Culture and art of medieval Japan. Medieval Japan

ERA OF TRANSITION FROM ANCIENTITY TO THE MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MIDDLE AGES (6th -8th centuries).

Introduction.

In the 3rd - 7th centuries. V Japan The decomposition of the communal system is completed, classes are born, and on this basis the early feudal state is formed. During the same period, the Japanese were also active in the external arena. They repeatedly invaded the Korean Peninsula and took part in the internecine wars of the Korean states. Returning from these campaigns, the Japanese brought with them Korean artisans, who played a large role in the development of handicrafts in Japan. Direct maritime connections are being established with the Chinese coast, although they are still of a random, episodic nature. In the 7th century. The rulers of Yamato are making attempts to rely on the Sui empire and, with its help, strengthen their power. For this purpose, in 607, the first embassy of the Japanese imperial court, headed by Ono no Imoko, was sent to China. This embassy helped familiarize Japanese rulers with the experience of government in China. Japanese historiography unanimously recognizes the priority of Chinese culture, as the more ancient one, which had a certain influence on the material and spiritual life of the Japanese people during the transition of Japanese society from barbarism to civilization. However, in determining the content of Chinese culture itself and in assessing the degree of its impact on culture in Japan Japanese historians hold very different opinions. Thus, Ito, Miyagawa, Maeda, Yoshizawa give absolute preference to the influence of Chinese culture on the development of Japanese culture and consider the latter nothing more or less than “the provincial culture of China.” Other Japanese scholars interpret Chinese culture itself as part of the general culture of mainland Asia, which absorbed many advanced cultures of the ancient East. The historian Mikami places Chinese culture only in fourth place after Egypt, India and Persia. Matsumoto Yoshio argues that a special role in introducing Japan to the culture of the peoples of Asia was played not by China, but by Korea, through which the Japanese became acquainted with the production and use of bronze and iron, with many types of crafts, with theatrical art, music not only of the peoples of the Korean Peninsula, the Manchus , Chinese, but also more distant peoples: India, Indochina, the Indonesian archipelago. Gunji Masakatsu characterizes the Korean state of Kudara as “advanced in culturally", which introduced Japan to a number of artistic genres in the field of art. Confucianism and Buddhism, which also penetrated into Japan from Korea and China, played a significant role in shaping the spiritual and material life of Japanese society. Buddhism and Confucianism in Japan under the influence of the peculiar conditions in which the formation of the Japanese state took place, expressed in the existence of dual power in the country - the preservation of the nominal power of the emperor while the actual control of the state by the shoguns (military leaders who usurped power), underwent significant changes and ultimately these two contradictory philosophical and religious doctrines were put in the service of a single political goal - educating the people in the spirit of honoring the emperor and glorifying monarchical Japan. Other elements of culture borrowed from China, Korea and other mainland countries also underwent changes. Having adopted the basic elements of Buddhist architecture and sculpture, Chinese and Korean painting, and crafts, the Japanese made either significant changes to them, or based on them they created new, sometimes more advanced samples, as a result of which Japanese material culture took on unique national forms that corresponded historical traditions Japanese people. Taking Chinese characters as a basis, the Japanese later created their own alphabetic writing - kana (in two graphic varieties: katakana and hiragana), as a result of which a mixed hieroglyphic-syllabic national writing was formed, and the Japanese language retained fully its vocabulary and grammatical structure national identity. The establishment of the Japanese national state and national Japanese culture in conditions when major clashes of peoples took place next door, on the Asian continent, and entire states disappeared from the historical stage, was determined by a number of reasons. Firstly, despite the fairly widespread spread of mainland, predominantly Chinese culture in Japan, it covered only the privileged strata of Japanese society, while among the bulk of the people - the peasantry and artisans - national foundations and traditions continued to be preserved, influencing both the aristocracy and to its “Sinicized” culture. Secondly, Chinese culture was brought into the country by relatively small numbers of Korean and Chinese masters, monks, and artists, and in a later period it was spread by the Japanese themselves, which did not entail a violent breakdown of national foundations and, therefore, predetermined the coexistence of two cultures - Chinese and Japanese , mutually influencing each other and ultimately mixing and forming a new culture with the predominant preservation of national characteristics. Third, Japan during its first attempts to gain a foothold on the continent, it encountered China on the Korean Peninsula and suffered a severe defeat (the Battle of Kunsan in 663). In China, therefore, she met a formidable adversary, which could not but arouse her feelings of wariness towards China. Under the influence of this, Japanese rulers, even at the early stage of the formation of the state, tried to limit the activities of the Chinese on their territory and muffle the influence of Chinese culture. Having made extensive use of the historical experience of China and Korea, Japan at the same time persistently developed and strengthened nation state, always preserving its sovereignty. The island position of Japan, which determined the slowness of its development before the creation of a centralized state, played a positive role in its subsequent history. It facilitated the country's external defense and thus, to some extent, compensated for economic and cultural weaknesses in collisions with the stronger states of continental Asia.

Philosophy and religion.

Shintoism.

The reconstruction of early Shintoism is very difficult due to later layers. The so-called kambunzensho are three main books: Kujiki (620), Kojiki (712) and Nihongi (720), as well as the first 10 volumes of the 50-volume Engishiki (Books ceremonies and customs”, 927), which are considered the main source of the Shinto worldview (the history of Shinto, its dogma and ritual), are in fact far from the original Shintoism of the 5th - 6th centuries. n. e. By the way, the name “Shinto” itself appears later, after the spread of Buddhism in Japan and in contrast to it. Starting from the end of the 6th century. Shintoism is heavily influenced by Korean and Chinese ideologies: Confucianism, Taoism (to a lesser extent) and, especially widely, Buddhism. The classical sacred books mentioned above, especially the Nihongi and Engishiki - the sources of Shinto - also did not escape this. (Moreover, “Nihongi” imitates in the manner and style of presentation of the material the work of the famous Chinese historian Sima Qian, as well as the dynastic history of the Han - Han-shu.) The Shinto myths and traditions contained in them were interpreted in accordance with Chinese canons and traditions. Nevertheless, there is a strong tradition in these writings, rooted in the proto-Japanese culture of the Bronze Age. Of particular interest are the Kojiki and Engishiki (or rather, the Shinto norito prayers included in them). Despite the strong influence of foreign culture during the period of recording of the Kojiki, the entire work as a whole indicates that the local tradition lives and strengthens, embodied in the Shinto worldview. The mythology of the early archaic layers of Shintoism is preserved in the Kojiki, Fudoki and even in the Nihongi and makes it possible to identify developed animism and even earlier archaic fetishism and totemism at such a late stage of cyclization.

Buddhism.

Buddhism entered Japan along with Chinese writing around the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. during the period of Yamato's active intervention in the war between the Korean state of Baekje, on whose side Japan was, and Goguryeo. By this time, the Japanese had captured the territory of Miman in the south of the Korean Peninsula and turned it all into the possession of King Yamato - Miyake. The preaching of Buddhism enjoyed success among the powerful aristocracy, especially among the king's entourage after the conquest of Miman, when the influx of immigrants from Korea increased significantly. In general, the seizure of the Korean province undoubtedly contributed to the synthesis of feudalism in Yamato. Therefore, favorable conditions awaited Buddhist missionaries, whose activities increased significantly after the 2nd (or 4th) council in the Kushan kingdom. The Soga clan, which made up the king’s inner circle (in the 4th century, a tradition was established according to which the king had to marry women from the Soga clan), was one of the first to accept Buddhism, seeing in it a support in the struggle for power. In 552, ten years before the third of the Korean feudal states of Silla, having strengthened, recaptured Miman from Japan and forced the Japanese to leave the peninsula, a magnificent embassy was sent from Baekje, which sought Yamato's help against Silla, to the Sumeragi court. Among other gifts, a bronze sculpture of Buddha and several sutra scrolls were brought to Japan, which were initially received very favorably. The Soga even placed a bronze Buddha in a Shinto shrine. But soon Nakatomi, with the support of Mononobe, opposed Soga. The struggle especially intensified after the loss of Miman. Taking advantage of the unrest that began due to the defeat in Korea, Mononobe and Nakatomi declared that the angry Shinto deities were demanding retribution, and threw the Buddha into the waters of the Naniwa Canal. However, the victory of the opponents of Buddhism turned out to be fragile. During the outbreak of the Soga pestilence, with the help of Buddhist monks, they managed to win the king over to the side of Buddhism, and the head of the Soga clan, Umako, received permission to resume the cult of Buddha and began to build small Buddhist temples. The Mononobe continued their fierce struggle, but in 587 Umako Soga finally defeated the Mononobe and Nakatomi and enthroned his protege Sujin, who converted to Buddhism. By the end of the 6th century. The influence of Buddhism and Soga at court and among the nobility grew so much that the high Shinto priesthood and the secular nobility that supported it were relegated to the background. After Umayado (Shotoku-Taishi) became regent-taishi in 593 with the support of Soga, the intensified introduction of foreign culture and Buddhism (mainly its Mahayanist branch) began, and the further development of Japanese statehood took place under the sign of the growing influence of Buddhism. Although later, in the 7th century, the alliance of Sumeragi and Nakatomi, directed against the former stronghold of Buddhism - Soga, contributed to the appearance and well-known successes of Confucianism in Japan, this did not prevent the establishment of good relations between the imperial house and the monasteries. Since the introduction of Buddhism to Japan, initially 8 sects arose in this country. The teachings of all these sects came from China and Korea. The Jojitsu sect was created in 625 by the Buddhist monk Ekkan, who arrived in Japan from Korea. The same monk also founded another Buddhist sect, Sanron or Sanronshu, in 625. In 660 (according to other sources in 653), the preacher Dosho, upon returning from Korea, where he studied, founded the third Buddhist sect, Hossoshu. In the same year, the Buddhist preacher Chitsu, upon returning from China, founded the fourth Kusashu sect in Japan. In 739, the fifth sect, Kengoshu, was founded by Chinese Buddhists who arrived in Japan. In 754, the sixth Buddhist sect, Ritsu or Risshu, was founded here by a Chinese preacher. In 806, the Buddhist Saicho (or Dengyo Daishi), upon returning from China, founded the seventh Tendaishu sect on Mount Hiei near Kyoto, and Kukai (or Kobo Daishi) in the same year founded the eighth Shingon sect on Mount Koya. Subsequently, new sects arose that played a particularly active role in the political life of the country. For borrowings in the Buddhist pantheon, see the section “Sculpture and Painting.”

Confucianism.

It can be assumed that the first acquaintance of the Japanese with Confucianism took place in the 5th - 6th centuries, although Japanese historiography - without providing any documented evidence - dates this event to the end of the 3rd century, linking it with the arrival from Korea in 285 of the scientist Confucian Wang Yi, who allegedly brought as a gift to the Japanese emperor the Confucian work “Lun-yu” and a textbook for studying the Chinese language “Qian-tzu-wen” (“Thousand hieroglyphs”). This version of the early acquaintance of the Japanese with Confucianism is based on the myths and traditions set out in the first canonical books “Kozaki” and “Nihongi”, compiled at the beginning of the 7th century. The Soviet orientalist Ya. B. Radul-Zatulovsky, based on Chinese sources, notes that the book “Qian Tzu Wen,” although it was compiled for the family of the Chinese Emperor Wu Ti in the 3rd century, became widespread in China only in the 6th century ., therefore, it could not have reached Japan before this time. Acquaintance of the Japanese with Confucianism in the 6th century. is confirmed by the fact that in 609 a Japanese mission was sent to China for training, which included a descendant of Emperor Ojin, Minabutino Shoan, and Takamuku Kuromaro, who later became prominent preachers of Confucianism. But, regardless of the reliability of one or another date of acquaintance of the Japanese with the teachings of the outstanding moral philosopher of ancient China Confucius, this teaching undoubtedly formed the basis of the worldview of the ruling elite of Japan during the formation of the Japanese state. Many prominent Japanese scholars claim that Confucianism in Japan has reached incomparably greater development than in China, and that only in Japan is this teaching truly revealed and in combination with the teachings of “Yamato-damashii” (“spirit of Japan”) and “Bushido” (“samurai spirit”) formed the basis of the “ideal national culture" The Confucians were the first compilers of Japanese "dynasty records" and played important role in the creation of the bureaucracy under the Japanese emperors. They were in charge of the construction of temples, state warehouses, kept records, performed the duties of advisers and scribes, and the largest, most trained part of them were Chinese and Koreans. More reliable data on the spread of Confucianism in Japan, and with it other types of Chinese culture, date back to the beginning of the 7th century. Since that time, knowledge of the Chinese language and mastery of Confucian dogmas have become mandatory signs of a noble, aristocratic education (the Chinese language has become especially widespread in science. Nakamura Hajime in his work “The Ways of the Ideas of the Peoples of the East. India, China, Tibet, Japan,” published in 1964 in Honolulu, notes: “In the world of science, the most educated Japanese in ancient times - Buddhist monks and Confucian scholars - published their works in Chinese...” However, Nakamura notes that “the Japanese often misinterpreted the original Chinese texts "This misinterpretation of the sources conveying Chinese ideas represents one of the most significant phenomena in the history of Japanese thought." Under Emperor Tenji (662 - 670), the first state educational institution was created, headed by a Confucian scholar from Korea, and under Emperor Tenmu (673 - 686), this school was transformed into an “imperial school”, which became the main center spread of Confucianism and Chinese culture. Confucianism, as the dominant ideology of the Japanese aristocracy, opened a wide path for the spread of the entire system of Chinese culture. The peculiarity of Japanese Confucianism was that it was the property of only the highest aristocratic circles of Japanese society, remaining inaccessible to the wider masses. Confucianism also encountered opposition from the Japanese feudal lords, since the basic principles of this teaching, which provided for the assertion of the power of the emperor, were in conflict with their separatist aspirations and deprived them of the moral right to wage an internecine war for state power in the country. Buddhism, which penetrated into Japan in the 6th century, received great support from the Japanese feudal lords. n. e. The preaching of Buddhism about renunciation of the “perishable worldly vanity” in order to achieve nirvana, which opens the way to the transformation of a person into Buddha, gave the feudal lords an effective ideological weapon to maintain dominance over the masses. At the same time, Buddhist teaching placed all people who professed it on an equal position before the Buddha and, therefore, unlike the Confucian canons, each of the feudal lords could claim equal rights to power over the people with the emperor. As Buddhism spread and was used in the struggle to establish the dominance of one of the most powerful feudal families, which actually usurped imperial power in the country, Japanese preachers of Buddhism began to look for ways to eliminate contradictions with Confucianism on the central political point - the attitude of subjects to the emperor. They argued that the Mahayana branch of Buddhism, which is most widespread in Japan, does not deny the basic Confucian principles of government and social order life for the entire time until “the kingdom of the Buddha triumphs.” In Buddhist schools, there were rules for students, according to which a monk must combine religious devotion to the bodhisattva with Confucian service to the state and society.

The process of adapting Confucianism and Buddhism to Japanese living conditions accelerated as Chinese and Korean preachers were forced out and the leadership of temples and schools was concentrated in the hands of the Japanese clergy. (During the first period of the spread of Buddhism in Japan, Japanese temples and monasteries had to obtain permission from China to operate in Japan). Along with these foreign teachings, the ancient Japanese religion, Shintoism (worship of the forces of nature and veneration of the spirit of ancestors), which has survived to this day, continued to play a major role in the life of Japanese society. The combination of these contradictory philosophical and religious doctrines, combined with folk traditions generated by socio-historical conditions, formed the ideological basis of Japanese society.

Writing.

Official Japanese historiography, based on the myths and traditions of the Kojiki and Nihongi, claims that the spread of Chinese hieroglyphic writing in Japan is closely related to Confucianism, although acquaintance with Chinese writing, as confirmed by some historical monuments, occurred at the turn of the new era. Thus, in the Japanese museum (Shigonashima in Fukuoka Prefecture) there is a gold seal that was sent in 57 by the Chinese emperor of the late Han dynasty to the king of the Japanese kingdom of Wa; There are Chinese characters in the center of the seal. The use of Chinese hieroglyphic writing by the Japanese dates back to the 4th - 5th centuries: in the imperial collections of Japan there is a bronze mirror of Japanese work with hieroglyphic inscriptions, found in the village of Kawai, Nara Prefecture, dating back to the 4th - 5th centuries. Around 400, a special embassy was sent from Baekje to Japan. It included two Chinese scientists of Korean origin, named Akiti and Wani in the Nihongi. They brought with them scrolls in Chinese and Korean. According to tradition, this moment is considered the beginning of the introduction of Chinese writing in Japan. However, in the 5th century. writing was still the property of very few and only at the end of the 5th - beginning of the 6th century, when the Chinese letter was adapted to the Japanese language, it received practical use. During the reign of Shotoku-Taishi in 607, Ono no Imoko was sent from Yamato to China (to the Sui court) at the head of a large embassy. In 608 He returned accompanied by the Chinese ambassador. The power of Shotoku-Taishi reached its zenith. At court, chronicles began to be kept in Chinese. According to legend, in 620 two historical works attributed to Shotoku-Taishi were completed - “Tenno-ki” (“Chronicle of the Kings”) and “Koku-ki” (“Chronicle of the State”). A whole staff of monks (Koreans, Chinese, Japanese) was busy copying Buddhist sutras and Chinese commentaries on them. The scrolls were decorated with paintings by experienced craftsmen. Under Shotoku-Taishi, there was increased immigration of Korean and Chinese monastic preachers, scientists, artists, musicians, and artisans.

Legislation.

In 604, the Chinese calendar was introduced in Japan. In the same year 604, the so-called “Law of 17 Articles” was proclaimed. Strictly speaking, this law did not yet represent a set of current legislation. Rather, it was a highly authoritative collection of teachings on virtue, apparently compiled by scholars belonging to the Chinese theological school. Extremely tendentious, like all works of this kind, the “Law of the 17 Articles”, in addition to Buddhism, is also marked by the serious influence of Confucianism, along with which elements of Taoism also appear in the arsenal of Japanese scholarship. Presented rather haphazardly, the moral and ethical teachings contained in the collection can serve as a recommendation for the application of the norms of customary law, which existed at that time and served as the basis for legal proceedings. Subsequently, in the 8th and especially in the 10th-13th centuries, when legal norms were systematized and written down in full accordance with feudal jurisdiction, the compilers of various codes and philosophical and legal treatises liked to refer to the “Law of 17 Articles”. In 645, Nakatomi Kamatari and his associates inflicted a decisive defeat in an armed struggle on the Soga clan that had dominated for a long time. To consolidate the fruits of his victory, he is more definitely pursuing reforms to centralize control in the Chinese style. Along with the Sinicization of the leadership center and the construction of an imperial court with all Chinese attributes, the legal remnants of the clan system were eliminated and a number of institutions that did not correspond to the new situation were destroyed. Taika's coup marked the beginning of a new era Japanese history. To understand what the royal house that won the final struggle began to do, it is necessary to take into account the enormous role that Chinese civilization played in all this. Introduced by Korean and Chinese settlers, it concentrated mainly within the most powerful clans, of which the royal was the strongest. This civilization belonged to a state that was far ahead of Japan in its historical development, in particular, which had long ago switched to feudalism. In the 7th century. The Chinese political system is characterized by a strong strengthening of state power for a long time - since the 5th century, since the time of the Northern Wei (and perhaps even earlier - since the time of the Western Jin - 3rd century), which waged a fierce struggle with local feudal lords. Kings of the Northern Wei kingdom (386 - 577), North. Qi (550 - 577), North. Zhou (557 - 580), as well as the unifiers of China - the emperors of the Sui dynasty (581 - 618) and then the Tang (618 - 919) came to power precisely by subjugating these feudal lords and seizing the main wealth and economic country's resources. This was done in the form of expropriation of all feudal estates, removal from the power of local feudal lords of the country's agricultural population, and hence the income from it, and the introduction instead of a system of equal land plots for all (jun-tian). In this way, not only was the economic importance of local feudal lords undermined; In this way, the emperors seized into their own hands the income of the entire country in the form of a tax on allotments, i.e., they turned the exploitation of the peasantry to their benefit. On this basis, a political ideology grew, imbued with the spirit of centralism and absolutism of the supreme power, and naturally, this ideology was supported by the Japanese kings and contributed to the formation of their tendencies into a certain political system in the spirit of Chinese absolutism. In 645, a preliminary census of the lands and population and separately of Buddhist monks and nuns was carried out. The system of the Tang state was taken as a model. On the first moon of 646, a royal decree was proclaimed to carry out the Kaishin no Cho reform, which, based on the years of its reign, received the name Taika (Great Reform); This reform was finally formalized in the Taihoryo code of laws (701). In the 8th moon of the same 646, a new decree already announced the distribution land plots. Among the measures outlined by the Kaishin no Cho reform was also the abolition of all old taxes and duties and the introduction of new system taxation (modeled on the Tang system). At the same time, the capital of the state was moved from Asuka to Toyosaki, at the mouth of the Yodo River. Toyosaki remained the capital until 710. Chinese and Korean immigrants, Buddhist monks, scientists, and artisans began to move to the new capital in large numbers. The capital's culture is becoming sinicized, which was greatly facilitated by the trips of the Japanese to China for a very long period of time. Thus, members of the embassy sent by Shotoku-Taishi in 607 returned to their homeland 30 years later, enriched by Chinese science. During this time, and especially soon after the start of the reform, embassies were sent to the Tang court more than once.

Architecture.

According to legend, the first Buddhist temple was built in 552 in honor of the image of Buddha brought from the Korean state of Kudara (Baekje). Soon, opponents of Buddhism from the Mononobe and Nakatomi clans burned the temple, and threw the Buddha statue into the waters of the Naniwa Canal. As a result of a fierce struggle between these two clans and the Soga clan, which supported Buddhism, the latter won and the construction of Buddhist temples resumed. By 640, according to the Nihongi, 46 temples had already been built. But almost all of them died from fire in ancient times. The only happy exception is the famous Horyuji Monastery, the main buildings of which, dating back to the 7th century: the kondo - the Golden Temple, the pagoda, the kairo - the covered gallery and the chumon - the outer gate - have survived to this day. Although after the fire of 670, which destroyed a significant part of the monastery, all its main buildings were rebuilt, the Golden Temple and the pagoda, according to experts, retained their original appearance. Located 7.5 Japanese miles (approximately 29 km) south of Nara, the temple consisted of a pagoda (to in Japanese) and a Golden Temple (kondo). Around these main buildings, other buildings, galleries, etc. were erected. Initially there were seven buildings, hence the name of the temple ensemble - “Sitido-goran”, i.e. seven buildings. Then there were many more of them. The architectural style was brought from China by Korean craftsmen who built the first Buddhist temples of the Asuka period (6th century). From the very beginning, all temple buildings were built taking into account the surrounding landscape. The nature of understanding the architectural ensemble and landscape as a single complex was borrowed from China. True, in China neither a temple complex nor even the ruins of temples built according to a plan similar to that of Horyuji have survived, although a number of sources (including, for example, Dunhuang paintings) indicate the existence of such architectural examples there. In Korea, on the territory of the ancient state of Kudara, buildings of this type also did not survive. Only on the territory of the Silla state did the Japanese archaeologist Sekino Tei manage to discover traces of the Houan Longseu Temple, in which there were buildings such as chumon, condo, etc., and they were located along an axis running from south to north - feng shui. Feng Shui - the principle of geomancy, which was the basis for the orientation of the sovereign's palace inside the Chinese capital since the Han Dynasty - is also found in many architectural monuments of Japan from the early Middle Ages. Thus, the buildings of the Horyuji Monastery, as well as the wooden architecture in the Shitennoji ensembles in Naniwa (Osaka) and Yamadera, copied from Sino-Korean models, are monuments not only of Japanese, but also of Chinese and Korean medieval temple architecture. However, in contrast to the Chinese canons, in the ancient ensemble of Horyuji, despite the strict plan of the entire ensemble as a whole, features characteristic of the Japanese aesthetic worldview clearly appear. Thus, in the western part of Horyuji - the Saiin ensemble - two main elements of the architectural ensemble: the Golden Temple and the pagoda - are not located along the Feng Shui axis, but stand side by side (the pagoda is in the west, the Golden Temple is in the east). With this arrangement, the viewer’s feeling of excessive congestion of the entire ensemble with two massive structures disappears. This desire for greater freedom of composition reveals features inherent specifically to Japanese art. The main features of the emerging architectural style are laid down in the main buildings of the Saiin ensemble - the condo, Gojunoto pagoda and Chumon. Kondo is a building in which the main shrine is kept and where access to the laity was prohibited. There are two versions of the dating of the condo. According to the first, the building was built in the period 607 - 616, and at the beginning of the 8th century. the lower floor was surrounded by a covered gallery, which noticeably distorted the appearance of the building. Another version dates the condo to 711, when the building was restored according to the old model. Kondo is a typical example of Japanese Buddhist architecture from its earliest period. It fully embodied the most characteristic features inherent in Japanese wooden architecture of antiquity and the early Middle Ages: the rigor and simplicity of building structures, which are also details of architectural decor. The structures, open for viewing, are decorated with a peculiar pattern both in the interior of the temple and in its outer part. The main load-bearing part is not the adobe wall, which plays the role of a partition, but a system of brackets supporting the crowning cornice. Moreover, the brackets, intersecting in the form of a beam of four rays directly at the eaves, are located in such a way that their silhouette is similar to the outline of a cloud. Hence the name of this constructive and decorative style - kumogata hijiki (clouds). The arrangement of brackets intersecting in a beam on the axis of the column was borrowed, according to a number of authors (J. Buo, R. Payne, etc.), from the Chinese architects - builders of the Yungang and Longmen temples. Figures made of carved stone, which in the mentioned temples have approximately the same purpose as brackets, are recognized by these authors as prototypes of brackets. However, we should not forget about the very complex path of transferring the structures of wooden architecture and stone cave temples of China into the wooden architecture of Japan. On the other hand, as noted by the same J. Byuo and other so-called kumogata are found only in Japanese architecture. The origin of kumogate, according to these authors, goes back to the barn-type buildings of the ancient population of the Japanese islands - the Ainu, who built their barns in such a way as to protect their contents from rats. The three central beams of the south facade of the condo open wide double doors in the plane of the facade wall. There are similar doors in the walls of three other facades: northern, western and eastern. The doors also serve as the only source of daylight. The beams - naijin - of the temple interior itself are fitted to each other and form a surface that is painted no later than the beginning of the 8th century. The naijin lampshade is made up of two parts: shirin (formed by inclined planks) and the lampshade itself - (ori-agekumiire). This design of the lampshade remains unchanged over the following centuries. In the central part, the ceiling turns into a lantern in the shape of a truncated pyramid. J. Buau and others believe that the lantern of the ceiling is an imitation of the cave temples of Bamiyan, which in turn imitate Indian wooden architecture. The bizarre design of the roof, the upturned corners of which seem to hang on invisible threads, like the entire silhouette of the building, served, perhaps, the same purpose as the religious buildings of the islands of Oceania, namely, it was supposed to arouse reverence and superstitious fear. To the same extent, the pagoda must have evoked these same feelings. There are two theories about the origin of the pagoda. According to one, the pagoda grows out of an Indian stupa due to atrophy of the hemispheres of the stupa (anda) and hypertrophy of its mast and umbrella. According to another theory, the pagoda develops from a tower that was built to protect the stupa. The appearance of the Horyuji pagoda, placed on a stone stylobate, no longer has anything in common with squat and massive stupas. The prototypes of the Japanese pagoda were probably the unpreserved pagodas of China and Korea. A Japanese pagoda could be quadrangular or polygonal in plan, but never round, while Indian stupas and Chinese pagodas very often had the appearance of a round tower. “Five-tiered pagoda” - Gojunoto - is considered a wonderful example of free composition. The silhouette of the pagoda, formed by the inclined intersecting lines of rafters and brackets, is completely permeated with air. That is why it gives the viewer the impression of illusory graphics and appears only in two dimensions, as if devoid of plastic expression. The total height of the pagoda is 33.5 m, of which its spire accounts for 9.7 m. The size of the tiers of the pagoda progressively decreases from the base to the top. The same phenomenon is observed in Indian (stupa) and early Chinese (pagoda) architecture, but to a lesser extent. The last monumental structure of the ancient ensemble is the internal gate - tumon. Tumon is the gate of the inner fence of the monastery, which is located directly in front of the entrance to the sanctuary. Various outbuildings of the monastery were located outside this fence. The architectural form of this kind of structure appears in China during the Sui Dynasty, i.e. at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. In Japan, it is undergoing quite significant changes towards more freedom compositions. The division of the Tumon façade and the unique shape of its columns have already been discussed; the proportions of their structures also change.

At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. in architectural style Japan Significant changes are taking place. The more regular connections with the mainland are increasing the influx of craftsmen, including architects, who are increasingly beginning to spread their familiar style. Chinese masters are gradually replacing Korean ones. The intensifying process of transferring the features of the Chinese architectural style to Japanese soil was reflected primarily in the Yakushiji temple complex. Yakushiji, or Nishi no kyo, is one of the seven famous monasteries created in the 7th - 8th centuries. (Todaiji, Kofukuji, Horyuji, Horinji, Kangoji, Dayanji), was located in Asuka until 710. After being moved from Asuka to Nara in 718, the Yakushiji temple complex was significantly expanded. Unlike Horyuji, in Yakushiji there is no longer one pagoda, but two - eastern and western, although the condo building is still open to view from all sides and is located on an axis from south to north. The three-tier Sanjunoto Pagoda (the only one that has survived) is considered by Japanese art historians to be a beautiful architectural monument. However general form The pagoda, especially its silhouette in comparison with the Gojunoto Pagoda of Horyuji Monastery, rather contradicts the strict simplicity and laconicism inherent in Japanese art. The complex system of roofs and galleries gives a complex and restless rhythm to the vertical silhouette of the pagoda, which extends to the bronze spire-sorin and especially to its top-suien. According to G. Pierre, J. Buo and other art historians, the origin of suien is purely Chinese, and it was executed in the style of the era of the Northern Wei state. Suien is a stylized image of Buddhist angels dancing in flames. They seem to float in the air. Supporting the sacred Lotus cup with your hands. The robes of angels and flowing scarves are intertwined with tongues of flame, forming a symbolic flaming oval, similar to the Buddhist emblem of Hoshu no tama (hence another name for this part of the spire - hoshu). Unlike the ancient ensemble of Horyuji Monastery, the Yakushiji ensemble is organized in accordance with the Chinese canons of symmetrical construction. Yakushiji not only has two pagodas instead of one, but also two bell towers. And they are located according to Chinese tradition - on both (eastern and western) sides of the condo. Moreover, the Yakushiji ensemble is larger and more densely built. Thus, the harsh purposefulness of the beautiful beauty of the Saiin ensemble of Horyuji Monastery is lost.

Nara was the first to Japan big city, which from the very beginning was built according to a plan known in advance in all details. The clear, detailed layout of the city was borrowed from China, where urban architecture was strictly regulated during the Tang era. In the construction of the Chinese capital Chang'an, the architectural canons of the Tang era were most fully embodied. It was these that the builders of Nara sought to copy. The first Japanese capital replicates Chang'an on a smaller scale. Their plans are similar. However, the architecture of Nara's urban structures was marked by typically Japanese features from the very beginning. This was probably facilitated by the fact that in Nara all buildings were constructed only from wood, while in Chang'an both stone and wood were used for construction.

Toshodaiji Monastery, like Todaiji, is considered to be an example of Chinese palace and temple architecture of the Tang era. Moreover, according to legend, he was the founder of the monastery. Chinese monk Kansin (688-763). Kanshin, or Ganjin, was from Hunan. In 793 (and according to other sources in 754) he arrived as a preacher in Japan and was placed in Todaiji. In 759, Kanshin founded the Toshodaiji Monastery near Nara, in the palace of Prince Tanabe, which was granted to him, of which he became abbot. Under the leadership of Kansin, as legend says, 180 Chinese craftsmen built the temple. The “to” in the name of Toshodaiji is the Chinese word for “Tang”, i.e. the name of the dynasty, in turn, goes back to the Sanskrit caturdeca - “four countries of the world.” Another name for the monastery is Toritsushodaiji, or Ryukiji, i.e. “the rise of the dragon”, or Kensairitsuji, i.e. education of Vinaya. Thus, the temple, according to the plan of its founder, was to become a copy of the Chinese universal temple.

Although Japanese architecture experienced in the 7th - 8th centuries. strong influence of foreign architectural styles (Korea, China, India), due to the adoption of Buddhism, which very soon turned into the state religion, the local architectural tradition does not disappear or dissolve in this foreign architecture. Neither the construction of Buddhist religious buildings, which became the main branch of Japanese architecture, nor the flow of foreign craftsmen pouring into Japan could destroy this tradition.

Sculpture and painting.

In a relatively short period of time - the 7th and 8th centuries. sculpture goes through a very complex and contradictory path of development. Remaining throughout the entire period the main leading form of fine art, sculpture also belongs entirely to religious art. During this period, it, like other types of fine art, was associated with Buddhism, since the deities of the Shinto pantheon again began to be embodied in iconographic images only in the 9th and 10th centuries. under the influence of the syncretic doctrine of Ryobushinto, which had spread by that time, i.e. ultimately influenced by traditional Buddhist iconography. Until then, Shintoism was symbolized by three main sacred attributes: the mirror, the sword and the magatama. When studying Japanese sculpture, you need to keep the following in mind. From the very beginning of the penetration of Buddhism into Japan, ready-made samples of Buddhist iconography were imported, intended to serve as objects of worship. Information about quite numerous facts of the import of Buddhist shrines to Japan is contained in Japanese, Chinese and Korean sources. The delivery of Buddhist images to Japan from outside was dictated, especially at the very beginning of the spread of Buddhism, both by the difficulties associated with their production on site (the high cost of bronze, the complexity of casting), and by the desire of the customers to have shrines taken directly from some place revered by Buddhists, and most importantly thus, the countries in which Buddhism spread earlier than in Japan were considered as its legislators. The same reasons led to the practice of copying famous designs by both foreign and local craftsmen. This practice led, on the one hand, to the almost complete impossibility of distinguishing examples created in Japan from those imported, and on the other hand, to the certainly slow development of the domestic style in sculpture. This had the greatest impact on the development of bronze sculpture. Samples of iconography, imported to Japan at different times by Buddhist monks and Korean and Chinese embassies, belong to various Buddhist faiths. Simplified, the latter can be reduced to two main directions of Buddhism - the so-called Hinayana and Mahayana. The main core of the Hinayana doctrine was the idea of ​​saving individuals through asceticism, ascetic detachment from the vanity of life. Thus, salvation was achieved only by personal achievement. This concept was reflected in the nature of Hinayana iconography at the early stage of its formation. The iconographic type created by Hinayana adherents is marked by the features of an arhat - a hermit who despised all the demands of human flesh. Hence the lack of interest in the image human body , contrasting it with an abstract-symbolic conventional ritual. The monumental stone sculpture of the cave temples of Yungang, a Northern Wei state, can be identified by iconographic features as being associated with Hinayana, which influenced Japanese sculpture of the 7th century. Later, from about the middle of the 7th century, in China and Korea, Hinayana began to be replaced by another direction of Buddhism - Mahayana. The Mahayana teachings are in many ways the opposite of the Hinayana teachings. The ideal of the arhat, the idea of ​​individual salvation of the Hinayana, is contrasted in the Mahayana with the idea of ​​joint salvation, which is achieved only thanks to the Buddha Amitabha (in Japan - Amida). This creed led to a significant simplification of the ritual and a more secular, worldly character of the Mahayana sects. The Mahayana creed absorbed elements of solar cults (the cult of Mithras, Helios, Apollo), which in the first centuries of our era spread from Central Asia (Bactria, Iran, etc.) to the east. The desire for universality in relation to the needs of the broadest masses of people turns Mahayana into a very motley syncretic creed. Popular beliefs endow the deities of the Buddhist pantheon with the power of the forces of nature and at the same time attribute human qualities to Buddhas and bodhisattvas: love of life, selflessness, compassion, etc. The Hinayana does not yet have its own pantheon, and the Buddha is depicted using symbols borrowed from the ancient cult of the sun. In the Mahayana there is already a polytheistic pantheon in which, along with images of Gautama Buddha, images of many bodhisattvas appear. The Bodhisattva is understood here as the embodiment of Gautama or, in general, an ideal person whose feat is accomplished for the sake of saving all beings on earth. The Mahayana pantheon features images of the Buddha Amitabha, Vairocana (which means “The Supreme Cosmic Light of the Great Sun”) and the two most powerful bodhisattvas - Avalokiteshvara, or, as he was also called, Avalokita (“The Lord who looks down”), and Manjushri - personifications knowledge and mercy. The image of Avalokiteshvara came to Japan through China and already on Japanese soil during the Nara period finally turned into a female deity - Kannon, although back in the 7th century. (during the Asuka period) images of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara were similar to those of the early Tang, that is, the image combined girlish and youthful features. A certain influence on the transformation of the image of Avalokiteshvara was exerted by introduced elements from Central Asian solar cults, and perhaps also echoes of Nestorian Christianity with its interpretation of the images of archangels close to Judaism. Appearing in Japan under the name Kannon, this deity already at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. became one of the most popular among the people, and later, with the formation of rebushinto, it was closely intertwined with the image of the supreme deity of the Shinto cult - the goddess Amaterasu. In Japan, the goddess Kannon was revered as an intercessor goddess, saving from shipwrecks and robbers, from various punishments and destructive passions, from hatred, stupidity and infertility, and also as a giver of blessings. Buddha Amitabha, Bodhisattva Mahasthama and Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara-Kannon constitute one of the Mahayana triads, which, according to the Lotus Sutra, rules the “happy country” - Western Paradise. Certain iconographic features of Avalokiteshvara were borrowed from the iconography of the Hindu god Brahma, from where one of the bodhisattva’s names comes - Padmapani (Lotus-Handed). The bodhisattva's head was often crowned with a small figurine of Amitabha. The deity's right hand is usually extended in a blessing gesture, and with his left he holds a red lotus. Behind the lotus were depicted attributes borrowed from Brahma: a book, a rose bush and a jug of nectar. Avlokita-Kannon is usually depicted on a red or white lotus flower. These characteristic features of the iconography of Avalokiteshvara then passed on to Kannon. The bodhisattva Manjushri (Manjunatha or Manjughosha) is also revered in Japan. "Manju" (Monju in Japan) means "sweet" or "pleasure". He is also called Vajisvara - “lord of speech (words)”, or Kitarabhuta - “Elder son of Buddha”. Manjushri has slightly different functions than Avalokiteshvara. He is the personification of contemplation, thought and knowledge, which is why he is depicted either in the position of “student of the Law” (dharma chakramuda), or holding the emblems of knowledge and thought: in one hand - the sword of knowledge, cutting through the darkness of ignorance, in the other - a book. There are images (of later origin) of Manjushri riding on a lion with a blue lotus in his hand. The main iconographic version of the bodhisattva Manjushri comes from the myth of his appearance in the world directly from the head of the Buddha Amitabha. Therefore, it is customary to depict him alone, deprived of accompanying female figure . In the 6th - 8th centuries. the image of Manjushri was already widespread in the Buddhist iconography of China and Korea, Japan and Indonesia, Nepal and Tibet, Khotan, etc. Bodhisattva Maitreya (in Japan - Miroku), unlike Avalokiteshvara and Manjushri, is not a superman. According to the Hinayana faith, from where the cult of Maitreya passed into the Mahayana, he, like Buddha Gautama, is simply an outstanding personality, “the best of people,” as he is called in the “Maitreya Vyakarana” (“Prophecy of the Coming Buddha Maitreya”). Maitreya was revered as a defender of the faith and patron of the preaching of Buddhism. Monumental sculptural images in the caves of the Yungan temple, and later in the temple in the name of the future coming of Maitreya in Turfan, were associated with this function. Early depictions of Maitreya, such as early Gandhara sculpture, show significant influence from Central Asian solar cults. It is characteristic that in the paintings the images of Maitreya are always golden in color, that is, they are like the sun. The monumental statues of the Bodhisattva reached enormous sizes - more than 25 m in height. He was often depicted standing at full height or sitting on a throne (with his legs lowered from the throne rather than crossed). Appearing in the 7th century. in Japan, the cult of Maitreya, very syncretic, very soon became one of the most popular. In the 7th century. Miroku-bosatsu, i.e. the bodhisattva Maitreya, is already the main deity of the Hosso sect that was then dominant in Japan. In addition to the three main and powerful bodhisattvas, the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon contains countless other bodhisattvas and various saints. Their iconographic features are very diverse, and very often move from one image to another. Very often, the gods themselves and their iconographic features are borrowed from other religious systems (mainly from Hinduism). Among them are Vajrapani - Indra, or the same Indra and Brahma in the images of Nio and Kongorikisi - guardians of faith, etc. Thus, in the conditions of Japan in the 7th - 8th centuries. The iconography of Buddhist images was largely syncretic in nature and presented a motley and far from stable picture. The various elements that define the iconography of this period (type, material, traditional manner of execution) have their roots in the most diverse geographical sources, distant from each other. Hence, very significant difficulties associated with the analysis of monuments of Buddhist iconography are inevitable. The noted characteristic features of the formation of Buddhist iconography in Japan apply equally to its plastic representation, as well as to the pictorial and graphic. With the greatest completeness, the characteristic features of iconography were expressed by its creators in the process of developing and embodying the central religious plot of Shukhavati, which was favorite during this period - the “Happy Country”, “Western Paradise” of the Buddha Amitabha (Amida). The “happy country” is, according to the Holy Scriptures, in the west, where the sun sets. That is why the “Western Paradise” is always flooded with endless sunlight. The ruler of this promised land is Amitabha, which means “Buddha of Immeasurable Light.” His other name is Amitayus (“Immeasurable Life”). Around the 6th century. Amitabha became one of the most popular deities in Asia, combining in his cult many elements borrowed from other religious systems. Appealing to Amitabha was considered sufficient for salvation from the most serious sin. Anyone who thinks about Amitabha's heaven ten times will be admitted there after death to remain there awaiting nirvana. At the hour of the death of the believer, Amitabha, surrounded by a host of celestial beings, will appear before him and take his soul to his paradise. His “Western Paradise”, or as it was also called. " Pure land"(in Japanese Jodo) is a beautiful garden similar to the Avestan closed gardens. In the middle of the garden rises Mount Sumer, which has no equal; deep, crystal clear rivers run from it in all directions. The water in them is both cool and warm. The branches of the trees growing there are burdened with unusual, jewel-like flowers and fruits. The air is filled with rare aromas. And on the branches, beautiful, sweet-voiced birds, like jewels, sing in the dazzling rays of the sun. In Japanese art in the 7th and especially the 8th century. the plot of the “Western Paradise”, like the image of Maitreya-Miroku, among others, appears first in sculpture, and then in painting and graphics. The 7th - 8th centuries were a time of extremely strong influence on Japanese iconography by the art of Tang China, which, in turn, was subjected during this period to complex influences coming from the south - from India and from the north-west - from the countries of the “Western Region”, i.e. e. Eastern Turkestan and Central Asia.

From the middle of the 7th century. Sacred images from China and Korea begin to be imported into Japan. But around the same time, Buddhist images of local work also appeared. The 7th century in Japan is a period of development of Japanese statehood, the formation of various areas of ideology, science, art, although passing under the influence of Tang China, which reached the zenith of its power. At this time, Japanese culture was directly introduced to the culture of the countries of the Far, Middle and partly Middle East. Now not only are Chinese monks, masters and artisans immigrating to Japan, but also the Japanese themselves are increasingly traveling to China. Staying at the court in Chang'an, where representatives of peoples inhabiting the most remote areas of Asia flocked, broadened the horizons of the Japanese, enriching their experience in various fields of science and art. The growing power of the Buddhist church, the increased needs of the nobility, and the desire to imitate Chinese models stimulated the construction of palaces, temples and monasteries, the number of which by the end of the 7th century. reached more than 500. In connection with this, the demand for architects, builders, artists, sculptors, craftsmen is growing applied arts. It was no longer possible to satisfy this demand at the expense of foreign craftsmen. During this period, the number of local Japanese craftsmen increased extremely rapidly. In the middle of the 7th century. On the territory of powerful Buddhist temples, unique schools arise - workshops in which architects, sculptors, and artists are trained. In the 80s of the 7th century. After the so-called Taika reform, which was based on the desire to regulate life in the Chinese style, a number of departments were established at the court, uniting draftsmen, sculptors, masters of applied art - immigrants and Japanese. In 661 - 672 Gabu - the Department of Fine Arts - is created. It included 64 people: 4 senior masters and 60 students who worked under their leadership. The Horyuji Temple archives mention two sculptor brothers, immigrants from China: Qi Peng-hui and Qi Gu-hong, who taught the Japanese their craft.

Theater and music.

There is a living connection between theatrical genres of Japanese origin and those that came to Japan from the mainland. As in other areas of culture, the close interaction of a wide variety of genres led, on the one hand, to the enrichment of the local tradition with new elements, and on the other, to the assimilation of elements of the Japanese tradition by foreign theater. The situation in Nara was particularly favorable for this: the aristocracy’s commitment to a foreign culture and, in turn, the desire of Buddhist immigrants to assimilate, facilitated the process of unifying the two cultures. The degree and strength of assimilation depended both on the nature of the genre and on its purpose. There are often cases when, having taken root on a different soil, a theatrical genre changes its character and purpose. The history of the relatively short-lived Gigaku theater is very indicative in this regard. Appearing in Japan at the end of the 7th century, gigaku became one of the two leading theatrical genres of the Nara era. Gigaku is a unique dance drama that originated in India. Initially, this ancient ritual dance was performed in front of the image of a deity in general, and then only in front of the image of Buddha. In it, individual episodes from the life of Buddha were reproduced using choreography. From India, these dances were brought to the southern Chinese kingdom of Wu (in Japanese - Go), and from there to Korea. In the 6th century. Along with the spread of Buddhism, dance drama appeared in Japan, where it was first called gogaku - “go music”, and then gigaku, i.e. “skillful (virtuoso) music.” In the 7th - 8th centuries. there was a more common name for gogaku - “kure no gaku”, or “kure no utamai”, i.e. “music of the country of Kure” (as the Japanese called the kingdom of Wu). Naturally, on Chinese and Korean soil the nature of these ideas changes. Along with these performances, masks also appear in Japan. The question of the origin and nature of Japanese theatrical masks, in particular gigaku masks, is one of the difficult and poorly understood. However, this applies to all issues related to the development of Japanese theater in ancient times. Referring to the most ancient and reputable source on the history of gigaku - “Kyokunsho”, an anonymous work on music and theater written in 1233, the famous Japanese art critic Noma Seiroku, in a special monograph dedicated to Japanese theatrical masks, claims that already in the 6th century. The masks of all the main Gigaku characters were brought to Japan from the mainland. He believes that those who immigrated in the mid-6th century. members of the Wu royal family brought with them to Japan musical instruments and masks. The first mention of the Gigaku theater dates back to 612. The 22nd section of “Nihongi” says: “... A man from Baekje named Mimashi arrived (in 612) in Japan. He said that during his stay in Go (U - South China ) learned there their art of music and dance. Mimashi was settled in Sakurai, where young men were gathered to learn this art from him. Since then, his students Manu no Obito and Seibun no Ayabito, who adopted the art from Mimashi, easily passed it on to their students.” Having met a warm reception at the court of Shotoku-Taishi, under whose patronage a gigaku school was created in the palace of the Sakurai family in Nara, from where dancers were sent to all Buddhist temples in Japan, gigaku performances began in the 7th - 8th centuries. an indispensable part of Buddhist temple festivals and a very popular court entertainment. Along with gigaku, there was another form of theatrical performance - bugaku (lit. “both dance and music”). Bugaku was brought to Japan a little later than gigaku and also through China. Bugaku, like gigaku, was initially under the personal patronage of Shotoku-Taishi, and then of other rulers. The origin of bugaku is this. In the 6th -8th centuries. In the capital of Tang China, the music and dances of various peoples with whom this powerful power was associated were very popular. After Emperor Xun Zong founded the Pear Orchard Music Academy and the Spring Court School of Dance, the music of 14 countries and the dance techniques of 8 countries were unified. All this was called “foreign music”. From Chang'an this genre migrated to Nara under the name bugaku. According to Japanese tradition, by the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. refers to the founding of Gagaku-ryo, a palace administration that oversaw the performance of classical Chinese music and dance. Gagaku-ryo was subordinate to one of the eight departments established by the Taika reform (649) - Jibusho, i.e., the department that controlled activities related to various kinds of ceremonies - marriage, mourning, funeral - supervising the imperial graves, in charge of genealogy and inheritance , welcoming foreigners, theater, music, etc. In the 2nd moon of 701, the Taiho Ritsuryo code of laws was published, which established the so-called utaryo system. Under this system, a special staff of dance, singing and music teachers was established in Gagaku-ryo to train musicians and dancers. There should have been 4 singing teachers, 30 singer-storytellers (utabito, or kajin), 4 dancing teachers, 100 dancers, 2 flute teachers and 6 fue (Japanese flute) flutists, theory teachers Chinese music - 12, students - 60. Soon the number of Chinese music teachers reached 30, and students - over 120. Bugaku performances continued to be divided into “styles”, named after the country from which they were borrowed: togaku - Chinese, koraigaku and shiraigaku - Korean, Bokkaigaku - Bohai, Tenjukugaku - Indian, Rinyugaku - Indo-Chinese. Most popular in the 8th century. performances of Chinese and Indian styles, as well as the style attributed to the peoples of Central Asia, were used, united under the general name sa-mai (literally “left dance”). Korean and Bohai style performances were combined under the name wu mai (“right dance”). The origin of bugaku masks is quite controversial. Noma Seiroku believes that some masks were borrowed from Ceylon, India, Indochina, and Java. However, in his monograph he does not engage in a special analysis of this issue. Other experts, such as K. Bauer and T. Suda, believe that in some cases some gigaku masks were used in the bugaku theater. Unfortunately, both authors did not set out to compare the two theatrical genres that appeared almost simultaneously in Japan under the auspices of the Buddhist church, and therefore limited themselves to making only casual remarks. Clarification of this problem would help shed light on the development of both genres borrowed from outside in Japan. Concluding a quick review of the theatrical forms of ancient Japan, it is necessary to mention the most interesting theatrical genre from the point of view of its further development, which originated in the Nara period. This is the direct predecessor of the Japanese Noh drama, the so-called sarugaku. Literally, “sarugaku” means “monkey play” or “monkey play.” This is a mixed performance, composed of comic scenes, original sketches, juggling games and acrobatic stunts, strongman fights, as well as the performance of epic songs about gods and heroes to the accompaniment of a biv, starting from the 8th century. is becoming increasingly popular. Unlike bugaku and even gigaku, sarugaku performances from the very beginning were of a purely secular nature. Very soon, sarugaku became one of the most favorite pastimes of the residents of Nara. According to the tradition adopted by Japanese and Western theater scholars, it is believed that, like the two previous genres, sarugaku appeared in imitation of the Chinese genre - sangyue (in the 7th - 10th centuries, “sanyue” was pronounced “sangak”). At the beginning of the 8th century. in Japan on the model existing since the end of the 7th century. The Chinese closed school of music, dance and acrobatics created the government department of sarugaku, the so-called sarugaku-to. This department, headed by Chinese artists, existed until 782, performing the functions of training actors and organizing sarugaku performances. The Japanese court orchestra was modeled after the Chang'an court orchestra. According to Chinese sources, in the Chang'an court orchestra there were more than 500 instruments in the Tang era: 120 - harp type, 180 plucked - lute type, 40 flutes, 200 wind organs (sheng), 20 oboes; various drums, bells and gongs, among which are the most ancient instruments - stone gongs. By the 7th and early 8th centuries. refers to the formation of the Japanese musical and theatrical system. Initially, there was a division into Chinese musical “style” (South Chinese - gogaku and Tang - togaku), Korean (sankangaku of the three Korean states - Shiragi, Kudara and Koma) and Japanese (wagaku). There were 42 gogaku musicians (teachers and students), 144 togaku style musicians, 72 Korean style musicians, 250 instrumentalists, singers and dancers of the Japanese wagaku style. Instrumental music of the so-called Chinese and partly Korean “styles” formed gagaku (ceremonial music ). In the 7th - 8th centuries. Gagaku is performed during numerous services in Buddhist temples and during court ceremonies. Very soon, individual wagaku vocal numbers with their own mode system were included in gagaku. In the 7th and especially in the 8th century. the music and dances of China and Korea, on the one hand, and India and Indochina, on the other, play a leading role in bugaku performances. The first mention of the arrival of foreign musicians is contained in the Nihongi under 554, which states that four musicians arrived in Japan that year from Kudara. In the 7th and 8th centuries. Chinese and Korean musicians are increasingly being invited to serve in Japan. Gagaku theory is borrowed mainly from Chinese philosophy and literature, one of the elements of which was music theory. As in China, the theory of sinicized music in Japan was based on the principle of recognizing the decisive role of a single sound, i.e., sound taken separately, which was widespread in the countries of the Ancient East. This is the fundamental difference between the theory of music in most countries of the Ancient East and ancient Europe, in which the dominant role is given to the relationship of sounds. The Chinese Lü musical system entered Japan along with Chinese philosophy and literature in the 6th century. Familiarity with the Lü system was considered mandatory for every scientist belonging to the “Chinese school.” Japanese musical theory, intensively developed throughout the 8th century, was finally formalized only in the 9th century, although musical canons were formed in general terms already in the 8th century. But in the 9th century. they were systematized by theoreticians and performers who were part of the gagaku-ryo department. Along with the scale of purely Japanese origin, which forms the basis of the vocal and choral music of Gagaku - Saibagaku, the basis of the instrumental music of Gagaku is the scale developed from the Lü system. In addition to the Lü system with its specific scale in the 8th century. Gagaku appears in Japanese ritual music (throughout countries South-East Asia- Vietnam and Cambodia) and Indian music based on the so-called raga scale. In 736, several Buddhist scholars arrived from Vietnam to Japan. They began to teach their dances and music. According to Japanese sources, in 763, during a court festival in Nara, the music of South Vietnam (Champa) was performed for the first time. musical style which subsequently, after about 400 years, was also assimilated into the Chinese style. Thus, Japanese musical theory inherits and develops, in relation to local conditions, a direction that previously emerged on the mainland, which ultimately led to a peculiar synthesis of various musical and theatrical forms. This process, which began in Japan in the 8th century, proceeded there somewhat more actively and faster than on the mainland, which is generally characteristic of the development Japanese art generally. Even with a cursory, preliminary acquaintance with the nature of Japanese music and theater of the 7th - 8th centuries. a peculiarity inherent in the entire culture of this period is revealed, which consists in a peculiar combination of young Japanese culture and the centuries-old culture of China, East Turkestan and Central Asia.

Conclusion.

Before the formation of the Japanese state, the initiative in establishing and maintaining ties between the Chinese and Japanese peoples belonged to China, which was at a higher level of social development. For China, however, the Japanese islands were not of great interest during this period, since they were aloof from the world trade routes and the Japanese people did not take part in major historical events that took place on the territory of mainland Asia and had a decisive influence on the fate of the Chinese state. Therefore, China’s ties with the Japanese islands during this period were not nearly as lively as with other Asian peoples and states, and at times, especially when China found itself under the rule of foreign dynasties, they were interrupted for centuries. However, despite the episodic nature of Sino-Japanese relations, the influence of Chinese culture on Japan did not stop. Firstly, Chinese colonists (artisans, farmers) constantly lived on the Japanese islands even before the formation of a centralized state.

The artistic culture of Japan has developed over many centuries. During this long period, outstanding works were created that were included in the golden fund of world art. The Japanese people created a multifaceted and unusual world of artistic images and forms, which embodied the history of their life, way of life, beliefs and judgments about beauty. One of the most characteristic features of Japanese culture was the broad associativity that formed the basis of its figurative system. The poetic thinking of the Japanese was manifested in the polysemy of the content of the works he created. artistic objects, reflecting ideas about nature and the universe. It is known that the historical fate of each people is largely determined by its geographical location, natural and climatic conditions. The island position of Japan has led to the relative isolation of the Japanese ethnic group and the preservation of its homogeneity until modern times. Admiration for the beauty of Japan's unusually rich and varied nature, the ability to enjoy every moment of it, has become a feature of the national character and has received direct expression in all forms of art. Particular attention to the life of nature, associated with dependence on its elements (typhoons, earthquakes, etc.), influenced the attitude towards it as living and feeling. Therefore, not only trees and grass, birds and animals, but even rivers, mountains and stones seemed to the Japanese to be the embodiment of spirits, deities - kami, who influenced people's lives in all its manifestations and, accordingly, demanded attention and good attitude. Kami were presented with gifts and dedicated ritual chants and dances. This reverence for the spirits of nature and ancient magical rituals formed the basis of the national religion Shinto (“Way of the Gods”). The Buddhist sect of Zen, whose teachings were widespread from the 12th to the 13th centuries, had a great influence on the development of Japanese artistic culture. In its development from ancient times to the 19th century, Japanese art went through a number of important stages associated with the evolution of social relations. At each of these stages, there is a high flourishing of various types and genres of creativity. In the ancient Nara period (VII-VIII centuries) these were architectural and sculptural ensembles of Buddhist monasteries, in the 12th century (Heian era) - monuments of religious and secular painting, in the 13th century original sculptural and pictorial portraits, in the 14th - 16th centuries works of landscape architecture , famous Japanese gardens, paintings on screens and walls of palaces and castles of the 16th-18th centuries. The final stage of medieval art in Japan was marked by the flourishing of urban culture, which gave the world magnificent works graphics, theatrical performances of the Kabuki theater, poetry of tercets - haiku and much more 11 Art of Japan. Moscow "Directmedia publishing" 2003, p. 12.

The adoption of Buddhism in the 6th century was the most important event in the history of Japan. With Buddhism, the country joined the richest centuries-old cultural traditions Central, Southeast and East Asia and thereby moved to a new stage of development. Buddhism, which came to Japan from China through Korea, became the bearer of new forms of art. Chinese and Korean masters built the first Buddhist temples and monasteries. The Horyuji temple ensemble, erected in the early years of the 7th century, built in accordance with Chinese canons, has survived to this day. In the center of the vast complex is a rectangular courtyard, surrounded by covered galleries with gates on the south side and a sermon hall on the north. Inside the courtyard there is the main Golden Hall (Kondo) and a five-tiered pagoda rising 32 meters, ending with a spire with nine rings - a symbol of the Buddhist celestial spheres. The altar sculptural composition in the interior of the temple was the main shrine and its center. It was built like a stage: statues were placed on the altar dais in a certain order, in accordance with the place of deities in the pantheon. In the center was an image of Buddha, on either side of it were statues of bodhisattvas. Closer to the edges of the altar stood the defenders of the faith, sometimes in the guise of formidable warriors. In the Golden Hall of Horyuji, the center of the altar is occupied by the Shakyamuni Triad (Trinity of Buddha Shakyamuni), an outstanding example of early Buddhist sculpture in Japan. Adjacent to the walled area around the Golden Hall and the pagoda is another part of the complex, in the center of which is the octagonal Yumedono (Hall of Dreams) building. Here is a statue of Gyuze-Kannon, close in style to the Shaka Triad. Along with architecture and sculpture, other types of art are also associated with Buddhism - painting, wood and metal carving, casting, embossing, embroidery. The interior of the Golden Hall of Horyuji preserves a luxurious canopy over the Shaka Triad with carvings celestial musicians, a miniature ark in the form of a temple, the so-called Tamamushi altar, decorated with lacquer painting, as well as wall paintings from the late 7th - early 8th centuries depicting a Buddhist paradise and figures of bothisattvas.

The first decade of the 8th century was marked by the construction of a new capital, the city of Nara, called Heijō-kyō (Citadel of the World) in Chinese fashion. Its plan repeated the Chinese capital Chang'an and was a rectangle, oriented to the cardinal points and divided by a central highway into right and left parts. Great place The city was occupied by grandiose monasteries with ceremonial open areas for state ceremonies. The entire pathos of the architecture of that era was most fully expressed in the complex of the Great Eastern Temple of Todaiji, which became the main state shrine and a hall for colossal bronze statue Buddha Vairochana - “All-illuminating light”, deity of the Universe. Hence the second name of the temple: Daibutsuden - Hall of the Big Buddha. After many failures, the 16-meter-tall statue was cast. The Buddha's face was five meters wide, his palm almost four meters wide. Over the centuries, both the temple itself and the statue were repeatedly destroyed, and now we can judge about them only from reconstructions of the 18th century. Like Horyuji, the Todaiji complex contains magnificent examples of sculpture from the 8th century, a period of great prosperity for this art form.

In addition to the main ensemble of Todaiji, there were many more temples and monasteries in Nara, where outstanding monuments of Buddhist sculpture of the 8th century were kept. Among them is the Yakushiji ensemble with the famous eastern pagoda. A recognized masterpiece of bronze sculpture, the Yakushi Triad from the Yakushiji Temple includes the figure of a sitting Buddha-healer and bothisattvas standing to his left and right. The Golden Hall of the Toshodaji ensemble is one of the most beautiful temples in Nara, where, in addition to statues of Buddhist deities, there is the earliest example in Japan of a portrait sculpture of the founder of the monastery, monk Ganjin, an expert on Buddhist texts who came from China.

In 794, the capital of the Japanese state became the city of Heian-kyo (modern Kyoto) - “Capital of Peace and Tranquility.” By the name of the capital, the entire era is designated as the Heian era. This was one of the most significant periods in the history of Japanese culture, rightly called classical. Based on the rethinking of Chinese models, national forms of art gradually emerged: secular architecture, painting and literature. The appearance of churches and monasteries has changed significantly. The open space of grandiose ensembles, the clarity and precision of planning, and the monumentality of forms have disappeared. Sculpture began to closely interact with painting, the role of which in the interior of the temple increased noticeably. The rapid development of Buddhist painting was a characteristic feature of the early Heian period. It is characterized by mystical abstraction and symbolism in the interpretation of the image of deities. This was most fully expressed in mandala icon paintings, which represented a complex graphic diagram of the structure of the world, in the center of which was the main deity Dainichi-Nyorai, and around him many other deities. The second type of Buddhist painting is depictions of the deities who protect the faith, appearing in the form of frightening demons against a background of flames. A particularly popular character was the guardian Fudo Myo, who was endowed with good power, despite his formidable appearance.

With the increasing role of Amidaism, where an important part of the teaching was the idea of ​​nature as the embodiment of the essence of Amida-Nyorai, who acts as an admirer of its beauty, in architecture new type Buddhist temple - Amida-do (Hall of Amida), which rather resembled a palace of representatives of the aristocratic class. The meaning of such a palace-temple was to reproduce the prototype of Amida's paradise on earth. Such temples were erected not only near the capital, but also in the provinces. One of the most magnificent temples of Amida was located at Byodoin Monastery near Kyoto, also known as the Phoenix Temple because of the images of this fantastic bird on the roof. The interior contained the main shrine of the temple - a statue of Amida-Nyorai, sitting on a lotus throne under a lush carved canopy against the backdrop of a magnificent halo. The statue is attributed to the 11th century master Jyocho. His workshop pioneered the production of sculpture using the yosegi technique, in which the figure was assembled piece by piece, as opposed to the earlier technique of carving a statue from a single piece of wood.

The most important artistic discoveries of the Heian period, which had a strong impact on the further development of Japanese culture, were made in secular art - architecture, painting, music and calligraphy. This was largely facilitated by the isolation of Japan from external influences, which began at the end of the 9th century. In this era, the culture of which is associated with the creative activity of a narrow circle of the capital's aristocracy, the process of rethinking the old traditions associated with China is completed, national poetry reaches the peak of its sound, Japanese prose arises and rises to amazing heights in a relatively short period of time, the highest achievement of which is " The Tale of Genji" by the late 10th century writer Murasaki Shikibu.

The principles of the so-called Yamato-e painting (" japanese painting"), in its themes and plots associated with the life of the Heian aristocracy. It appears along with the development of Shinden-zukuri architecture, that is, residential architecture. Its design features created the prerequisites for the appearance of painting, since a single large interior space was divided by screens decorated with paintings and poems. One of the main types of yamato-e are horizontal pictorial scrolls that illustrate literary works and interspersed with parts of the text. An outstanding work of this kind is the illustrations to the 54 chapters of Murasaki Shikibu's novel "The Tale of Genji", dating back to the beginning of the 12th century and attributed to the artist Fujiwara Takayoshi At present, only 28 parts of the text and 20 fragments of illustrations have been preserved.Such scrolls (Genji-monogatari-emaki) were viewed on a low table, gradually unfolding on one side and folding on the other, which influenced their compositional structure.

Kamakura culture completely denied the effeminacy and cult of feelings of the Heian aristocratic culture. To establish the ideals of masculinity and strength, different images were required, different art forms. Kamakura literature included significant elements of folk art, which manifested itself in the creation of military epics - gunka, illustrations of which became the themes of pictorial emaki scrolls. Kamakur culture is characterized by an interest in real life events and in a person’s personality. High prosperity was associated with this portrait art in sculpture and painting of that time.

The approval of new social ideals also required corresponding architectural forms. Their appearance was facilitated by the appeal to monuments of the 8th century. The new rulers of the country wanted to appear as guardians of the traditions of monumental architecture of the past as an expression of the strength of the state. Huge funds were collected throughout the country for the restoration of Nara temples. Under them, large sculpture workshops were created, headed by the famous sculptors of that time Kokei, Unkei and Kaikei. The last high flowering of Japanese Buddhist sculpture is associated with their work and their school. The monumental statues of guards with their power, expression of gestures, and facial expressions were the embodiment of the new ideals of the era. A craving for authenticity and naturalness is characteristic of many of Unkei’s works. Images of the legendary Indian patriarchs Sesshin and Mutyaku, made around 1208, have survived to this day. Among the masterpieces of pictorial portraiture is the portrait of the military leader Minamoto Yoritomo, attributed to the artist Fujiwara Takanobu, depicted in ceremonial clothes. The painting on the scrolls also changed significantly, main feature became a statement of the narrative beginning. Works appeared that illustrated legends full of dramatic episodes and active human actions. Their heroes are commoners, representatives of the lower social strata of society. Along with portraiture, the most striking phenomenon of the Kamakura period is the narrative scrolls of emakimono, the subjects of which are associated with heroic epics - gunki. The most outstanding monument is the illustrations for “The Tale of the War of the Heiji Years.”

The Muromachi era - the 14th-16th centuries was a time when two opposing streams gradually united in Japanese culture - Heian and Kamakura. Along with increasing Chinese influences, this contributed to the formation of a new culture of the mature Middle Ages. The cult of heroism and the harsh morality of bushido continued to exist, but in a more abstract form, next to the desire for the refined luxury of everyday life and the cult of nature, even more developed than before. The teachings of Zen received state support, and the monasteries of this sect turned into large cultural centers. Under the influence of Zen, a new aesthetic concept emerged. They were taught to see beauty in the simple and ordinary, in the dim and discreet. This idea influenced changes in the forms of both religious and secular architecture 11 Art of Japan. Moscow "Directmedia publishing" 2003, p. 18. Few authentic works of architecture from the 14th-15th centuries have survived to our time. These include the Kinkakuji or Golden Pavilion, built in 1394, and the Ginkakuji or Silver Pavilion, built in 1489 as the villa of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa and later became a Buddhist temple. The meaning of such works, their content, is revealed only in comparison with nature; architecture and nature become equivalent parts of the artistic image. But natural nature could not enter into this unity; it had to be artistically transformed by the garden master in accordance with the same principles that guided the architect of the pavilions. The garden was necessary integral part this architecture, since the very idea of ​​connection, the unity of external and internal space was important here. The XIV-XVI centuries were a time of great flowering of the art of Japanese gardens, which became one of the important discoveries of the medieval era. In the 16th century, each element of the garden was carefully developed from the point of view of its symbolic meaning. The idea of ​​a symbolic garden was taken from China, but received a very special expression from Japanese masters. A garden created only from stones and sand is the so-called “dry landscape” (kare sansui). The art of arranging stones was considered the most important thing, on which the meaning of the garden and its image depended. Masterpieces of this type of garden are in Kyoto - the Daisen-in garden at Daitokuji Monastery and the Ryoanji garden.

Under the influence of the teachings of Zen, the so-called cult of tea or tea ceremony became widespread. Special Tyaniva gardens were also associated with the tea event, which became a necessary part of the special architectural structure for the tea ritual.

From the second half of the 13th century, the role of landscape as a living environment for people gradually began to increase in Yamato-e narrative painting. The artistic concept of landscape that developed on the continent in the 11th - 12th centuries, embodied in the forms of monochrome ink painting (in Japanese - sumi-e or suibokuga), put forward a new idea for Japanese art to embody the natural world in its grandeur, integrity and cosmic grandeur. It was a fundamentally different artistic system, the basis of which was the conceptual landscape of “mountain-water” (in Japanese - san sui). “Mountains-water” is not just a designation of plot motifs, but an indication of the main principles of the world, their material embodiment: the mountain was considered the embodiment of the light, positive principle - yang, and water - the dark, negative principle - yin. The interaction and creative power of these principles was what the artist had to express in his landscape. From the middle of the 14th century, monochrome landscape became the predominant type of painting, developing mainly in the monasteries of the Zen sect. Gradually, Zen painting developed its own special range of subjects: imaginary portraits of holy ascetics of the past, images of the goddess of mercy Kannon, the founder of the Daruma sect, the sages Kanzan and Jittoku, as well as various natural motifs - flowers, birds, animals, landscapes. Contemplation of such a picture, according to the teachings of Zen, like contemplation of real nature, opened the way to comprehension of the Truth of Existence, to “enlightenment” - satori. Such paintings were hung on the wall or in a special niche - tokonoma for certain occasions; the rest of the time they were stored rolled up in cases. These scroll paintings framed with silk or brocade are called kakemono ("hanging thing").

The highest flowering of Japanese monochrome ink painting is associated with the name of the outstanding master Toyo Oda, better known as Sesshu. Like Zen philosophical gardens, Sesshu's monochrome landscape painting also became a philosophy of nature with a generalized idea of ​​the universe characteristic of that time. In addition to landscapes in the form of kakemono, monochrome paintings appeared on screens and wall panels. One of the most famous artists who continued the tradition of sumi-e ink painting was Hasegawa Tohaku.

In the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries, fortified castles and magnificent palaces of the feudal nobility began to be built. This time in Japanese historiography is designated as the Momoyama era, a transitional stage from the mature Middle Ages to its late, final stage - the Edo (Tokugawa) period. The relatively short period of Momoyama, when Japan was ruled by military dictators Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi who seized power, was full of many events in both political and cultural life. With so many historical events and changes, the culture of Japan could not remain unchanged. The functions of all types of art have changed, new genres of creativity have emerged. The religious consciousness that dominated in the previous era is gradually giving way to secularism. One of the important manifestations of this process was the construction of castles and palaces. Grandiose fortified castles, the construction of which was caused by the advent of firearms in Japan and the corresponding change in battle and defense tactics, received, in addition to the utilitarian, a pronounced symbolic meaning assertion of the power of military dictators. The interiors of the palaces were also the personification of the power and wealth of the owner. Their decorative decoration gradually increased from the first hall to the main place of official receptions, decorated with wall paintings on a golden background.

The increased role of wall paintings in the palaces of that time is explained by the desire for theatricality and entertainment. Never before has Japanese wall painting known such a scale. Its main motif, as before, was nature, but now it was mainly compositions depicting trees, flowers, animals and birds. The state rooms were decorated in the so-called kimpeki style - with bright colors on a golden background. Decorative painting existed both in the form of painting on sliding internal partitions of rooms and on screens. In its history, three main stages are clearly distinguishable, associated with the activities of three outstanding artists, each of whom defined the style of his time. At the first stage, the central figure in painting was Kano Eitoku, at the second - Tawaraya Sotatsu, and at the third - Ogata Korin. The immediate predecessors of Kano Eitoku were the founders of the so-called Kano school, Masanobu and Motonobu, who made an attempt to combine the principles of national Yamato-e painting and monochrome ink painting of Chinese origin. Refusal of detailing, juxtaposition of large spots of color and creation of a single decorative composition from them became the method of work of Kano Eitoku, his main discovery in the art of wall painting. Eitoku’s ideas were continued and developed by many of his contemporaries, although in their works, despite the significant similarity in compositional techniques, Eitoku’s powerful temperament and mighty strength were no longer felt. The development of cities determined their role in the development of culture as centers for the accumulation of the country’s spiritual potential. This period is characterized by a particularly fruitful development of urban literature. In the 17th-18th centuries, such stars of Japanese literature lived and worked as Ihara Saikaku, Matsuo Basho, playwright Monzaemon Chikamatsu, historian Hakuseki Arai and many others. Ihara Saikaku made an invaluable contribution to the development of Japanese prose. His works, with their realism in depicting the life of ordinary townspeople, will become a model for future generations of writers. Matsuo Basho was one of the great poets of his time. It was he who glorified the new poetic genre - haiku (another name - haiku), raising its authority to the heights that tanka poetry had previously occupied. In the short form of a tercet, he manages to reveal all the richness of a person’s inner world, the depth and variety of human emotions seen through the prism of nature. The boundaries of haiku also determined the style of this genre: great importance began to be attached to hints, understatement and aphorism in the expression of a particular idea.

The 17th century, the time of the establishment of the power of the Tokugawa shoguns, the establishment of long-term peace in the country, brought significant changes in art decorative painting. In its forms and in its style, it was already addressed to a different audience and demanded a different attitude towards itself on the part of the viewer, greater erudition in all spheres of creative activity, especially in poetry, since now many of the subjects and images of wall paintings were associated with famous works classical literature of the past. The most important master of that time was Tavaraya Sotatsu, one of the founders of the so-called Rimpa school. He painted mainly screens, which became the main form of decorative painting after the construction of feudal castles was officially prohibited in the second quarter of the 17th century. Therefore, having lost its social functions, decorative painting acquired new features and new language. In Sotatsu's paintings, everything is built on associations, hints, allusions, everything is addressed to the imagination, memory and erudition of the viewer. The artist set the task not simply of reproducing the plot situation, but of conveying the poetic meaning of the episode, its internal subtext. And in order to fully appreciate the works of Sotatsu, it was necessary to know all the subtleties of the literary source. The tradition of Sotatsu was continued by an outstanding artist, whose work defined a new stage in the development of decorative painting in Japan, Ogata Korin. Many motifs in his works are also associated with classical literature, but he lived in a different era, when the ideals and assessments of the past changed, when external decorativeness often seemed more attractive than the internal meaning and subtext of the work. One of the features of Korin’s work is the concentration on several motifs, their repeated repetition in different types of art, since he was not only a painter, but also a ceramist, he painted silk kimonos and lacquer boxes. The motif of irises was especially common in his work.

Back in the 14th-15th centuries, simultaneously with landscape painting in ink and later with decorative wall paintings, there was genre painting - fudzokuga ("pictures of morals and customs"). Often the same artists painted paintings with plant motifs and scenes depicting people engaged in various activities. As a rule, these scenes did not have independent meaning, but were part of illustrations for literary works, descriptions of biographies of famous poets or famous preachers of Buddhism. Its true heyday occurred in the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries, a time of rapid growth of cities and the formation of an independent urban culture. For the first time in the history of Japanese art, genre painting reflected reality. The main customers for screens with genre subjects were wealthy townspeople who saw themselves and their lives in this art. The main ones, along with other subjects, were the screens “Views of Kyoto and its environs.” Particularly frequent motifs of the image were holidays, ceremonial processions, entertainment of townspeople, scenes from the life of entertainment districts, dancing Okuni - the founder of the Kabuki theater, a priestess of a Shinto shrine. But the most significant phenomenon during the late Middle Ages and the transition to the Modern Age was, of course, the art of engraving . It was a unique result of the centuries-long development of Japanese artistic culture. Here, the changed view of the world and the place of man in it, which had changed compared to the past, was expressed most fully, which led to the creation of new forms in art.

The development of the art of engraving spans about two centuries. This is the so-called Edo period - a century of political isolation of Japan from the outside world, strict regulation of social relations, but at the same time high economic growth, urban growth, and the entry into the historical arena of representatives of wealthy merchants and urban artisans. Together with the bankrupt small samurai, actors, and dancers, they formed the basis of the urban population, which gradually created their own forms of culture. One of them was woodcut or woodcut.

The technique of printing from wooden boards has been known in Japan for a long time and was used to disseminate Buddhist texts. Now it served secular art and was called "ukiyo-e", that is, the image of the "fast-flowing, vain world." Three people took part in the creation of the engraving: the artist, the engraver and the printer. Japanese craftsmen used longitudinally cut boards made of boxwood, pear or wild cherry with a particularly expressive texture of the fibers, which contributed to the smoothness and beauty of the lines applied. The first successes in the development of the art of engraving are associated with the name of the outstanding master Hishikawa Moronobu (1638-1714), who began his career in book graphics. His early works were monochrome, some of Moronobu's prints were hand-colored by the artist himself or by customers.

From the very beginning, easel engraving developed in two main directions: images of beautiful courtesans from gay neighborhoods (bijinga) and scenes from their lives and actors (yakusha-e) and various theatrical themes. Using numerous technical innovations, engraving developed very quickly. In the 40s of the 18th century, the artist Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764) invented printing in two colors - pink and green. The first multicolor engravings appeared in the luxury calendars released for the new year 1765. They were made by the artist Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770), who is considered the inventor of multi-color printing. His works were called nishiki-e (“brocade paintings”). A particularly noticeable role in the creation of theatrical graphics was played by the artists of the Torii and Katsukawa dynasties; the famous and brilliant artist Toshusai Sharaku, who worked for just less than a year, created about one hundred and forty engravings in such a short time.

An outstanding master of the everyday writing genre was Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806), whose works became the pinnacle of lyrical engraving. The main theme of his work was women, be they beautiful courtesans or washerwomen, but always equally attractive with the soft smoothness of their movements and graceful gestures. Utamaro’s work completed the classical stage in the history of woodcuts. The characteristic features of 19th-century engraving were determined by the work of the largest and one of the most famous artists of Japan, Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849). His art is characterized by a completeness of coverage of life, unprecedented in Japanese art, and a wide interest in all its manifestations. The master's main discovery was his series of Japanese landscapes. His younger contemporary, landscape painter Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858), managed to convey a more intimate, more lyrical character of nature. She attracted him in her private manifestations, devoid of grandeur and grandeur, but close to man with her intimate and soft beauty. The artist became famous for his series “53 Stations of Tokaido,” the road that connected the old capital of Kyoto with the new one, Edo.

The work of playwright Chikamatsu occupies a significant place in the history of Japanese literature. It is his name that is associated with the emergence of a new theater - the Kabuki theater, which had its own characteristics and unique features that distinguished it from the Noh theater. The dances of Kabuki actors had the greatest differences, although other principles of the performance were borrowed from Noh theater. Just like Noh, only men participated in Kabuki theater performances. From the end of the 18th century - at the beginning XIX centuries The heyday of a new type of theatrical art begins. Performances appear from the life of townspeople with their everyday problems, the life of “pleasure quarters,” etc. The Kabuki Theater becomes an example of the solemn baroque style, retaining its features until the beginning of the 20th century, when with the advent of Meiji, the dominance of realistic art began, the requirements of which would be forced Kabuki actors also obey.

The 17th century gave birth to another type of theatrical art, which quickly won the love of ordinary townspeople. The Yose Theater, which chose something like a variety show as its favorite genre, was the most democratic of all Japanese theaters. The main repertoire of Yose theaters was oral histories kodan (“public speaking”), telling about events in the lives of representatives of the nobility, and rakugo (“stories with a comic ending”). In between scenes, spectators could enjoy the art of parodists, acrobats, magicians, etc. During the crisis of the Tokugawa regime, these theaters received a huge amount of material for their productions. Even a newspaper version of the kodan appeared, which in the form of a short feuilleton narrated the most pressing problems and the most recent events. The art of Yose theaters reached its real flowering in the period following the Tokugawa period. Another achievement of the era was the development of the Joru-ri puppet theater. Its development and increased popularity are associated with the name of the talented singer Takemoto Gidayu, in whose honor a specific style of performance was even named - “gidayubushi”. Alas, the history of this theater was short-lived: during the Meiji period, when the promotion of “true” values ​​was considered obligatory in art, it was unable to combine its art with the demands of reality and ceased to exist.

We cannot ignore the decorative and applied arts of Japan in the 17th century. Miniature netsuke sculpture, a unique type of decorative and applied art characteristic only of Japan, came into use only in the 17th century. In the second half of the 18th century, professional netsuke carvers appeared. The figurines were most often made from wood, ivory and walrus bone, but also from deer or rhinoceros horn. The most common form of netsuke is the so-called katabori. This is a small sculptural group depicting people, animals, and mythical creatures. But the main interest is the netsuke sculptures, measuring only 4 or 5 centimeters.

Even such a brief acquaintance with the artistic culture of Japan from the ancient period to the 17th century allows us to feel all its originality and imagine the wealth that was created over more than two millennia. With all the changes that have occurred in Japanese culture over the centuries, nature has always remained the main object of attention, the central theme. The perception of beauty has changed in different eras. In the 9th-11th centuries, under the influence of Buddhist teachings, the ideal of beauty was associated with sad charm. In the 15th-16th centuries, Zen masters, teaching the art of the tea ceremony, discovered beauty in the ordinary and inconspicuous. With the development of urban culture in the 16th-18th centuries, changes in the understanding of beauty again occurred. But the desire to find and discover this beauty constantly fed the general artistic orientation of Japanese culture and influenced inner world people and their relationship to the environment.

The Japanese state emerged in the fourth century - later than many other peoples of Southeast Asia, and Japanese culture developed under the strong influence of China, India, and Korea. The Japanese actively went to direct borrowing of what aroused their admiration. The ability to assimilate other people's ideas and combine them with national traditions has always been a strong feature of the Japanese national character. In many ways, this determined the specifics of Japanese culture.

The most important feature of Japanese culture was the special norms of behavior of people in society: one of the most significant values ​​was the harmony of human relations. No wonder ancient name Japan -- Yamato, which meant “great harmony.” In Japan, everyone - both boys and girls - is taught to be polite. This extended to all segments of the population, and from this point of view, the culture was unified. They tried to instill in children, especially boys, a sense of self-worth, honor and duty. Among the military class there was a code of samurai honor, which prescribed the warrior’s absolute loyalty and devotion to his overlord.

A feature of Japanese culture was the deification of nature: not because it was the bearer of a force dangerous to humans and not because it provided the benefits necessary for life, but because of its beauty and perfection. Cult of nature was a leading component of Shintoism, the national religion of the Japanese. It is with nature that most Japanese folk traditions are associated holidays- they are dedicated to admiring its beauty: a holiday of admiring cherry blossoms (sakura), plum blossoms (ume), chrysanthemums, and the autumn moon on a full moon day. Attention to nature has led to the emergence of a special "calendar poetry".

Literature and science have always been prestigious in Japan, and scientists have been respected and honored. The national script was compiled in the 9th century; until that time, the Chinese script was used. The first written monuments of Japan were compiled at the beginning of the eighth century - these were codes of laws; chronicles of historical events; description of lands containing information on settlements, temples, relief, flora, fauna, land fertility; records of ancient myths. It was prestigious to be literate and educated, to know national history and literature; composing poetry and memorizing the works of great poets was common for everyone social groups. Poetry tournaments were held everywhere.

The main principle of Japanese art and architecture was the desire to express maximum feelings and thoughts using a minimum of artistic means and maintaining the utmost external simplicity. The main features of Japanese architecture were naturalness, simplicity, completeness of forms, amazing perfection of lines, harmonious combination of building and landscape. All buildings were evaluated in terms of how organically they fit into the landscape and emphasized the beauty of parks, sacred groves, rocks and streams.

The favorite subject of painting was nature - sunsets and sunrises, mountains, waterfalls, flowers. Painting, decorative in form, developed on a deep philosophical basis, every detail had its own meaning.

Culture of medieval Japan

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The architecture of the Carolingian Renaissance intertwined the styles of ancient, Byzantine and medieval architecture.
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This was due to Charles’s campaigns in Italy, where his architects could get acquainted with the experience of building basilicas, as well as decorating columns and capitals. At the same time, actual Frankish innovations appeared, for example, the westwork. The love for multi-altar churches with towers was subsequently inherited by the Romanesque style. From secular architecture appear the Palatinates - castles for the temporary residence of the king. They clearly trace ancient Roman traditions.

From historical sources it is known that extensive construction was carried out at this time, but only a few structures have survived to this day. Among the monuments of Carolingian architecture, the most preserved are the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (788-805), the St. Michael Rotunda Chapel in Fulda (820-822), and the monastery gate in Lorsch (about 800). Temples and palaces were often decorated inside with mosaics and frescoes.

Karl and his associates patronized the development of music, which by that time had fallen into decline. Pepin the Short also sacrificed Gallican singing for the sake of standardization. Under Charles, elements of Italian rites (Ambrosian and Old Roman) were borrowed, which subsequently served as the basis for the widespread dissemination of Gregorian chant. At the same time, a unified system for recording music appeared, and music teaching was included in the quadrivium.

In 802, Charles ordered that the customary laws of all peoples under his rule be written down. He himself issued 65 capitularies in various areas of life, which became one of the foundations of medieval law. To further centralize the state, Charles carried out administrative and financial reforms.

Le Goff J. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages.

The culture appeared in the Neolithic era. As a result of archaeological research, 2 types of culture were found: Jomon (rope culture) and Yayon (local culture). The heyday of civilization occurred in the Middle Ages; this culture is prehistoric. The Japanese mentality is formed under the influence of geographical features and GPs. Isolation from the continent and distance from world cultural centers formed the island consciousness of the Japanese. The reluctance to go beyond the borders of their archipelago explains the fact that they did not create a high-speed fleet; there was no era of geographical discoveries. Of course, contacts with Europeans occurred constantly, but they were very insignificant. The secondary discovery of Japan by Europeans occurred only in the 19th century, when Japan appeared as a highly cultural country. The heyday of written culture occurred in the 7th century, but Japan throughout the entire period from the 7th-8th centuries felt itself as the periphery of the civilized world, never claiming the role of a cultural political military center. Chinese culture had a particularly strong influence. The influence was manifested in the territorial structure. Formation of the bureaucracy in legislation, in the development of spiritual traditions. The Chinese language, writing and art firmly entered the spiritual life of Japan in the Nara era (5th – 8th centuries).

Japan, like many cultures, is a traditional culture determined by religious beliefs, despite the fascination with China, the principle of non-mixability of one's own and others, unfused unity, harmony of Wa was in effect. The oldest national Japanese religion is Shinto (Shin - God, To - path - “the path of the Gods”). The supreme goddess of Shintoism is Amoterasu. At the root of Shintoism is the cult of ancestors and the cult of nature. In Shinto there are no canonical books, there are no preachers. Each temple has its own myths and rituals, which the priests of other temples may not know about. At the same time, the general group of Sintaiz myths is recorded in the book of Konjikiy.

In the beginning, the deity of the center of the sky lived in the void of the universe. Next, the gods of birth and growth appear. Then 2 deities appear: Izanagi (husband) and Izanami (wives), they gave birth to the Japanese islands and most of the deities. But one day Izanami, giving birth to the god of fire, died from burns. Her husband wanted to resurrect her, but she, furious that Izanagi saw her disfigured corpse, sent a horde of witches against him. Izanagi ran away and began to give birth himself: Amoterasu and Imokama (the goddess who illuminates the sky). Her brother is the god of the wind, the god of the moon.

One of the basic functions of the Shinto ritual is to influence natural forces, which should ensure harmony between nature and man.

In the 6th century Buddhism came to Japan, and in the 7th century Zen Buddhism came. The concept of Zen introduced into Buddhism the extreme importance of the internal practice of consciousness; Zen is the human spirit, revealing within itself the fullness of divinity, in other words, the further development of the doctrine of enlightenment. Spiritual life was aimed at the search for beauty surrounding nature, which seemed short-lived, elusive, and therefore sad, in this regard, the symbolism of flowers included in the universal law, the law of Buddha, received special significance, which was the spiritual justification for the art of ikebana.

Ikebana masters, when handling flowers, achieve a state of dispassion (meditation); they may prefer dead flowers to living flowers. Life and death is the law of Buddha. It is good to see beauty in a dead plant, the greatest art is to extract joy and beauty from ordinary things. The same ideas influenced the development Japanese poetry, mastery of poetry is an indispensable condition for every educated Japanese. So, for example, poetry permeated all the activities of both the Chinese and Japanese palaces. In Japan, the emperor was called the son of Heaven. Poems are written about everything that excites the soul. Cherry or plum blossoms, fog over the river, the moon floating in the clouds, the purple of autumn foliage. The poet reveals the beauty of nature, based on the law of Buddha, as if dissolved in this nature.

The word has power, it has a soul, in connection with this the poet is a prophet, an oracle, a seer, and the emperor himself must admire the fragrant flowers, the light of the month at night, commands the courtiers to compose songs, the poetic word reveals the soul of every thing, the soul that is both in flower and in stone. Such an emotional attitude towards the world, a sense of the sad charm of things, colored the entire culture of Heyang (VIII - XII centuries). This was the heyday of lyrical poetry in the form of Tanka (Pentate poem). It is based on a person’s desire to express momentary impressions of the phenomena of the surrounding reality. Renga (written lines) - a poem in two parts and two performers improvise in the form of questions and answers. Then the Hoku genre branched off from it. Consists of XVII syllables, its essence is defined using the concept Avaren (sigh). This is a sigh of joy or sadness, admiration or regret for the brevity, fleetingness of a moment, famous poet Hoku became the Zen monk Basho.

The themes of Japanese art of the 9th – 11th centuries are predominantly religious; in general, art was influenced by the teachings of Shingon. According to which, the universe is an expression of the essence of Buddha. Artists depict not only Buddha, but also formidable Japanese deities, symbolizing various forces of nature. Everything repulsive and grotesque received the right to depict, since all this was considered as a manifestation of the divine in the world. Of course, Japanese theater is a unique phenomenon.
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It also developed under the influence of the Chinese in the 8th century. The Sarugaku (monkey art) theater appeared. It included various funny scenes, magic tricks, juggling, and pantomime. In the 14th century, Sarugaku became a serious mystery performance, the central point of which was the performance of graceful female dance accompanied by singing and music. At first this theater was called Sarugaku No. This is a synthesis of folk farce, philosophical drama, poetry, military art techniques, dance, and pantomime. Spiritual meaning theater But in revealing the beauty of the real world and hidden spiritualized beauty. The actors in this theater are only men, there is a set of roles (roles), for example, an old woman, a demon. They wore masks. Someone was putting on makeup. They sang in a special artificial timbre, or in a very high voice - squeaky, or low. The theater also uses declamation (pronouncing texts in a chant), gestures are extremely spare and conventional. A hand raised to the face meant sobbing; in general, for the viewer it should reveal sublime thoughts and experiences.

The opposite of Noh theater was Kabuki theater. Those performances combined everyday scenes and farce. Only wears a mask main character, playing the role of a fantastic creature, the rest of the actors used conventional makeup. For example, a red stripe on the face meant anger. Such performances were distinguished by an intriguing plot and should attract the audience with a plot.

The puppet theater – the Dzeuri Theater – was also very popular. It received its final design by the 17th century. The puppeteers were found right on stage, in ceremonial costumes, or in hooded costumes with slits for the eyes, the leading role belongs to the narrator, who conducts his speech to the accompaniment of Samisen. He speaks for all heroes, and therefore he must have the gift of transformation. In addition, in the Middle Ages a rigid structure of Japanese society developed; it had a rigid hierarchy. Ruler – samurai – merchants – artisans – peasants. Samurai were a privileged class, had the right to wear 2 swords: long and short, were obliged to manage the estate to which they belonged and served in guarding castles. Belonging to the samurai was inherited, and some samurai surnames descended from the imperial family. Samurai ethics and lifestyle developed as a result of the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Confucianism. Samurai ethics are captured in the book ʼʼ Way of the Samuraiʼʼ. True courage consists essentially in living when it is right to live, and dying when it is right to die. Death follows from what a samurai must do and what degrades his dignity. You should weigh every word and ask yourself the question: “Is what you are going to say true?” The next rule clearly reminds us of Siao: respect the rules of the trunk and branches, that is, a person who neglects the rules of brotherly respect means he is not a samurai. Parents are the trunk, children are the branches. A samurai must be not only an exemplary son, but also a loyal subject. Thus, the main virtues are loyalty, justice, courage. In addition, a samurai must study science, be able to write poetry and understand the tea ceremony. Near his house he is obliged to set up a tea pavilion, a story of paintings and place cups with an unvarnished coating. Harakiri is the suicide of samurai, it is associated with the preservation of honor, and proof of devotion to the lord, the emperor. In order not to surrender, either this is suicide following the death of the master, or in case of defeat in the war, or if the samurai has committed some kind of offense and, by decision of relatives, commits Harakiri. Also, if he cannot convince the gentleman of anything. Hara - belly, soul, kiri - cutting... Harakiri is the ultimate test.

Until the 19th century, the culture remained traditional. Only by the 2nd half of the 19th century did Japan realize that it was necessary to build a modern culture and the special relationship between man and nature, the individual and society had a stimulating influence on the development of an innovative economy. The Japanese have always been prone to borrowing. European science is borrowed. In Japan, the prestige of education and education has always been high. A company or company, when hiring a person with a university education, gives him an exam, placing him in the lowest position, giving him the opportunity to go up the hierarchy. Japan successfully combines innovation and tradition. The following qualities are preserved - obedience to authority, respectfulness, diligence in relations at enterprises, hard work, national cultural traits of the Japanese character are manifested in commitment to collective forms of labor organization, but at the same time, collectivist culture is manifested in an inclination to democratic forms labor activity, all together and all the same. The Japanese tend to maintain traditional etiquette; therefore, before starting work, the Japanese go to coffee shops, theaters, cinemas, bars, pubs, and strip clubs.

The culture of medieval Japan - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Culture of Medieval Japan" 2017, 2018.

1. Introduction
2. Conclusion
3. Bibliography

Introduction

Japanese culture is a unique, original phenomenon not only in the context of global culture, but also among other eastern cultures. It has continuously developed since the 10th - 11th centuries. Japanese civilization was formed as a result of complex and multi-temporal ethnic contacts. Life in constant anticipation of natural destruction, the preciousness of a small amount of cultivable land played a role in shaping the psychology and aesthetic views of the Japanese. Japanese culture, unlike Indian and Chinese, was just being born at the turn of the Middle Ages, so it was characterized by increased dynamism and special sensitivity to the perception of foreign influences.

Features of Japanese culture in the Middle Ages. Harmony of Shintoism. Literature, theater, painting

The main feature of Japanese culture is associated with the diverse interaction, interpenetration and struggle of two principles - the natural world and the human world. At the same time, “the natural world was expressed through the image of man..., then, on the contrary, the human world was personified through the images of nature.”

The Japanese have never had the desire, characteristic of Europeans, to subjugate nature, to transform it, to introduce into it a logical principle that is unusual for it. On the contrary, they are constantly looking for points of contact between man and nature, ways of harmony with it. For the Japanese, every natural manifestation evokes a desire to admire it, and in some cases, to worship and deify it.

This attitude towards nature gave birth to the ancient religion of Japan - Shinto (“the way of the gods”), the origin of which is not entirely clear. Orientalist academician N.I. Conrad (1891-1970) associated the emergence of Shinto with agriculture, with its magic, which contains actions that should create conditions favorable for obtaining a harvest. Among such magical rituals, the main place was occupied by the spring Act of Asking for a Harvest Year and the autumn Act of Trying New Bread.

The Shinto religion is very close to mythology, in which the world is presented as a single, undivided whole, where there are views on the origin of the world, people, crafts and ancient history. The Shinto view states that the world was initially in chaos. Subsequently, it was ordered, the sky was separated from the earth, the masculine from the feminine. As a result of the union of these principles - the goddess Izanami and her husband Izanagi - the sun goddess Amaterasu, the moon goddess Tsukiyemi and the god of water and storm Susanoo were born. After many years of struggle, the goddess Amaterasu remained in heaven, and her grandson Ninigi came down from heaven and began to rule the state of Izumo. The symbols of his power were a mirror (divinity), a sword (power) and jasper (loyalty of his subjects.) It was from Niniga that the first emperor of Japan came - the Mikado, who inherited all three symbols of power. This explains the divine origin of power, while the rest of the Japanese, according to Shinto, descended from other deities - kami-spirits heroes, ancestors, gods of nature, with whom the whole world is populated. It is precisely this origin from deities that explains the Japanese idea of ​​their special mission in the world, the special qualities of their character, their life, and their rules.

Modern researchers identify five main principles of Shinto:

1. The statement that the world itself is good is perfect, since both the world itself and everything that exists in it are the result of its self-development.
2. Understanding the natural power of life. It is believed that intimate relationships first occurred between the gods, therefore there can be no sin or guilt in them. For the Japanese, therefore, there is no strict division between “pure” and “impure”; on the contrary, he believes that the “impure” can be purified through various rituals and thereafter accepted as a national tradition.
3. The idea of ​​the unity of nature and history. The original ideas of Shintoism do not divide the world into living and nonliving. Everything that surrounds people - living: animals, plants, things, stones, etc., how the spirit -kami lives in everything. Therefore, divine power should be sought not in the other world, but in the surrounding world.
4. Recognition of polytheism arising from previous views. Since deities live in every natural phenomenon, each settlement has its own local, clan, and tribal deities. In the 10th century, for example, a list of Shinto gods was compiled; there were 3132 of them.
5. Kami did not give birth to all people on earth, but only to the Japanese, therefore only a Japanese can belong to Shinto and worship its deities, although Shinto does not forbid a Japanese from professing any other religion besides Shinto.

The main Japanese holidays are based on these ideas, the main of which are associated with agricultural work, calendar dates, and historical events.

With the advent of Chinese religious teachings into Japanese culture, Shintoism did not cease to exist; it absorbed the main aspects of Chinese teachings and transformed them on the basis Japanese traditions and literally dissolved in his own culture.

Beginning in the 6th century, Taoism and Buddhism entered Japan through Korea. Taoism, with its idea of ​​“non-doing,” became the basis for many forms of man’s relationship with nature and himself. Buddhism was adopted by the Japanese in the Mahayana form, but its main provisions were adapted to the Japanese worldview. A modern Japanese researcher of Buddhism, Kishimo Hiedo, believes that the main thing for Buddhism in Japan is its idea of ​​liberation from suffering, and suffering is only those events in reality that are perceived by the person himself as suffering. Therefore, overcoming suffering lies in the person himself, in his reasonable understanding of suffering. The Japanese believe that only vague worries, and not various desires, cause suffering. Therefore, there is no need to get rid of desires, it is enough just to comprehend their cause and shift the emphasis from a negative attitude towards it to another plane: to see or benefit from everyday situations.

As for Japanese aesthetics, it distinguishes four types of beauty:

• sabi,
• wabi,
• Shibuya
• Yugen.

Sabi translates to "patina". This is the beauty of the natural, the traces of time left on objects.

Wabi is the beauty of the everyday, the ordinary, the utilitarian beauty of objects and at the same time the beauty of everyday work, the efforts that each person makes, aware of what he has given in this world.

Shibui is a combination of naturalness and everyday life in any objects and actions.

Yugen- (“inner depth, hidden”) embodies the mastery of hint or subtext, the charm of reticence.”

Literature, theater, painting

It is characteristic of Japanese artistic culture that the artistic traditions of Japan were able to withstand the influence of other cultures. Japanese culture reworked each new influence, giving it a different sound. If continental cultures took shape in the wide expanses of China or Korea, then Japan, the country of miniatures, always softened and gave special lyricism to its creations. With the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, new temples, pagodas, and monasteries began to be built. Appears a large number of sculptures depicting gods, demigods, legendary kings, whose features convey the warlike samurai spirit and emotional state, almost always corresponding to extreme tension. Only Buddha sculptures are always full of majestic calm and detachment.

Symbolism is often found in artistic reflection world by different cultures. The symbolism of Japanese art was especially clearly manifested in the poetry of the Heinan era (“Peace in Peace”) in the 8th-12th centuries. There were various periods on the path of Japanese literature to the heights of versification.

One of the oldest genres of Japanese poetry is tanka, unrhymed five-line verses consisting of 31 syllables (5-7-5-7-7). The main idea of ​​the tank is expressed in three lines:

In prose, a special genre of zuihitsu appears - which means writing, “following the brush,” recording everything that catches your eye, writing easily, obeying only the movement of the soul.

Since the second half of the 10th century, Japanese prose has been divided into “male” and “female”, because in the writing system created on the basis of Chinese characters, a purely Japanese syllabary appeared, and therefore men, as a rule, continue to write in Chinese, and women - in Japanese.

Japanese painting initially had a religious character, but from about the 11th century, national characteristics appeared in it. Painting was often decorative and applied. Paintings of screens, fans, various things and household decorations complemented the simplicity of the interior and became its decoration. With the development of literature, painting acquired the character of illustrations. Even picturesque stories appeared, illustrating travel, novels and descriptions of the lives of emperors and nobles. The main thing for them was to convey the mood of the hero. This was done using a combination of colors and their shades, laconic and at the same time rich, exquisite composition. This was especially clear in landscape painting, in which ink painting was established around the 16th century.

In terms of the depth of feelings conveyed by Japanese artists, painting is close to poetry.

The Japanese national theater combines the features of poetry and prose, visual arts, complementing them with a special expression of music, dance, singing and actual action.

As in other cultures of the world, theater arose from agricultural mysteries that accompanied seasonal holidays and rituals of the Shinto religion. In Shinto shrines, all kinds of actions were created related to the worship of the sun deity, the spirits of ancestors, sacred animals, plants, mountains and waters.

There is another source of Japanese theater. In the 10th-11th centuries, various theatrical performances came from China and Korea to Japan, bearing the Chinese name sangaku (“various performances”), which in Japanese vernacular was transformed into sarugaku - “monkey art”... The subjects were legends, traditions and fairy tales, incidents and anecdotes from Everyday life. With the spread of Buddhism, plays of more serious content began to appear.

The Japanese theater is built on completely different principles than the European one. expressive means. The actor's voice, which uses all the possibilities of its timbre and strength, spare precise movements, slow pace. Two aesthetic principles underlay theatrical performance: monomane (imitation) and the principle of yugen.

In the 17th century, the Kabuki theater appeared as a purely urban spectacle, and then the Dzeruri puppet theater. In the Kabuki theater, actors performed without masks.

In the puppet theater, Japanese actors achieved extraordinary expressiveness. The dolls were large, more than half human height. Puppet shows used singing, speaking, music and mime.

Already in the 17th century, theatrical performances became part of not only folk but also official life in Japan. The coming to power of a ruler or other events of national scale were certainly celebrated with performances. The performances lasted all day, and sometimes several days, and an invitation to them was considered a great honor. Like many other things in oriental art, Japanese theater required a special feeling for the world, for the deep state of the characters, and merging with them.

If we try to formulate a certain general idea of ​​Japanese art, it turns out that this is a tender and deep feeling of love for one’s homeland.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this work can highlight the main points:

1. Japanese culture arose and was finally formed during the Middle Ages, but it is based on ancient views reflected in mythology, the Shinto religion, and relationships with nature. Despite the high level of development of its civilization in the twentieth century, it has preserved the traditions of antiquity.
2. Japan's island position was determined by many features of the national mentality, the specifics of its relationship with nature and society, and the specifics of religion and art. The world for Japanese culture it does not oppose man, but merges with him, therefore there is no “nature-culture” antagonism in it.
3. Japanese culture is both conservative and susceptible to influences from other cultures, but almost all external influences are assimilated into local traditions and take on a completely different character and expression.
4. The aestheticization of relations with the world does not exclude severity and even cruelty in the views of the Japanese, and sometimes this cruelty itself acquires an aesthetic and ritual character. An aesthetic view of the internal unity in which a person lives with the world around him is also a principle of knowledge that requires merging with the world.
5. Japanese culture is considered a closed culture because it did not have any significant impact on other cultures, but, on the contrary, used their achievements while preserving its traditions.

Bibliography:

1. Vinogradova I.A., Nikolaeva N.S. Art of the countries of the Far East. - M.: Art, 1979
2. Konrad N.I. Essays on the cultural history of medieval Japan. - M.: Art, 1980
3. Ovchinnikov E. Sakura branch. - M.: Young Guard, 1971
4. Pronnikov V.A., Ladanov I.D. Japanese. - M.: Nauka, 1985
5. Japanese five lines.- M.: Fiction, 1971

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