confirmation of this can be found in Plato, as already mentioned in the previous paragraph, who in his treatise “On the State” cites the myth of Er. Er had a chance to visit the afterlife - and this is what he, upon waking up, said: “... The soul, as soon as it left the body, went along with many others, and they all came to some wonderful place where there were two clefts in the ground, one against the other, but on the contrary, above, in the sky, there are also two. In the middle between them sat the judges. After passing the sentence, they ordered the just people to go to the right, up to heaven, and hung a sign of the sentence in front of them, and to the unjust people to go to the left, down, and these too had - behind - the designation of all their misdeeds.”

If we talk about the judgment of the dead, then among the Greeks this idea existed only in certain circles. Homer, in any case, did not yet know it. Thus, Odysseus, having descended into the underworld, sees Minos judging the dead, but this judgment concerns the long-time inhabitants of the underworld. Minos seeks to put an end to the discord between them, as he had to do before on earth. Aeschylus and Pindar, however, speak of a certain judgment immediately after death. Plato first mentions the three judges about whom we later hear so often: Aeacus, Minos and Rhadamanthus; in the “Apology of Socrates” he names Triptolemus (the hero to whom Demeter gave a golden chariot and grains of wheat; traveling all over the world, Triptolemus sowed the earth and taught people to do so. For his righteousness he became one of the judges in Hades) and other righteous people.

IN ancient times There was no clear idea of ​​heaven and hell yet. As for the descriptions of the Champs Elysees or the Isle of the Blessed by Homer or Hesiod, they do not go beyond what can be found among other peoples. If the Iliad talks about the punishment of individual people, namely oathbreakers who “promised themselves to the underworld,” then this is due to this specific situation. The very descriptions of hellish punishments, which are deployed in the Odyssey, but only in relation to Tityus, Tantalus and Sisyphus, are of late, namely Orphic origin: “... I also saw Tityus, the son of the famous Gaia... There he lay; two kites sat on his sides, tore his liver and tormented his womb with their claws...”

But how was it possible to overcome this reverent fear of the afterlife that settled in the souls of mortals? Some Greeks sought to overcome this fear in the Eleusinian mysteries and sacraments, which were associated with the cult of Dionysus.

In the 7th century BC. e. Various ancient authors are already beginning to appear texts in which praises of the benefits bestowed by the mysteries of the Eleusinian goddesses prevail. After all, those people who were initiated into the mysteries of the goddesses received a fate in the afterlife that was different from the fate of the uninitiated: only the initiated found bliss in communication with the celestials. For the rest, only suffering awaited them after death. The high priests of Eleusis were not afraid of suffering beyond the grave and considered death a blessing bestowed from above. In this regard, we can cite an inscription composed by a certain Hierophant (the high priest who initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries), which said the following: “Truly, a wondrous secret was revealed by the blessed gods: Death for mortal people is not a curse, but grace.”

The golden tablet of the “initiates”, found in Lower Italy, says: “From a man you became a god - the soul that came from a god returns to him.” It is not possible to describe the fate of the “initiates” in more detail; according to Plato, the Orphics promised their adherents eternal intoxication and numerous descendants. In his “Republic,” the philosopher describes this as follows: “And Musaeus and his son give to the righteous from the gods blessings more excellent (than those of Homer). In their stories, when the righteous descend into Hades, they are laid out on beds, a feast is arranged for these pious people and they make sure that they spend the rest of the time intoxicated, with wreaths on their heads... And according to other teachings, the rewards bestowed by the gods are spread even further: after a pious man there remain the children of his children and all his offspring.”

However, all these expectations for wide circles of the “uninitiated” had no meaning. In this regard, it is very significant that in the image of the underworld that Polygnotus painted for the Cnidian building at Delphi (“Above [source] Cassotis there is a building in which there are paintings of Polygnotus. This is a donation of the inhabitants of Cnidus. This building is called by the Delphians a lesch, a place for talking , because in ancient times they gathered here for serious conversations and for all kinds of jokes and fairy tales ... ") and which we know from the detailed description of Pausanias, appear first of all Titius, Tantalus and Sisyphus, famous from Homer, then also Ocnus, whose donkey again and again chews the rope he has woven, and, finally, the robber of the temple, together with the disrespectful son and the detractors of the Eleusinian Mysteries - but there are no other sinners here. And most importantly, the reward received by the righteous for their good deeds is also not depicted; however, those initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries generally tried not to disclose their aspirations too much. The fact that Aristophanes parodied these beliefs in his Frogs does not at all indicate their widespread use. Countless texts have survived where they could have been mentioned if they had become available. mass consciousness However, they were of a sacred nature and no direct narratives about them have been preserved.

Thus, we can draw a general conclusion that it is religious ideas that can lift the veil, show and explain many philosophical and everyday ideas about the soul in Ancient Greece, and explain its images in works of art and literature. Religious views initially contain everything, not only providing an explanation, but also giving rise to the analysis of philosophical sources in their processing by the wisest ancient authors, who are also supporters of any religious ideas.

Literature

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