Culture of Arab countries - Arabic revival. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
Under medieval culture Arab East(V-XVI centuries) imply the culture of Arabia and those countries that underwent Arabization and in which the Arab nation developed - Iran, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and other countries of North Africa. The process of Arabization was rapid by historical standards, but it had its own rather long prehistory. The leading role in it was played by the tribes inhabiting the Arabian Peninsula.
Tribes of Arabia
The main part of the territory of Arabia is steppes, deserts and semi-deserts; only a small part of the land was suitable for farming. The majority of the peninsula's population were Bedouin nomads, who called themselves Arabs - the word “Arab” meant “dashing rider”. Already in the first centuries of our era, flying Bedouin troops, camel and horse, turned into a formidable force with which the sedentary urban population was forced to reckon. The nomads robbed caravans of townspeople - they considered their property their legitimate prey, attacked villages, and poisoned crops. The townspeople resisted and angrily ridiculed the “camel hunters.” However, it was difficult for both of them in difficult natural conditions, which required maximum effort in order to survive. In their attitude to the world there were more similarities than differences, and the life values of both sedentary and Bedouins were activity, enterprise and the ability to deny oneself everything. Islam was born among nomadic tribes - the future world religion, which had an exceptionally strong influence on the countries of the East and quickly spread and was accepted by all residents of the Arabian Peninsula.
Prophet Muhammad
Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. The founder of Islam was a real person - the prophet Muhammad, whose biography is quite well known.
Muhammad was orphaned early and was raised by his grandfather and then his uncle, a wealthy merchant. In his youth, Muhammad was a shepherd, and at the age of 25 he began working for a 40-year-old widow, the mother of several children. She organized caravans that went to other lands for goods. They got married - it was a marriage of love - and they had four daughters. In total, the prophet had nine wives.
Over time, Muhammad became less and less interested in trade and more and more in matters of faith. He received his first revelations in a dream - the angel Gabriel, the Messenger of Allah, appeared to him and announced his will: Muhammad must preach in his name, gentlemen. Revelations became more and more frequent, and in 610 the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca. Despite Muhammad's passion, the number of his supporters grew slowly. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca and moved to another city - a little later it would be called Medina - the city of the prophet; His like-minded people moved there with him. From this year - the flight to Medina - the Muslim calendar begins.
The people of Medina recognized Muhammad as their prophet, religious and political leader and supported him in his quest to defeat Mecca. The fierce war between these cities ended in the complete victory of Medina. In 630, Muhammad triumphantly returned to Mecca, which became the center of Islam.
At the same time, a Muslim theocratic state was formed - Arab Caliphate, the first leader of which was Muhammad himself. His associates and successors as heads of the caliphate carried out a number of successful campaigns of conquest, which led to a significant expansion of the territory of the caliphate and contributed to the rapid spread of Islam there. Islam (or Islam) becomes the state religion of the Arab East. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. His grave is the most important shrine of Islam.
Already by the 8th century. The Arabs subjugated Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, part of the territory of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa, and Spain. However, this huge political formation was not strong at the beginning of the 10th century. broke up into separate independent parts - the emirates. As for the Arab-Muslim culture, having absorbed the diverse culture of the Persians, Syrians, Copts (the original inhabitants of Egypt), Jews, the peoples of Central Asia and others, it remained essentially united. This leading link was Islam.
Scientists recognize that Islam arose from a combination of elements of Judaism, Christianity, as well as some ritual traditions of Old Arab pre-Muslim cults of nature: most Arabs of the 6th - early 7th centuries. They were pagans, polytheists, and among them there were many Jewish and Christian sects. However, the synthesis of these elements was original, and Islam is an independent religion. The main provisions of Islam are as follows.
Muslims believe in one God - Allah, omnipotent and incomprehensible to man. In order to tell humanity the truth about God and the world, special people were chosen - prophets, the last of whom was Muhammad. Other, earlier prophets were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Moses, David, Solomon, Jesus Christ, etc., whose teachings were then largely distorted by their followers, with the exception, of course, of the remaining true teachings of Muhammad. Thus, Islam distinguishes Christians and Jews from people of other religions, considering them “people of the book.”
Seeing a prophet in Christ, Islam opposes the Christian teaching about the consubstantiality of Christ with God and against the idea of the Trinity as a whole, arguing that “it is not characteristic of God to have children” and “how will he have children when he did not have a girlfriend.”
The world, according to Islam, was created in six days: Allah said: “Be,” and the heavens and earth came into being. Man was created by Allah from the earth: having sculpted the shell of a man from clay, Allah breathed into man “his spirit” - life. Thus, a person consists of two essences - physical and spiritual. A woman came out of Adam’s rib: during his sleep - “sweet slumber”, an angel, by the will of God, took out Adam’s rib and gave birth to Eve (Chava) - a “pleasant companion” so that Adam would not be bored.
Islam teaches that the happy period in the history of mankind is left behind - this is the time when Adam and Eve lived in paradise, did not know hunger and were not ashamed of their nakedness. After expulsion from heaven, no matter how hard a person tries, he is unlikely to create something good and be happy. Life in this world, Islam assures, is “deceptive joy, seduction, vain attire, vanity.” Therefore, even in the daily bustle, a person should not forget about his soul, about what awaits him after God’s judgment.
Muslims believe that after death a person will face divine retribution - God's universal judgment. The posthumous fate of a person will depend on how he behaved during life, on the ratio of bad and good deeds which he did. It’s not difficult to calculate this: after all, the angels keep a special scroll for each person, where they record all his deeds. On the day of the Last Judgment, everyone will receive what they deserve and will go to either heaven or hell.
The fate of a person and his hour of death, Muslims say, are written in advance in the Book of Fates. The Arabs' attitude to fate is reflected in the old proverb: "Everyone has a day of death." By fate they have long understood a predetermined fate, the irresistible and unchangeable passage of time. Islam developed and strengthened this approach - they began to look at fate as a manifestation of the will of a single and omnipotent God.
The most important question in Islam was how the will of God and man relate. After all, Allah is omnipotent, he created people and all their actions. And if everything that happens in the world - both good and bad - is predestined by Allah, then should we praise the righteous and should we hate sinners? In the end, both of them live only according to the commands of the Almighty. And if the will of Allah is absolute, then where are the differences between good and evil?
In the 10th century The famous Muslim theologian al-Ashari tried to answer this question. He argued that Allah created man with all his future actions and that man only imagines that he has free will and freedom of choice. Supporters of this position formed the Shafi'i religious-legal school. Other famous theologians al-Maturidi and Abu Hanifa argued that man has free will, and Allah helps him in good deeds and leaves in bad. This view is shared by the Hanifites.
The issue of free will was not the only controversial issue in Islam. Already in the 7th century. There were three main directions in Islam that still exist today. The division was based on a dispute about the principles of inheritance of religious and secular power. The Harajites argued that the head of a religious community could be any devout Muslim elected by the community. According to the Sunni concept, a special agreement must be concluded between the religious community and the future head of state - the caliph - and the caliph himself must satisfy the following conditions, have the title of theologian-lawyer of the highest rank, and be from the Quraysh tribe (Muhammad himself belonged to this tribe) , to be fair, wise, healthy and caring for his subjects. Shiites believed that state and religious power was of a divine nature and therefore could only be inherited by the direct heirs of Muhammad.
At the turn of the 7th-8th centuries. Another movement developed in Islam - Sufism, which finally took shape by the 12th century. This movement was of an ascetic-mystical nature, and its followers were called fakirs, or dervishes. They condemned wealth, proclaimed the cult of poverty and self-denial for the salvation of the soul and merging with God, and developed a doctrine of gradual knowledge of God and merging with him through mystical love and intuitive divine insights.
The main tenets of Islam are set out in the main holy book of Muslims - the Koran (from Arabic quran - reading). It is based on the commandments, sermons, ritual and legal institutions, prayers, edifying stories and parables of Muhammad, spoken by him in Medina and Mecca, recorded by his assistants (it is known that the prophet could neither read nor write, and his speech-revelations were initially recorded his companions even on palm leaves and stones). Muhammad's students also learned them by heart and recited them like ancient Arabic poetry. The Qur'an is written in rhymed prose and rhythmic sentences; Arabists consider rhyme to be refined and rhythm to be clear.
All sayings in which the speaker is not Muhammad, but Allah, are classified as revelations, all others are classified as legends. The full text of the Koran was collected after the death of Muhammad, and then, in the middle of the 7th century, under Caliph Osman, who was an associate and son-in-law of Muhammad, this text was declared canonical. Soon commentaries on the Koran were also compiled.
In the Middle Ages there were many people who knew the Koran by heart. The Quran was forbidden to be translated from Arabic into other languages, and it was on the Quran that the teaching of the Arabic language was based. Islamization presupposed the indispensable reading and knowledge of this great book, which led to the spread of the Arabic language. Arabization in the Middle Ages was one of the most important elements in the creation of Muslim culture.
Arabic
Thus, the role of the Arabic language in the development of the culture of the Arab East is enormous: along with Islam, it was a powerful factor uniting all Arab countries. It is generally accepted that classical literary Arabic developed in the Early Middle Ages on the basis of Old Arabic poetry and the Koran. Arabic writing is regarded by the Arabs as the greatest cultural value, and its authorship is attributed to the legendary ancestor of the Arabs, Ismail.
Already in the Early Middle Ages, the Arabs had rich folklore traditions; they valued the spoken word, a beautiful phrase, a successful comparison, and a well-placed saying. Each tribe of Arabia had its own poet, praising his fellow tribesmen and branding his enemies. The poet used rhythmic prose; there were many rhythms. It is believed that they were born in a camel's saddle, when the Bedouin sang on the way, adapting to the progress of his “ship of the desert.”
Literature
In the first centuries of Islam, the art of rhyming became a court craft in large cities. Poets also acted as literary critics. In the VIII-X centuries. Many works of pre-Islamic Arabic oral poetry were recorded. So, in the 9th century. Two collections of “Hamas” (“Songs of Valor”) were compiled, which included poems by more than 500 Old Arab poets. In the 10th century writer, scientist, musician Abul-Faraj Al-Isfahani a multi-volume anthology “Kitab al-Aghani” (“Book of Songs”) was compiled, including works and biographies of poets, as well as information about composers and performers.
The attitude of the Arabs towards poets, for all their admiration for poetry, was not unambiguous. They believed that the inspiration that helps them write poetry comes from demons, the devils: they eavesdrop on the conversations of angels, and then tell priests and poets about them. In addition, the Arabs were almost completely uninterested in the specific personality of the poet. They believed that little should be known about the poet: whether his talent was great and whether his ability to clairvoyance was strong.
Therefore, not all the great poets of the Arab East have been preserved complete and reliable information.
An outstanding poet was Abu Nuwas (between 747-762 - between 813-815), who masterfully mastered the form of verse. He was characterized by irony and frivolity, he sang of love, merry feasts and laughed at the then fashionable passion for old Bedouin poems.
Abul-Atahiya sought support in asceticism and faith. He wrote moral poems about the vanity of all earthly things and the injustice of life. Detachment from the world was not easy for him, as evidenced by his nickname - “without a sense of proportion.”
Al-Mutanabbi's life was spent in endless wanderings. He was ambitious and proud, and either praised the rulers of Syria, Egypt, and Iran in his poems, or quarreled with them. Many of his poems became aphorisms and turned into songs and proverbs.
Creation Abu-l-Ala al-Maari(973-1057/58) from Syria is considered the pinnacle of Arab medieval poetry, and the magnificent result of the synthesis of the complex and variegated culture of Arab-Muslim history. It is known that at the age of four he suffered from smallpox and went blind, but this did not stop him from studying the Koran, theology, Islamic law, ancient Arabic traditions and modern poetry. He also knew Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, traveled a lot in his youth, and his poems reveal colossal erudition. He was a seeker of truth and justice, and in his lyrics there are several clearly dominant themes: the mystery of life and death, the depravity of man and society, the presence of evil and suffering in the world, which was, in his opinion, an inevitable law of existence (book of lyrics “The Obligation of the Optional ", "Message of Forgiveness", "Message of Angels").
In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, a now world-famous collection of Arabic folk tales "Thousand and One Nights". They were based on revised plots of Persian, Indian, and Greek tales, the action of which was transferred to the Arab court and urban environment, as well as Arab fairy tales themselves. These are fairy tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. The heroes of fairy tales were also princesses, sultans, merchants, and townspeople. The favorite character of medieval Arabic literature was the Bedouin - daring and cautious, crafty and simple-minded, the keeper of pure Arabic speech.
Enduring world fame was brought to Omar Khayyam (1048-1122), a Persian poet and scientist, by his philosophical, hedonistic and free-thinking poems:
A gentle woman's face and green grass
I will enjoy it while I'm alive.
I drank wine, I drink wine, and I probably will
Drink wine until your fatal moment.
In medieval Arab culture, poetry and prose were closely intertwined: poetry was most naturally included in love stories, medical treatises, heroic stories, philosophical and historical works, and even in the official messages of medieval rulers. And all Arabic literature was united by the Muslim faith and the Koran: quotes and phrases from there were found everywhere.
Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture in general occurred in the 8th-9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world stood at the head of world civilization. From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice. The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists thus date back to the Early Middle Ages.
The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Lived in the 10th century. Abu-l-Wafa derived the sine theorem of spherical trigonometry, calculated a table of sines with an interval of 15°, and introduced segments corresponding to the secant and cosecant.
The poet and scientist Omar Khayyam wrote “Algebra” - an outstanding work that contained a systematic study of equations of the third degree. He also successfully worked on the problem of irrational and real numbers. He owns the philosophical treatise “On the Universality of Being.” In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian calendar.
An outstanding scientist in Egypt was Ibn al-Haytham, a mathematician and physicist, the author of famous works on optics.
Medicine has achieved great success - it has developed more successfully than in Europe or the Far East. Arab medieval medicine glorified Ibn Sina - Avicenna(980-1037), author of the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine, summarizing the views and experience of Greek, Roman Indian and Central Asian doctors "Canon of Medical Science". For many centuries, this work was a mandatory guide for doctors. Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles, and used smallpox vaccination. The Syrian Bakhtisho family gave seven generations of famous doctors.
Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage. Scientists and philosophers were Ibn Sina, the author of a philosophical treatise "Book of Healing". Scientists actively translated the works of ancient authors.
Famous philosophers were Al-Kindi, who lived in the 9th century, and al-Farabi (870-950), called the “second teacher,” i.e. after Aristotle, whom Farabi commented on. Scientists united in a philosophical circle "Brothers of Purity" in the city of Basra, compiled an encyclopedia of philosophical scientific achievements of their time.
Historical thought also developed. If in the VII-VIII centuries. Historical works had not yet been written in Arabic and there were simply many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the 9th century. Major works on history are being compiled. The leading representatives of historical science were al-Belazuri, who wrote about the Arab conquests, al-Nakubi, at-Tabari and al-Masudi, authors of works on general history. It is history that will remain the only branch scientific knowledge, which will develop in the XIII-XV centuries. under the dominance of a fanatical Muslim clergy, when neither exact sciences nor mathematics developed in the Arab East. The most famous historians of the XIV-XV centuries. there were the Egyptian Makrizi, who compiled the history of the Copts, and Ibn Khaldun, the first Arab historian to try to create a theory of history. He identified the natural conditions of the country as the main factor determining the historical process.
Arabic literature also attracted the attention of scientists: at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. An Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars.
Medieval centers Arab science there were cities Baghdad, Kufa, Basra, Harron. Was especially lively scientific life Baghdad, where the “House of Science” was created - a kind of association of an academy, an observatory, a library and a board of translators:
By the 10th century Secondary and higher Muslim schools - madrasahs - appeared in many cities. In the X-XIII centuries. In Europe, a signed decimal system for writing numbers became known from Arabic writings, called "Arabic numerals".
Architecture. Art
It should be said that medieval Arab architecture developed on the basis of the processing by the Arabs, primarily of Greek, Roman and Iranian artistic traditions.
The most famous architectural monuments of that time Amr Mosque in Fustat And cathedral mosque in Kufa, created in the 7th century. The famous temple "Dome of the Rock" in Damascus, decorated with mosaics and multi-colored marble. From the 7th-8th centuries. the mosques had a rectangular courtyard surrounded by galleries and a multi-columned prayer hall. Later, monumental portals appeared on the main facade.
From the 10th century buildings begin to be decorated with elegant floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic script. Such an ornament, the Europeans called it arabesque, was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern.
The object of the Muslim hajj was the Kaaba - a temple in Mecca, shaped like a cube. In its wall there is a niche with a black stone - as modern researchers believe, probably of meteorite origin. This black stone is revered as a symbol of Allah, representing his presence.
Islam, advocating strict monotheism, fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was prohibited in Islam, and images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the 12th century the art of miniatures began to develop 
, including books.
In general, fine art went into carpeting; its characteristic features became colorful and patterned. Combination bright colors However, it was always strictly geometric, rational and subordinated to Muslim symbolism.
The Arabs considered red the best color for the eyes - it was the color of women, children and joy. As much as red was loved, gray was despised. White, black and purple colors were interpreted as the colors of mourning, rejection of the joys of life. Particularly prominent in Islam green color who had exceptional prestige. For many centuries it was forbidden to both non-Muslims and the lower classes of Islam.
Sharia norms
The Koran, in addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, contains both ritual and legal regulations regulating different sides life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, and property relations of people were built. A set of norms of morality, law, cultural and other guidelines that regulate the entire public and personal life of a Muslim, called Sharia, is the most important component of the Islamic system.
Sharia was formed during the 7th-8th centuries. By the 9th century. Based on Sharia norms, a rating scale was developed for all actions of believers.
TO obligatory actions included those whose failure to comply was punished during life and after death: reading prayers, observing fasting, and various rituals of Islam. In number desirable actions included additional prayers and fasting, as well as charity, this was encouraged during life and rewarded after death. Indifferent actions- sleep, food, marriage, etc. - were neither encouraged nor prohibited. Disapproved, although not punishable, actions were actions caused by the desire to enjoy earthly goods: the culture of the medieval Arab East, prone to luxury, was sensual. This was especially evident in food. In the cities, expensive Indian pistachio kernels soaked in rose water, apples from Syria, sugar cane stalks, and edible clay from Nishapur were held in high esteem. Incense used in life played an important role: fragrant oils were prepared from lotus, daffodils, white jasmine, lilies, cloves, roses, baths made of violet oil, etc. prohibited actions included those who were punished both during life and after death: for example, it was forbidden to drink wine, eat pork, play gambling, engage in usury, witchcraft, etc. Despite the prohibitions of Islam, many residents of the medieval Arab East continued to drink wine (this was especially typical for cities), but all other prohibitions - on pork, blood, the meat of any animal killed not according to Muslim rites, - were strictly observed.
Position of man and woman
Based on the Koran and taking into account pre-Islamic traditions, the law of inheritance, guardianship, marriage and divorce was developed. Marriage was seen as the most important event in the life of a man and a woman. The union was considered ideal cousin and sisters, and the number of legal wives was limited to four. The subordinate position of women in the family and society was confirmed, and kinship was kept strictly on the paternal side.
The man was recognized as the absolute leader. God's blessing, as was believed in the Arab East, lay precisely on the sons, and therefore only after the birth of a son was a person here considered full-fledged. A real man was distinguished by generosity, generosity, the ability to love and have fun, valor, and loyalty to his word. The man was required to constantly assert his superiority, to be persistent, patient and ready for any adversity. He was responsible for caring for the elders and the younger; he had to know his genealogy and family traditions.
Islam had a beneficial influence on society's attitude towards slaves: freeing a slave was now seen as a humane and desirable act for a pious Muslim. However, throughout the Middle Ages, the number of slaves almost did not decrease, slave trading was a common activity for merchants, and slaves were one of the most popular goods in eastern markets: stable traditions changed slowly.
Traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking. It, in turn, was largely determined by mythology.
Mythology of the Arab East. Mentality
Its most important component was jinnology - the doctrine of jinn. Islam defined their place in the world this way: the demon jinn, created from pure fire, were inferior to man, created by Allah from clay, and, of course, to angels, created from light. All of them - humans, angels, and demons - are submissive to the will of Allah.
Demon genies are in some ways similar to people: they are mortal, although they can live for a very long time, many hundreds of years, they need food, and can marry each other or with people. In many ways, however, they were superior to humans: they were able to fly, penetrate deep into the earth and water, become visible and invisible, turn around by different people, animals, plants.
Jinns could be good or evil; the good ones accepted Islam, the evil ones remained infidels, but a person should be wary of both. The most ferocious demon-shaitans were called marids, and they had to be especially wary. In addition, ifrits were bloodthirsty and malicious - either evil spirits or ghosts of the dead. Hairy werewolf ghouls lived in cemeteries and other abandoned desert places, always ready to devour a lonely traveler.
In general, in the Arab East they believed that jinn lie in wait for a person at every step. Therefore, even in everyday everyday life one had to be on guard: for example, before lighting a fire in the hearth or getting water from a well, one should ask Allah for protection from demons and demonesses.
Amulets provided some protection from evil forces. The most important amulet was a palm made of copper with a blue bead - it was the “palm of Fatima” - named after the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. It was believed that the “palm of Fatima,” as well as other amulets - flat silver twin frogs, silver brooches, cowrie shells - protected a person from the evil eye.
They were very afraid of the evil eye and they explained many phenomena in life - from illness to crop failure. It was believed that the power of the evil eye increases many times over if it is accompanied by unkind or, on the contrary, too flattering speeches. This is how evasiveness in speech was brought up, a tendency to constantly make reservations: “By the will of Allah,” the desire to hide one’s private life from strangers behind a blank wall. family life. This also influenced the style of clothing, primarily for women: women wore blank face coverings and rather shapeless dresses that almost completely hid their figure.
In the Arab East, great importance was attached to dreams; they believed in prophetic dreams, and already at the beginning of the 11th century. Ad-Dinawari compiled the first dream book in Arabic. It was not allowed to invent and speculate on dreams: “Whoever lies about his dreams will answer on the day of the rising of the dead,” says the Koran.
Dream fortune telling was a means of looking into the future. In addition, they guessed by birds, primarily by the flight of ravens and eagles, and were sure that the kite, ostrich, pigeon and owl foreshadowed misfortune. The desire to look into the unknown led to the practice of magic and divination. The attitude towards magic was ambiguous: white, or high magic, which was resorted to by pious people for noble purposes, was allowed. In this they were helped by heavenly angels and good genies who converted to Islam. Black magic, it was believed in the Arab East, was practiced by dishonest people, and their assistants were evil shaitans.
The penchant for fortune telling, like many other features of the mentality of the inhabitants of the Middle East, appeared long before the adoption of Islam there and survived the Middle Ages, moving into the New Age, and then into the Modern Age.
Arabic medieval culture developed in those countries that underwent Arabization, adopted Islam, and in which classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the language of government institutions, literature and religion.
All medieval Arab culture, everyday life and the way of life of people, moral standards in society developed under the influence of the Islamic religion, which arose among the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century.
The greatest flourishing of Arab culture occurred in the 8th-11th centuries. At this time, poetry developed successfully, which gave the world Omar Khayyam and which was characterized by a secular, cheerful and at the same time philosophical character; the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”, which are still famous throughout the world, were compiled; Many works of other peoples, primarily ancient authors, were actively translated into Arabic.
The Arabs made significant contributions to world mathematical science, the development of medicine, and philosophy. They created such unique architectural monuments as mosques and famous temples in Mecca and Damascus, giving significant originality to the buildings, decorating them with ornaments - Arabic script.
The influence of Islam determined the underdevelopment of painting and sculpture in Arab culture, predetermining the departure of fine art into carpeting.
Islam is the youngest of the three world religions, the importance of which is steadily increasing. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion.
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Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Kazakh Head Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Essay
On the topic of:“The emergence of Arab culture, features and trends in Islamic architecture”
Completed by: master's student gr. MArkh 14-2 Kadyrova R.
Checked by: Assoc.Prof. Zhamalov K.Zh.
Almaty 2015
Art of Medieval Egypt
Architecture
art
Conclusion
Culture and art of Arab peoples
The peoples of the Arab East have an important place in the cultural history of mankind. It is no coincidence that medieval geographers called the Arab East the breast of the world: the heart of world civilization beat here for many centuries. Arab medieval culture developed in Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and North Africa, as well as in Southern Spain during the existence of the Cordoba Caliphate and Arab principalities there. Medieval Arab culture at one time was a major step forward in the progressive development of mankind. The great merit of the peoples of the Arab East was that they preserved (especially in the field of science) and passed on to subsequent generations many valuable achievements of antiquity.
In historical science, the correct idea of Arab culture was not immediately developed. In the last century, and even now, among many bourgeois scientists there was a widespread erroneous opinion that in all countries that were part of the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-9th centuries and adopted Islam, there was a single “Arab” culture. This understanding of Arab culture, uncritically following the medieval Muslim tradition, leads to the denial of the independent development of the culture of Iranians, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Tajiks and many other peoples in the Middle Ages. In fact, in the countries with a non-Arab population that were part of the caliphate, local cultures developed, based on ancient traditions, which, like the culture of the Arabs, were a valuable contribution to the development of medieval civilization. Of course, between the peoples of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages there was a complex and important interaction for their culture, which gave rise to common features.
The culture of the peoples who inhabited the Arabian Peninsula has been known since ancient times. Ancient geographers called southern, agricultural Arabia “happy.” Here from the middle of the first millennium BC. there were rich states: Minaan, and later Sabaean. In the first millennium BC. In the northwestern part of the peninsula (the so-called “rocky Arabia”) the Nabataean state arose. The prosperity of these kingdoms was determined by their favorable economic position on world routes of communication and extensive intermediary trade with Egypt, Western Asia and India.
The architecture and art of the ancient South Arab states, which have not yet been sufficiently studied, are by their type included in the circle of cultures of the slave-holding societies of Western Asia. The remains of powerful fortifications, dams and cisterns, as well as works of sculpture and applied art have been preserved. On the stone steles covered with writings there are images of people, animals and ornaments.
Since ancient times, the bulk of the population of Arabia were nomads engaged in cattle breeding in the steppes and semi-deserts of the peninsula. The deep and complex process of class stratification within Arab society and the political situation associated with the struggle between Iran and Byzantium created the conditions for the emergence of a medieval Arab state. The political unification of the Arabs at the beginning of the 7th century took place under the auspices of a new, which soon became a world religion - Islam. The original place of residence of the founder of Islam and the head of the Arab state - the Prophet Muhammad and his successors - the caliphs (hence the name of the state - caliphate) were the Arabian cities of Medina, and then Mecca.
In the 7th century, the Arabs conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Iran. In 661, Muawiyah, the Arab governor of Syria, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty. Damascus became the capital of the Umayyads. At the end of the 7th and beginning of the 8th century, a gigantic territory was annexed to the caliphate, which included the Iberian Peninsula and all of North Africa in the west, Transcaucasia and Central Asia to the borders of India in the east.
The Arab Caliphate became a large early feudal state, although in some of its areas slavery and even primitive communal relations persisted for a long time. The Arab nobility brutally exploited the peasants and artisans of the conquered countries. Victorious military campaigns and the successes of the new religion could not hide the growth of class contradictions. The struggle of the broad masses of people against feudal oppression resulted in powerful uprisings and often went under the slogan of liberation from foreign yoke. Already in the 9th-10th centuries, social upheavals essentially caused the disintegration of the caliphate into separate states.
At the same time, the creative forces of the peoples that were part of the Arab Caliphate, awakened by the liberation and class struggle, led to a high rise in the medieval culture of the Near and Middle East; its flourishing continued even when the caliphate as a single whole actually no longer existed.
The Arab Caliphate included countries at different levels of social development and with different cultural and artistic traditions. However, the similarity in the forms of development of feudalism in the Near and Middle East gave rise to common features in ideology and other superstructural phenomena. These deep socio-economic reasons, and not the spread of religion - Islam - lie at the basis of the unity that also takes place in the medieval culture of the Arab countries.
An important role in the development of Arab culture was played by its interaction with the high medieval culture of Iran, Central Asia and Transcaucasia. Arabic was not only the language of the Muslim holy book, the Koran, but, like Latin in Western Europe, it was used by many scientists, writers and poets in all parts of the multilingual caliphate. The history of the literature of the peoples of the East has preserved striking examples of creative interaction. The artistic creativity of many peoples was embodied in the famous poem “Leila and Majnun”. Romantic image dying of love, Majnun and his beloved Leila - the Romeo and Juliet of the East - born at the dawn of feudalism in the Arab environment, inspired the creation of wonderful works by the best poets of medieval Azerbaijan, Iran and Central Asia.
However, not only interaction and a certain commonality are important, but also the high level of culture of the peoples of the Near and Middle East for that time. In the 9th-13th centuries, Arab, as well as Iranian, Azerbaijani and Central Asian cities were the largest centers of learning, famous for their libraries, schools, universities and other educational institutions. Popular sayings of that time are typical: “The greatest adornment of a person is knowledge” or “The ink of a scientist is as worthy of respect as the blood of a martyr.” It is not surprising, therefore, that the 12th-century Syrian writer Osama ibn Munkyz, the author of the “Book of Edification,” assessed the morals of the modern Franks, which he had to encounter not only in the military field, but also in peaceful life, from the position of a person of immeasurably greater culture.
Religion had a certain influence on the development of medieval art of the Arabs, as well as other peoples who professed Islam. The spread of Islam marked the abandonment of old, pre-feudal religions and the establishment of monotheism - the belief in one God. The Muslim idea of the world as a single whole created by God was important for the formation of the characteristic aesthetic idea about a certain, albeit abstract, harmony of the universe. At the same time, Islam, like everyone else, medieval religions, ideologically justified and consolidated feudal exploitation. The dogmas of the Koran darkened the consciousness of man and hindered his development. However, the views of the people of the medieval East on the world, including their artistic views, cannot be reduced to religious ideas. The worldview of the Middle Ages man contradictorily combined idealistic and materialistic tendencies, scholasticism and the desire to understand reality. One of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the medieval East, Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), recognized the divine origin of the universe and at the same time argued that scientific and philosophical knowledge exists independently of religious faith. Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ferdowsi, Navoi and many other outstanding thinkers of the medieval East, in whose works and poetic works the progressive features of the era were especially clearly manifested, affirmed the power of human will and reason, value and wealth real world, although, as a rule, they did not openly speak out from an atheistic position.
When it comes to the influence of Islam on the visual arts, they usually point to the prohibition of depicting living beings under pain of religious punishment. There is no doubt that from its very inception the teachings of Islam contained an iconoclastic tendency associated with the overcoming of polytheism. In the Koran, idols (most likely, sculptural images of ancient tribal gods) are called “an obsession of Satan.” Religious tradition resolutely rejected the possibility of depicting a deity. It was also not allowed to place images of people in mosques and other religious buildings. The Koran and other theological books were decorated only with ornaments. However, initially in Islam there was no prohibition on depicting living beings, formulated as a religious law. Only later, probably in the 9th-10th centuries, was the iconoclastic tendency of Islam used to prohibit certain category images under pain of punishment the afterlife. “Unfortunate is the one,” we read in the commentaries to the Koran, “who will portray Living being! On the day of the last trial, the persons whom the artist presented will leave the picture and come to him demanding that he give them a soul. Then this man, who cannot give souls to his creatures, will be burned in eternal flame”; “Beware of depicting gentlemen or people, and paint only trees, flowers and inanimate objects.”
History has shown that these restrictions, which left their mark on the development of certain types of art, did not matter in all Muslim countries ah and were strictly carried out only during periods of particularly intensified ideological reaction.
However, the explanation of the main features of the medieval art of the Arab peoples should not be sought in religion, which influenced but did not determine its development. The content of the artistic creativity of the peoples of the Arab East, its paths and features were determined by the pace of new ideological and aesthetic tasks, which were put forward by the progressive development of society that entered the era of feudalism.
The specifics of medieval art in the Arab countries, as well as throughout the Near and Middle East, are very complex. It reflected the living content of reality, but, like the entire culture of the Middle Ages, deeply imbued with a religious and mystical worldview, it did this in a conditional, often symbolic form, developing its own special figurative language for works of art.
Arab innovation medieval literature and at the same time, its vital basis is characterized by an appeal to the spiritual world of man, the creation of moral ideals that have universal significance.
The fine art of the Arab East is also imbued with great figurative power. However, just as literature used predominantly a conventional form to embody its images, so in the fine arts the life content was expressed in the special language of decorative art.
The convention of the “language” of medieval fine art among most peoples was associated with the principle of decorativeness, characteristic not only of external forms, but also of the structure itself, figurative structure work of art. The wealth of decorative imagination and its masterful implementation in applied art, miniatures and architecture constitute an integral and valuable quality of the remarkable works of artists of that era.
In the art of the Arab East, decorativeness acquired especially bright and original features, becoming the basis of the figurative structure of painting and giving rise to the richest art a pattern with a complex ornamental rhythm and often increased color sonority. Within the narrow framework of the medieval worldview, the artists of the Arab East found their way to embody the richness of the life around them. By the rhythm of the pattern, its “carpet-like quality,” the subtle plasticity of ornamental forms, and the unique harmony of bright and pure colors, they expressed great aesthetic content.
The image of a person was not excluded from the attention of artists, although appeal to it was limited, especially during the period of increasing religious prohibitions. Images of people fill out illustrations in manuscripts and are often found in patterns on objects of applied art; Monuments of monumental painting with multi-figure scenes and sculptural reliefs are also known. However, even in such works the human image is subordinated to the general decorative solution. Even when they endowed human figures with many vital features, the artists of the Arab East interpreted them in a flat, conventional way. In applied art, human figures are most often included in the ornament; they lose the meaning of an independent image, becoming an integral part of the pattern.
The ornament - “music for the eyes” - plays very important role in the medieval art of the peoples of the Arab East. It to a certain extent compensates for the visual limitations of some types of art and is one of the important means of expressing artistic content. Based on classical ancient motifs, the arabesque, which became widespread in the countries of the medieval East, was a new type of ornamental composition that allowed the artist to fill planes of any shape with a complex, woven, lace-like pattern. Initially, arabesque was dominated by plant motifs. Later, girikh became widespread - a linear-geometric ornament built on a complex combination of polygons and multi-rayed stars. In the development of the arabesque, which was used to decorate both large architectural planes and various household items, the masters of the Arab East achieved amazing virtuosity, creating countless compositions that always combine two principles: a logical and strict mathematical construction of a pattern and a great spiritualizing power of artistic imagination.
The peculiarities of Arab medieval art also include the widespread use of epigraphic ornament - the text of inscriptions organically included in the decorative pattern. Let us note in passing that religion 113 of all arts especially encouraged calligraphy: copying a text from the Koran was considered a righteous deed for a Muslim.
The unique decorative and ornamental structure of artistic creativity was expressed differently in individual types of art. The architectural features common to many peoples of the Near and Middle East were associated with the natural and climatic conditions of the countries and the capabilities of construction equipment. In the architecture of homes, techniques have long been developed for planning houses with courtyards and terraces protected from the heat. Construction technology gave rise to special structures made of clay, brick and stone. The architects of that time created various forms of arches - horseshoe-shaped and especially pointed, and invented their own systems of vaulted ceilings. They achieved exceptional skill and artistic expressiveness in the laying of large domes resting on trumps (a structural system that arose in the pre-feudal period). architecture art culture arabic
Medieval architects of the Arab East created new types of monumental religious and secular buildings: mosques that accommodated thousands of worshipers; minarets - towers from which believers were called to prayer; madrasahs - buildings of Muslim religious schools; caravanserais and covered markets, corresponding to the scale of trading activities of cities; palaces of rulers, fortified citadels, fortress walls with gates and towers.
Arab architects, the authors of many masterpieces of medieval art, paid great attention to the decorative possibilities of architecture. Therefore, one of the characteristic features of the synthesis of arts in monumental architecture is the important role of decorative forms and the special significance of ornament, which sometimes covers the walls and vaults of buildings with monochrome lace or a colorful carpet.
Stalactites (muqarnas) were widely used in the architecture of the Arab East - decorative filling of vaults, niches and cornices in the form of prismatic figures with a thread-like cutout, arranged in rows protruding one above the other. Stalactites arose from a constructive technique - a special brick laying to create a transition from the square of the walls to the circle of the dome in the corners of the rooms.
Applied art played an extremely important role in the artistic culture of the countries of the Arab East. The economic basis for this was the intensive development of crafts. In artistic crafts, local ancient traditions of art, closely connected with folk life, have found a vivid expression. The Arabs - masters of applied art - were characterized by a high aesthetic “sense of a thing,” which made it possible, without disturbing the practical functions of an object, to give it a beautiful shape and skillfully place a pattern on its surface. In the applied decorative art of the Arab East, the importance of the culture of ornament was especially clearly manifested, and its enormous artistic possibilities were revealed. Ornament brings aesthetic content to perfectly crafted oriental fabrics, carpets, painted ceramics, bronze and glass items. Works of applied art of the Arab East have one more important quality: they usually form a very holistic and expressive decorative ensemble with an architectural interior.
The main type of painting that developed in the Near and Middle East during the Middle Ages was the illustration of secular manuscripts. Arab masters made extensive use of this opportunity, creating, along with the rich ornamental decorations of manuscripts, excellent series of colorful miniatures, giving a poetically imaginative story about the fate of the heroes of a literary work.
In the 16th century, most of the countries of the Arab East were captured by Ottoman Turkey, whose dominance was later replaced by the oppression of Western European colonialists, who hampered the development of national culture and art. However, even during the period of decline, when foreign invaders implanted forms in architecture and fine arts that were alien to the peoples of the Arab East, truly national artistic creativity did not die. It lived in the works of Arab peasants and artisans who, despite poverty and difficult living conditions, sought to embody their ideas of beauty in patterns on clothes and folk utensils.
Let's take a closer look at the culture of Arab countries using the example of the art of medieval Egypt.
Art of Medieval Egypt
The history of medieval art in Egypt begins with the Coptic period. The art of the Copts - Egyptians professing Christianity - developed in the 4th-7th centuries AD, during the period when Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire. From this time, the basilicas in the White and Red monasteries on the edge of the Libyan Desert and numerous domed tombs have been preserved. The development of architecture was associated with the flourishing of sculptural patterns and wall paintings depicting religious subjects. Works of applied art were distinguished by great originality: carving on bone and wood, and especially fabric.
In the art of the Copts, the desire common to all areas of Byzantium to subordinate late antique artistic traditions to the requirements of the new medieval religious ideology found expression. On the other hand, it turned out to have strong purely local features, rooted in ancient Egyptian culture. The struggle of these trends determined the uniqueness of Coptic art, which developed its own specific artistic language and prepared the ground for the high rise and flowering of Egyptian art in the era of the mature Middle Ages.
In the middle of the 7th century, Egypt became part of the Arab caliphate, but already in the 9th century it was actually an independent feudal state. From the middle of the 10th century, having become the center of the powerful Fatimid state, Egypt began to play a particularly large role in the medieval history of the Middle East. In the XI-XII centuries he conducted extensive trade with Byzantium and Western Europe; The transit trade of the Mediterranean with the countries of the Indian Ocean also fell into the hands of the Egyptians. Later, in the 13th century, after the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols, main city Egypt - Cairo - claimed to be the pan-Muslim capital. However, what was even more important was that Cairo became the center of culture, one of the largest centers for the development of science and art in the Arab world.
Along with the exact sciences, the study of history flourished in Cairo; in the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun, who is called the world's first sociologist, moved from Tunisia to Egypt; Ahmed Makrizi, a prominent medieval historian, also wrote his works in Cairo. Medieval Egypt gave the world excellent literary works: a cycle of Arabic knightly novels and the final edition of folk tales “A Thousand and One Nights”.
Architecture
The best monuments of medieval architecture in Egypt are preserved in Cairo. The city lived big story. In 641, the Arab commander Amr ibn al-As founded Fustat, the ruins of which are located on the southern outskirts of modern Cairo. According to legend, the first mosque was erected on the site of Fustat. The small building was already expanded in 673 by enlarging the colonnade and courtyard. Despite later alterations and repairs, the Amra Mosque is deservedly considered one of the oldest Arab columnar mosques that has preserved the grandeur and simplicity characteristic of early Arab monumental architecture. The great hall of the mosque contains more than a hundred marble columns topped with carved Corinthian capitals that support tall semicircular arches. The beautiful perspective of columns and arches stretching into the distance makes you feel the grandeur of the space of the hall.
The greatness of early Arab architecture is extremely vividly embodied in the architecture of the great mosque of Ibn Tulun, which perfectly preserved its original appearance, built in 876-879 in the residence of this first ruler of medieval Egypt, independent of the Baghdad Caliphate. A huge square courtyard with an area of almost a hectare (92x92m) is surrounded by pointed arches, which, unlike the Amra Mosque, have not round columns as supports, but rectangular pillars - pylons with three-quarter columns at the corners. Wide passages between the pillars unite the hall in front of the mihrab and the walkways on the other three sides of the courtyard into a single spatial whole. The mosque easily accommodates thousands of Muslims praying. The rhythm of the pillars and arches spanning the perimeter of the courtyard expresses the strict tectonics of the mosque’s architecture, to which decorative motifs are also subordinated.
The archivolts of large and small arches, column capitals and cornices are decorated with stylized floral patterns carved by knock. The soffits of large arches have more complex ornamental compositions. Decorative details, decorating and harmoniously highlighting the main planes and lines of the building, emphasize the tectonics of the whole with their arrangement. Thus, the pattern and architectural elements that make up the appearance of the building are imbued with a single ornamental rhythm. It is interesting to note that the pointed profile of the large and small arches of the mosque seems to be repeated in the pointed bends of the stem, which forms the basis of a continuous ornament running along the outline of the arches and along the pylons.
From the outside, the Ibn Tulup Mosque has the features of austere fortress architecture characteristic of early medieval monumental buildings in the Middle East. The traditions of fortress architecture, and perhaps the real need in the event of an attack on the city, to turn the mosque into a stronghold of defense, gave rise to a peculiar method of surrounding the religious building with an external wall, which created a free, undeveloped wide circle around the mosque. Nevertheless, the monumental surface of the outer walls of the Ibn Tulun mosque is not devoid of decorative treatment: the upper part of the walls is dissected by a peculiar frieze of lancet windows and arches, contrastingly highlighted with chiaroscuro; in addition, an openwork parapet crowns the walls. Decoration with windows and arches of a similar nature was done in the 9th century on the facades of the Amra Mosque. Thus, as in Samarra, the early Cairo buildings show an artistic reworking of the most ancient techniques of monumental fortress architecture.
The minaret, which rises next to the building, between the double walls, plays an important role in the architectural appearance of the mosque. Researchers believe that it originally looked like a stepped round tower, outside of which there was a spiral staircase. With its location and shape, the minaret strongly resembles the Malviya of the great mosque in Samarra. As there, the upward-pointing body of the Minaret was contrasted with the horizontally stretched arcature of the courtyard. The fact that, along with local artistic traditions, during the construction of the mosque they played famous role and Mesopotamian construction techniques, is also evidenced by the use of brickwork, which is not typical of Egyptian architecture.
In 1926, a domed pavilion was erected in the center of the mosque courtyard over the ablution pool and, apparently, at the same time the lower part of the minaret was enclosed in a cubic tower.
The earliest surviving monument of civil architecture of medieval Egypt, the Nilometer, built on the island of Roda near Fustat, dates back to the middle of the 9th century. The structure represents a deep well with a high column in the middle, which was used to measure the water level in the Nile. The walls of the well are lined with stone, decorated with decorative niches and friezes with Kufic inscriptions.
art
Research conducted over the past few decades indicates the development of monumental painting in medieval Egypt, as well as miniatures, especially in the 11th-12th centuries. The Cairo Museum of Islamic Art houses a remarkable wall painting found during excavations in 1932 depicting human figures in large lancet frames. In one of these niches there is a figure of a seated man in a colorful robe, with a turban on his head and a goblet in his right hand. His round face is not devoid of lively expressiveness. The painting is executed in a flat manner, in light colors; the contours of the figure are indicated by a wide free line.
A significant number of miniatures dating back to the Fatimid era are collected in the Museum of Islamic Art and in private collections in Cairo. These miniatures have a pronounced originality, which allows us to speak about the existence in Egypt during this period of a completely independent school of miniatures - one of the earliest in the history of medieval art of the Middle East.
Egyptian applied art has long been distinguished by its high artistic perfection and diversity of types. Especially notable were the richly ornamented linen and silk fabrics, items made of rock crystal, glass and metal.
Artistic weaving has ancient traditions in Egypt. The main centers of medieval textile production - Alexandria, Damietta, Tinnis - were famous for their products back in Roman and Byzantine times. The artistic traditions of Coptic textiles from the 3rd-4th centuries continue to live with some changes in Egyptian textiles until the end of Fatimid times. This is not surprising: luxurious fabrics in the workshops of the caliphs were still produced largely by the hands of Coptic craftsmen.
The fabrics of the late 8th--9th centuries are characterized by a simple, strict pattern, usually consisting of narrow stripes filled with Kufic inscriptions containing good wishes and often the name of the ruling caliph, or simple geometric ornament. Wherein most of The background fabric remained free.
In the fabrics of the Fatimid period (X-XII centuries), the entire wealth of technical and artistic techniques of Coptic weaving is revived, refracted, however, in the spirit of the requirements of the new era: the picturesquely executed compositions and individual figures on mythological subjects, so common in Coptic textiles, disappear. Images of various birds and animals acquire a stylized and ornamental character. Polychrome plays an important role in the artistic structure of decoration.
Already in the early Fatimid fabrics of the turn of the 10th - 11th centuries, the techniques of decorative composition and ornamentation characteristic of this period are clearly revealed. Thus, on one of the silk fabrics, narrow stripes with Kufic inscriptions (black and white letters on a carmine red background) highlight a wide stripe decorated with oval medallions with stylized images of an eagle in the middle and four ducks on the sides. The color of the details changes in each medallion: the field of one of them is red with a thin green border, the bird figures are blue or light blue on a yellow background; inside the figure of an eagle there is a red shield outlined in black with a white pattern. Another medallion has a green background with a red border, red ducks on a white background, a yellow eagle on a red background with a light blue interior design on a black shield. This alternation of colors in a small-scale pattern enhances the impression of the diversity of the ornament and creates a rich and subtle play of color spots. Fabrics of this time are also characterized by stripes with Kufic inscriptions along the edges and images of animals and birds (hares, dogs, ducks) in the middle stripe.
In artistic textiles of later times (12th century), certain changes are observed: instead of angular kufi inscriptions, the inscriptions are written in rounded naskh handwriting, the design becomes more schematic, and a golden background becomes a favorite. At this time, wide decorative stripes were very common, where between narrow borders with a stylized letter pattern there are oval or diamond-shaped medallions in which images of animals and birds alternate. The colors of these fabrics are dominated by a soft yellow-gold pattern on a carmine-red background. Stripes with inscriptions are often separated by thin light blue lines. The ornamental stripes, much wider than in products of the previous period, are located close to each other, leaving little free background.
Along with patterned linen and silk fabrics, various types of embroidery were very common in Egyptian textiles. Precious fabrics were also made, woven with heavy gold and silver threads, with a very thin base, on which lush patterns stood out in relief. Since the 13th-14th centuries, Egyptian artistic textiles have been dominated by fabrics completely covered with narrow multi-colored stripes with a fine geometric pattern formed by combinations of various stars, triangles and other figures.
In the wood carving pattern, along with the development of new decorative trends, old local traditions and techniques remained quite firmly in place. This is evidenced, in particular, by the distribution of figured images on many carved panels and boards.
One of the outstanding examples of early Fatimid wood carvings is the iconostasis of the Church of Barbara in Cairo; although it is undoubtedly the work of a Coptic master, it exhibits all the features and motifs characteristic of this period. The panels of the iconostasis are decorated with arabesque scrolls, in which images of birds, animals and superbly executed hunting and genre scenes are arranged. All these plot images are interpreted purely decoratively, and the figures of animals and birds are often placed in a symmetrical, heraldic composition.
Another interesting example are several panels located in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. The composition of the pattern decorating them is generally the same, consisting of rounded interlacing of flowering stems, interpreted in the spirit of an arabesque; only the central images change: in some cases these are figures of birds and animals standing in front of each other in a heraldic pose; one panel depicts a seated musician. Thanks to the significant deepening of the background (by about 1.5 cm), a very rich and contrasting play of light and shadow is created, clearly revealing the pattern. Similar features are distinguished by panels with images of horse heads (Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), where a deeply chosen background further emphasizes the contours of the pattern. On some panels there are carvings in several plans.
Outstanding examples of artistic wood carvings that once decorated the Small or Western Palace of the Fatimid caliphs (completed between 1058 and 1065) were discovered in the complex of the Mari-stan of Sultan Qalaun, where these carved boards were reused in the 13th century. Initially they formed a frieze decorated with numerous images of hunters, musicians, dancers, traders with camels, animals and birds. All these images are placed against a background of plant shoots, given in lower relief than the figures. The drawing here is freer and more lively than in early monuments, but much less detailed.
In the carved wood of the 12th century, figured images acquire an increasingly generalized, silhouette interpretation, which was relatively rare in works of the 10th-11th centuries; their execution itself becomes less careful. But the ornamental carving is being improved and enriched. An outstanding monument of this time is the mihrab of the Sayida Nafisa Mosque, executed between 1138 and 1145 (Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo). Its pattern consists of beautifully executed arabesques and vines combined with geometric stripes that form polygons. Another example is the wooden carved tombstone of al-Husayni from the mid-12th century, the entire surface of which is covered with an arabesque consisting of geometric polygonal patterns and plant motifs.
Among the Egyptian artistic products From bronze from the 10th to 12th centuries, decorative figures and vessels in the form of various animals and birds stand out. A typical example is Aquarius in the form of a peacock (X-XI centuries, Louvre); its handle ends with the stylized head of a falcon or gyrfalcon, clutching its beak to the neck of a peacock. Above the rounded body of the bird with volumetric wings, a long, gracefully curved neck rises, carrying a small head with a half-open beak. The plumage is conveyed by a fine chased ornament. In a later monument of this kind - a large winged griffin (XI-XII centuries, museum in Pisa), the ornamental principle dominates over the plastic form - almost the entire surface of the figure is covered with an ornament imitating details of plumage, stripes of Kufic inscriptions, stamps with images of Sirens and various fantastic animals.
In the 13th century, when close ties between Egypt and Syria and Iraq were established, a significant number of artistic products of famous Iraqi, especially Mosul masters appeared in Egypt. The inscriptions engraved on some objects have preserved for us the names of Mosul craftsmen who worked in Cairo and influenced the work of Egyptian artisans. An interesting example artistic bronze products of this time is a spherical slotted incense burner dated 1271 with the name of Emir Beysari (British Museum, London). On the surface of the incense burner, between the inscription belts, there are round medallions with openwork images of double-headed eagles; the field around the medallions is filled with floral arabesque.
A fine example of 113 metal artistry is the hexagonal inlaid table of the Sultan of Qalaun, made by the master Muhammad non Sunkur 113 of Baghdad in 1327 (Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo). Its openwork side walls and doors, as well as the top plane, are decorated with calligraphic inscriptions (arranged in medallions or belts), rosettes and inlaid images of a flock of flying birds. Cut-out tables, incense burners, metal boxes, etc. became very common products in Egypt, Syria and Iraq in the 14th - 15th centuries.
Artistic metal processing was also used in the decoration of monumental buildings. An outstanding example of this kind is the bronze inlaid doors of the Sultan Hassan Mosque in Cairo, decorated with masterfully executed multi-faceted geometric patterns, openwork carvings and belts of decorative inscriptions.
The art of processing rock crystal was especially developed in the 10th-11th centuries. Jugs, glasses, goblets, bottles, various chess and other pieces were skillfully cut out of large crystals; their surface was often faceted or covered with engraving. The historian Makrizi reports that about two thousand precious crystal vessels were kept in the treasury of the Fatimid caliphs. The products of Egyptian lapidaries were highly valued in medieval Europe. Among the fine works of this kind, two large jugs in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London stand out. On one of them, in relief engraving, among large climbing stems and half-palmettes, large birds of prey are depicted pecking at a fallen doe. The drawing is somewhat schematic and generalized, but very confident and bold and fits perfectly into the space allotted to it. The other jug is devoid of any ornamental decoration; its main advantage lies in the amazing clarity and proportionality of the form and the impeccable quality of the edges, which gave it the radiance of a diamond in the rays of light.
Art glass, which had a long tradition in Egypt, reached its greatest flourishing in the 13th-14th centuries, when painting with gold and colored enamels joined the previously known decoration techniques - cutting, engraving, relief, colored and twisted glass. The main centers for the production of art glass were Fustat, Alexandria, and Fayum. In its forms and the general character of the decoration, Egyptian art glass is close to Syrian glass, but large inscriptions with good wishes are typical for it, often covering almost the entire surface of the vessel with wide belts.
Egyptian artistic ceramic products - earthenware and clay vases, bowls and dishes painted with luster and various paints - are often decorated with images of animals, fish, birds and human figures, along with various plant and geometric motifs. Particularly beautiful are the large greenish-yellow luster dishes from the 11th century with large figured images executed in a free painterly manner. Among the images there are figures of a musician, a man pouring wine into a goblet, a horseman, two- and three-figure genre and battle scenes, as well as real and fantastic animals, motifs of animal fights. The style of painting on 11th century ceramics is very close to the Fatimid wall painting mentioned above.
In the 13th-15th centuries, the art of ceramics in Egypt experienced a resurgence again: vessels were made with fine multi-color paintings depicting animals and birds among plant motifs. The traditions of painted ceramics, as well as other types of applied art, continued to live in Egypt throughout the Middle Ages and now form the basis of folk artistic crafts.
The art of medieval Egypt, which developed over many centuries, represents a large, distinctive school in the history of art in Arab countries, which played a major role in the process of interaction between the artistic cultures of the Middle East and Western Europe.
Conclusion
The contribution of the Arab peoples to the history of world art and architecture can hardly be overestimated. They made a great contribution to the treasury of the world artistic culture, created works of art inspired by a unique and subtle understanding of beauty. However, despite the presence of common features, the art of each region of the Arab world is tightly connected with local artistic traditions, has gone through its own path of development, and has pronounced characteristics. Features of unique originality distinguish the monuments of medieval art in Syria from the monuments of Iraq, Egypt, North Africa and Moorish Spain.
The work of medieval Arab artists had a fruitful impact on the art of many countries, including the art of Europe. Arab or, as it was more often called in Europe, “Moorish” artistic influence can be traced, especially in textiles, ceramics, weapon decoration and other branches of applied art, not only during the heyday of the medieval Arab states, but also many centuries after their fall.
Literature
1. “The Art of Arab Peoples” B. Weymarn, T. Kaptereva, A. Podolsky; “The Red Book of Culture”, ed. V. Rabinovich.
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History of the Arab Caliphate and features of its culture. Development of science - mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, geography. Masterpieces of Arab architecture: the Kaaba, the mosque in Cordoba, the palace in the Alhambra. Great cultural figures - Ferdowsi, Navoi, Ibn Sina.
presentation, added 04/01/2013
Artistic culture of medieval Europe. Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Decorative arts. Metal processing. Gothic art and architecture. Music and theater: religious drama or miracle plays, secular drama, morality plays.
abstract, added 12/18/2007
Study of the main factors that influenced the development of ancient Russian culture. The world in the view of the ancient Slavs. The Baptism of Rus' and the changes that followed it. The emergence of writing. Chronicles, literature, folklore, art of the ancient Slavs.
Arab culture the totality of spiritual and material achievements of the population of the Arabic-speaking countries of the Near and Middle East, Northern. Africa, South-West Europe. In general, as a specific phenomenon, Arab culture was formed in the 7th-10th centuries, as a result of the cultural interaction of the Arabs and the peoples that were part of the caliphate. However, this term applies not only to the medieval culture of the caliphate, but also to the culture of Arab countries throughout their historical development. A.K. originated on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. It was preceded and influenced by the pre-Islamic culture of the pagan population of the South. Arabia, a characteristic feature of which was the development of oral folk literature. With the birth of Islam and the formation of the caliphate (see Arab Caliphate), which created a single space and a community of peoples within it, united by one language and dominant religion, Arab culture proper took shape. The directly Arab elements of this culture are Islam, the Arabic language, and oral folk traditions. poetry. The population made a significant contribution to the creation of A.K. Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, Iran And India, including those who did not convert to Islam - for example, Christians brought elements of the heritage of the ancient world to A.K.
In the VII-VIII centuries. under the dynasty Umayyads the capital of the caliphate and the center of A.K. was Damascus, although along with it the major centers of formation of A.K. remained Mecca And Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra Iraq. It was then that the first canons of literature, architecture, philosophical and religious ideas appeared. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), the capital of the caliphate moved to Baghdad, which became one of the largest architectural centers of Aktobe. In the 9th-10th centuries, Aktobe experienced its period of greatest prosperity. Literature, history, exact and natural sciences, philosophy developed rapidly, and outstanding monuments of architecture and art were created. During this period, ancient culture had a significant influence on the cultures of other peoples. After the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century), the area of influence of the Abbasids narrowed. At Fatimid(910-1171) and Ayyubids (1171-1250) the center of development of A.K. became Cairo. Back in the 8th century. Muslim Spain separated from the Abbasid Caliphate, where its own Arab-Spanish culture developed. In the X-XV centuries. the centers of this culture are Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Malaga are experiencing a period of prosperity. However, from the second half of the 13th century. Azerbaijan began to stagnate, especially against the backdrop of the prosperous culture of other eastern countries (Ottoman Turkey, Central Asia, Iran) and Europe, and then its decline after the Ottoman conquest of Arab territory in the 16th century. Nevertheless, the traditions of scientific knowledge of A.K. were preserved in the cultural centers of Egypt, Syria and Iraq.
The stage of a new gradual rise in A.K. began in the first half of the 19th century. with modernization and revival in various areas of life in Arab countries. With the formation of sovereign Arab states, Arabia developed mainly within these countries.
In medieval academia, mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences were closely intertwined, and the encyclopedic nature of knowledge led to the fact that famous astronomers could also be famous poets or historians. Arabic mathematics was based on translations of works by ancient and Indian authors. However, in the 9th-10th centuries. in Baghdad, Arab scientists were no longer engaged in translations and commentaries on ancient authors, but in the independent development of mathematical, astronomical and other natural science fields of knowledge, which were closely connected with the rapid development of construction, architecture, land surveying and navigation. From Indian scientists, the Arabs adopted the decimal system using zero, which contributed to further development mathematics. Arab scientists introduced the trigonometric function, developed techniques for solving quadratic and cubic equations, extracting roots with natural exponents, and identified trigonometry as an independent field of knowledge. Outstanding achievements in mathematics are associated with the names of Central Asian scientists al-Khorezmi (IX century), who wrote the first arithmetic treatise, al-Biruni (973-1048) and al-Kashi (XV century), who introduced decimal fractions into use, Persian and Tajik polymath Omar Khayyam (c. 1048 - after 1122), Egyptian Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1039). The “sons of Musa” (9th century), Ibn Kurra (about 836-901), and others became famous in the field of geometry. Many of them also contributed to the development of physics and mineralogy. 
In astronomy, Arab scientists also initially relied on the translated works of ancient and Indian authors, then significantly developing what they achieved. Observatories were built in Baghdad, Cairo, Samarkand and other centers of Aktobe, where the famous astronomers of their time Ibn Yunus (950-1009), Nasir ad-din al-Tusi (1201-1280, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), al-Biruni and others made their observations. Already in the 9th century. the length of the meridian was measured and the dimensions were calculated globe. Medical treatises of Arab doctors are known - Ibn Sina(/Avicenna/980-1037), al-Biruni, ar-Razi (980-1037), which were also used in Europe. Arab scientists developed issues of surgery, ophthalmology and other areas of medical knowledge.
The first works on descriptive geography appeared in the 9th century, but the heyday of classical Arab geography began in the 10th century. and was associated with the names of al-Masudi, al-Balkhi, al-Istakhri (10th century), al-Biruni (11th century), Yakut (13th century), al- Idrisi(1100 - 1165 or 1161), Ibn Battuta(1304-1377), etc. Arab scientists adopted the Ptolemaic picture of the world, maps and descriptions were compiled in accordance with it, although the knowledge accumulated by Arab geographers and travelers was much broader - they described the entire Arab East, a number of other regions of Asia and Africa.
Arabic philosophy was directly related to Muslim theology and originated in disputes about divine attributes, predestination, free will, etc. The Mutazillites, representatives of rational theology (kalam), allowed an allegorical interpretation of the Koran, considered reason the only measure of truth and denied the possibility of the Almighty changing the world . In contrast to them, the Ash'arites believed that any object in the world, consisting of atoms constantly reproduced by the creator, could be changed by him. The followers of the ancient philosopher Aristotle and the Neoplatonists were al-Kindi (about 800-879) and al-Farabi (873-950). A separate mystical-religious movement in Arab philosophy is Sufism, whose representatives sought direct communication with the Almighty and contemplation of Him by overcoming worldly passions. The largest representatives of Sufism were al-Ghazali(1059-1111) and Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240). In Muslim Spain, widespread philosophical ideas Aristotle, whose largest follower in this region was Ibn Rushd(1126-1198), who created an independent philosophical doctrine. His ideas were adopted by the Averroists - followers of Ibn Rushd in Europe.
The first Arabic historical works date back to the end of the 7th century. Initially, these were legends about the pre-Islamic period, about the spread of Islam, the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. The Arab authors' ideas about world history were connected with the history of the creation of the world and the history of the prophets set out in the Koran. Muslim theologians described the history of the Arabs and biblical peoples within the framework of a single continuity. Medieval Arab historiography viewed the historical process as the implementation of a divine plan, recognizing, however, man's responsibility for his actions and seeing the role of history in teaching based on accumulated experience. The first great historical work was the treatise Ibn Ishaq(c. 704-768 or 767) about the history of the prophets and the life of the prophet Muhammad. The writings of al-Baladhuri (c. 820 - c. 892), Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari (d. c. 895) and al-Yaqub, usually compiled in the form of annals, introduced the classical scheme of Arabic historiographical narrative from the creation of the world, formation and life Muslim community to modern political events. The most famous and major historical work of the heyday of A.K. was the “History of Prophets and Kings” by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923), the general history of al-Masudi (d. 956/957/), Hamza al-Isfahani(died in the second half of the 10th century), Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233/1234/), Ibn Khaldun and others. From the second half of the 10th century. among Arab historical works local and dynastic chronicles, biographies and history of cities predominated. Nevertheless, the general histories of Abu-l-Fida (1273-1331), az-Zahabi (1274-1353/1347/), Ibn Kathir (c. 1300-1373), and others are also known. In the 15th-16th centuries. Egypt became the center of Arab historical science - works were created here on the history of this country, as well as historical encyclopedias and chronicles on general history. The most important authors of this era were Ibn al-Furat (1334-1405), al- Makrizi(1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), al-Suyuti (1445-1505). Among Arabic historical works, the biographies and biographical dictionaries of Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282), al-Safadi (1296/97-1363), Ibn al-Qifti (1172-1248), Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and etc. During the era of Ottoman rule, mainly local chronicles and history were compiled. The most valuable of them are the history of Andalusia by al-Makkari (1591/92-1632) and the history of Egypt by al-Jabarti (1753-1825/1826/) (see. Jabarti).
Arabic literature originated on the Arabian Peninsula even before the adoption of Islam: the poets Imru-l-Qays, Tarafa, Antr ibn Shadad, the poetess Hansa and other pre-Islamic authors made a significant contribution to its development, the formation of canons and genres, which became elegy (“rice "), boasting ("fahr"), songs of revenge ("sar"), love lyrics, etc. At the Umayyad court, the poets al-Akhtal (c. 640 - c. 710), al-Jarir, al-Farazdak (c. 641 - between 728 and 732), who became famous panegyrists of their time. Although their work was significantly influenced by pre-Islamic poets, their poetry already reflected the beliefs of Islam. Love lyrics became widespread during the Caliphate period, the development of which is associated with the names of Omar ibn Abi Rabia from Mecca (641 - ca. 712/718/), the poets of the Abbasid court Muti ibn Iyas, Waliba ibn Khubab and others. Abu became innovators in Arabic poetry -Nuwas (762-815) and others, who departed from pre-Islamic classical norms and developed new themes and plots. The new norms of Arabic poetry were finally formulated in the treatise of the poet and philologist Ibn al-Mutazz (861-908), although there were also poets who adhered to the old canons. With the collapse of the caliphate, Arabic literature continued to develop - this period is associated with the names of the brilliant poets al-Mutanabbi (915-965) and Abu-l-Ala al-Ma'arri (973-1057). Prose writer Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadani (d. 1007) created new genre- makamu, considered highest achievement Arabic prose. Separate literary styles appeared in Muslim Spain. Here the folk poetic strophic forms muwashshah and zajal were created, which then spread to the territories of many Arab countries. Andalusian poetry is associated with the names of al-Ghazal (770-864), Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860-940), Ibn Kuzman (about 1080-1160), al-Mu'tadid (1012-1069), Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071), etc. From the second half of the 11th century. Arabic literature enters a period of decline: poetry acquires a mystical connotation, and prose a didactic one. In the XIII-XV centuries. The most striking achievements of Arabic literature are associated with the influence of folk art: by the end of the 15th century. The collection of fairy tales “One Thousand and One Nights” was finally formed, and folk genres also became widespread in poetry. From the beginning of the 19th century. along with the state and national upsurge, a period of revival begins in literature, which further develops within the framework of individual Arab states. 
Arabic architecture is closely related to the religion of Islam—mosques have become the most widespread and sought-after buildings. The first of them, with a fenced courtyard and colonnade, were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40th 7th century). The Umayyad mosque in Damascus (beginning of the 8th century) with beautiful mosaics became a real masterpiece. The most widespread type of mosque was the columnar type, but there were also domed mosques. Under the Umayyads, secular construction of palaces and castles (Mshatta, Quseir Amra, Qasr al-Kheir al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi, Khirbet al-Mafjar) was actively carried out; under the Abassids, urban planning work was carried out in Baghdad and Samarra. A special school of Arab architecture developed in Fatimid Cairo (founded 969), which largely determined the face of the city: the grandiose al-Azhar mosque (10th century), powerful fortress walls, palaces, caravanserais, shops and houses. In the XIII-XVI centuries. Large fortification construction was carried out (the citadels of Cairo and Aleppo) and the construction of mausoleums (the Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo, XV-XVI centuries), and the inlay of architectural structures with stones became widespread. Religious architecture was dominated by a majestic style with large volumes and domes (the 14th-century Hassan Mosque in Cairo, mosques and madrassas in Damascus). The architecture of the Maghreb and Spain flourished in the 10th-15th centuries. (monumental and richly decorated mosques in Tlemcen and Taza, Cordoba, gateway to Toledo, Alhambra Palace in Granada). With the Turkish conquest of the 16th century. Arab architecture included elements of Ottoman architecture, but local forms were also preserved. A new period of the rise of Arab architecture began in the 19th century.
Arabic arts and crafts are characterized by rich ornamental patterns and calligraphy. Arabic book miniatures in Syria and Egypt in the 9th-12th centuries deserve special attention. and in Iraq XII-XIII centuries.
Arabic music was formed as a result of the interaction of the musical traditions of the Arabs and the peoples of the conquered territories. At the early stage of its development, it was inseparable from poetry - there were professional poet-singers (shairs) and various song genres. From the end of the 7th century. Arabic music began to flourish. Since it was closely connected with vocals, works performed by singers and musicians with the leading role of the former became widespread. The most famous of them in the Umayyad era were Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Mukhriz, singer Jamile; in the Abassid era - Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804), Ishaq al-Mausili (767-850), Mansur Zalzal. Arab authors al-Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Isfahani, Safi ad-din Urmavi created numerous works on musical topics. Traditional Arabic musical instruments are the duff (a small square tambourine), the mizhar (a primitive lute with a leather soundboard), the rebab (a type of single-string violin), and the oud (a type of lute).
Lit.: Bartold V.V., Op. T. 6. M., 1966; Belyaev E. A., Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in early Middle Ages. M., 1966; Bolshakov O. G. History of the Caliphate. M., 1989-98. 3 t.; Weymarn B., Kaptereva T., Podolsky A., Art of the Arab people. M., 1960; Gibb H. A. R., Arabic literature // Trans. from English P. A. Gryaznevich. M., 1960; al-Fakhouri H., History of Arabic Literature [trans. from Arabic], vol. 1-2, M., 1959-61; Grigoryan S. H., Medieval philosophy of the peoples of the Near and Middle East. M., 1966; Krachkovsky I. Yu. Selected soch., vol. 1-6, M.-L., 1955-60; Krymsky A.E., History of the Arabs and Arabic literature, secular and spiritual. Parts 1-3. M., 1911-13; Kube A.P., Spanish-Moorish ceramics, M.-L., 1940; Kudelin A. B. Arabic literature: poetics, stylistics, typology, relationships. M., 2003; Kuznetsov K. A. Arabic music // Essays on the history and theory of music. L., 1940; Levi-Provencal E. Arab culture in Spain. M., 1967; Mehrin-Mehrdad, Falsafe-ye-sharg [Philosophy of the East]. Tehran, 1959; Metz A. Muslim Renaissance. M., 1966; Essays on Arab History cultures X-XV centuries M., 1987; Stirlen A. The Art of Islam: The Spread of the Persian Style: From Isfahan to the Taj Mahal. Album. M., 2003; Filshtinsky I.M., Arabic classical literature. M., 1965; Shtekl A., History of medieval philosophy // Trans. from German, M., 1912; Frolov D.V. Classic Arabic verse. History and theory of Aruda. M., 1991; al-Fakhouri H., ad-Darr al-khalil, Tarikh al-falsafa al-arabiyya [History of Arabic philosophy]. T. 1-2, Beirut, 1957-58; Yushkevich A.P., History of mathematics in the Middle Ages. M., 1961; Arabic Theology, Arabic Philosophy: From the Many to the One: Essays in Celebration of Richard M. Frank // Ed. by J. Montgomery. Dudley, MA, 2006; Bakalla, M. H. Arabic Culture Through Its Language and Literature. L., 1984; Blachére R., Histoire de la littérature arabe des origines a la fin du XV siéсle. T. 1-3. P., 1952-66; Boer T. J. de, The history of philosophy in Islam, L., 1933; Brockelmann S., Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, 2 Aufl., Bd 1-2, Leiden, 1943-49; Brugman J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arsbic Literature. Leiden, 1984; Cachia P. Arabic Literature: An Overview. London, 2002; Creswell K. A. S., Early Muslim architecture, pt 1-2, Oxford, 1932-40; Idem. The Muslim architecture of Egypt. v. 1-2, Oxford, 1952-60; Gibb H. A. R., Studies on the civilization of Islam. Boston, 1962; Dimand M. S., A handbook of Mohammadan art. NY., 1958; Islam. Kunst und Frchitectur. Köln, 2000; Ettinghausen R., Grabar O., Jenkyns M. Islamic art and architecture, 650-1250. Yale, 2001; Farmer N. G. A history of Arabian music to the XVIIIth century. L., 1967; Graf G., Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur, Bd 1-5, Citta del Vaticano, 1944-53; Lane A., Early Islamic pottery. Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. L., 1958; Erianger R. d', La musique arabe. V. 1-6, P., 1930-59; Grohmann A. Arabian. Munchen, 1963; Grunebaum G. von. Medieval Islam. A study in cultural orientation, Chicago, 1961; Gutas D. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Bahdad and early Abbasid Society 2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries) L., 2003; Kennedy E. S., A survey of Islamic astronomical tables, Phil., 1956; Rashid R. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. L., 1996; Kilito, Abdelfattah. The Author and His Doubles: Essays on Classical Arabic Culture. Syracuse, N.Y., 2001; Marçаis G., L’architecture musulmane d’Occident. P., 1954; McGinnis, J., Reisman D. Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources. Indianopolis, 1994; Historians of the Middle East // Ed. by B. Lewis and P. M. Holt, L., 1962; Mrozek A., Sredniowieczna filozofia arabska, Warszawa, 1967; Petruccioli A. Understanding Islamic Architecture. Ed. by A. Petruccioli, K. K. Pirani. L.; NY, 2002; Racy A. J., Making music in the Arab world: the culture and artistry of Arab. Cambridge, 2004; Robinson, C. F. Islamic Historiography. Cambridge, 2003; Rosenthal F., A history of Muslim historiography, Leiden, 1968; Sauvaget J. Introduction a l’histoire de Orient Muslim. Elements de bibliographic, P., 1961; Sabra A. L. Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy. Aldershot; Brookfield (Vt.), 1994; Saliba G. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. NY, 1994; Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland (Or.); Cambridge, 2003; Ueberweg F. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic, 12 Aufl., T. 1-3, 5, V., 1924-28; Mawasi, Faruq. Studies in modern Arabic literature. Antwerpen, 2007. E. A. Prusskaya.
History of world and domestic culture Konstantinov S.V.
13. Features of the culture of Arab countries. Religion. Islam. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia
The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. Arab medieval culture It also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the state language.
The greatest flowering of Arab culture occurred
for the 8th–11th centuries:
1) poetry developed successfully;
2) the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were composed;
3) many works of ancient authors were translated.
basis religious life the inhabitants of the East were Islam. Islam (Arabic for “submission”) is the youngest of the three world religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. Ideal shape Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah - chief common prayer, which can be headed by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph. Main directions of Islam:
1) Sunnism;
3) Wahhabism.
The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic for “reading aloud”). The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems.
The Koran, in addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, and property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of norms of morality, law, cultural and other guidelines that regulate the entire public and personal life of a Muslim.
The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which were angels and demons, or genies. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye and believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. In the Arab East, great importance was attached to dreams. Various fortune tellings were also widespread.
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From the author's bookPeculiarities of Sufi culture It is characteristic that the Sufi movement in many of its branches does not aim to make the whole world consisting of Sufis. It exists to bring together people who want to learn how to contemplate God and how to serve Him, how
From the author's book2.2. Features of primitive culture When speaking about primitive culture, we mean the development of both material and spiritual culture. The domestication of animals and the creation of agricultural crops, the mastery of fire, the invention of tools - all these are manifestations
From the author's book5.5. Achievements Islamic culture. Islam and modernity The culture of Muslim countries, united by historical, cultural and artistic traditions, and a way of life associated with the religion of Islam, has made a significant contribution to the history of world culture. Muslim
- 65.40 KbMinistry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
State educational institution of higher professional education
Tobolsk State Social and Pedagogical Academy
them. DI. Mendeleev
Essay
discipline: History of Asian and African countries in the Middle Ages
Topic: "Arab culture"
Tobolsk, 2011
INTRODUCTION
1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam
2. Arab culture
2.2. Exact and natural sciences
2.3. Philosophy
2.4. Literature
2.5. Architecture. Art
3. Life and customs of the Arabs
CONCLUSION LIST OF REFERENCES USED
INTRODUCTION
The peoples of the Arab East have an important place in the cultural history of mankind. It is no coincidence that medieval geographers called the Arab East the breast of the world: the heart of world civilization beat here for many centuries. Arab medieval culture developed in Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and North Africa, as well as in Southern Spain during the existence of the Cordoba Caliphate and Arab principalities there. Medieval Arab culture at one time was a major step forward in the progressive development of mankind. The great merit of the peoples of the Arab East was that they preserved (especially in the field of science) and passed on to subsequent generations many valuable achievements of antiquity.
In historical science, the correct idea of Arab culture was not immediately developed. In the last century, and even now, among many bourgeois scientists there was a widespread erroneous opinion that in all countries that were part of the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-9th centuries and adopted Islam, there was a single “Arab” culture. This understanding of Arab culture, uncritically following the medieval Muslim tradition, leads to the denial of the independent development of the culture of Iranians, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Tajiks and many other peoples in the Middle Ages. In fact, in the countries with a non-Arab population that were part of the caliphate, local cultures developed, based on ancient traditions, which, like the culture of the Arabs, were a valuable contribution to the development of medieval civilization. Of course, between the peoples of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages there was a complex and important interaction for their culture, which gave rise to common features.
In the Middle Ages, all Arab countries were united in one single state, which stretched from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. This state was called the "Arab Caliphate". It included many countries with high ancient culture: Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia and Central Asia. At the beginning, the culture of the Arabs in its development was much lower than most of the peoples they conquered, but gradually the Arabs assimilated the achievements of these peoples in science, art and culture. Arab culture flourished in the Middle Ages and was created not only by the Arabs, but also by all the peoples that were part of the Arab state. At the same time, the Arabs played an important role in its creation and development. Continuing ancient traditions, the Arabs collected and translated the works of Greek, Roman and Eastern authors. Sciences successfully developed in the countries of the caliphate, and higher schools and libraries were opened in large cities.
Arab society and Arab culture during the Middle Ages had a great influence on Western European cultural development and on Western European medieval society.
The purpose of this work is to examine Arab culture in the Middle Ages
The objectives are:
- Consider Islam as a world religion that has had a strong influence on the countries of the East;
- Study Arab culture, namely how translation activities, science, philosophy, literature, architecture, and art of the Arabs developed;
- Consider the life and customs of the Arabs.
Chronological framework of the study. Arab culture in the 7th-15th centuries.
Geographical scope of the study. Geographically, Arab culture covers the territory of the countries that were part of the “Arab Caliphate”: Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and North Africa.
Literature review. When writing the abstract, the works of Bartold V.V. on history were used
Islam and the Arab Caliphate; Essays on Arab culture of the V-XV centuries. - a series of essays devoted to different aspects of the history of Arab culture in the Middle Ages and written by a group of Arabists of the Leningrad branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences. They tell about the structure of the Arabic language, about handwritten Arabic books and libraries in the Middle Ages. Considerable space is devoted to the life of a medieval Arab city and the ideology of the townspeople. The work of Arabist and Islamic scholar Montgomery W. The influence of Islam on medieval Europe provides an overview of achievements in science, translation activities, and the image of Islam. In the book by Popova V.F., Vakhtin Yu.B. The Life of Muhammad is a biography of one of the key figures in human history - the Prophet Muhammad. Labor I.M. Filshtinsky’s “History of the Arabs and the Caliphate (750–1517)” contains a chapter “Arab-Muslim culture of the 8th–15th centuries,” in which Special attention focuses on Arab-Muslim medieval culture, the Arabs' mastery of the ancient Greek and Hellenic heritage, the activities of Arab translators, the development of Arab scientific and philosophical thought, as well as Arab verbal art. In the work of Tokarev S.A. Religion in the history of the peoples of the world presents the origin of Islam, dogma, ethics and law, sects, Muslim law. The textbook Culturology was used as a teaching aid. History of world culture, ed. prof. A.N. Markova- The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam
Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. The founder of Islam was a real person - the Prophet Muhammad , whose biography is quite well known.
Arab historians believe that the future prophet was born on August 29, 570 in his mother’s house, located on the outskirts of Mecca, about four hundred meters from the Kaaba temple; About a hundred years later this house was rebuilt and turned into a mosque.
Muhammad was orphaned early and was raised by his grandfather and then his uncle, a wealthy merchant. In his youth, Muhammad was a shepherd, and at the age of 25 he began working for a 40-year-old widow, the mother of several children. They got married - it was a marriage of love - and they had four daughters. In total, the prophet had nine wives.
Over time, Muhammad became less and less interested in trade and more and more in matters of faith. He received his first revelations in a dream - the angel Gabriel, the Messenger of Allah, appeared to him and announced his will: Muhammad must preach in his name, gentlemen. Revelations became more and more frequent, and in 610 the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca . Despite Muhammad's passion, the number of his supporters grew slowly. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca and moved to another city - a little later it would be called Medina - the city of the prophet; His like-minded people moved there with him. From this year - the flight to Medina - the Muslim calendar begins.
The people of Medina recognized Muhammad as their prophet, religious and political leader and supported him in his quest to defeat Mecca. The fierce war between these cities ended in the complete victory of Medina. In 630, Muhammad triumphantly returned to Mecca, which became the center of Islam.
At the same time, a Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate , the first leader of which was Muhammad himself. His associates and successors as heads of the caliphate carried out a number of successful campaigns of conquest, which led to a significant expansion of the territory of the caliphate and contributed to the rapid spread of Islam there. Islam (or Islam) becomes the state religion of the Arab East. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. His grave is the most important shrine of Islam.
Already by the 8th century. The Arabs subjugated Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, part of the territory of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa, and Spain. However, this huge political formation was not strong at the beginning of the 10th century. broke up into separate independent parts - the emirates. As for the Arab-Muslim culture, having absorbed the diverse culture of the Persians, Syrians, Copts (the original inhabitants of Egypt), Jews, the peoples of Central Asia and others, it remained essentially united. This leading link was Islam.
Scientists recognize that Islam arose from a combination of elements of Judaism, Christianity, as well as some ritual traditions of Old Arab pre-Muslim cults of nature: most Arabs of the 6th - early 7th centuries. They were pagans, polytheists, and among them there were many Jewish and Christian sects. However, the synthesis of these elements was original, and Islam is an independent religion. The main provisions of Islam are as follows.
Muslims believe in one God - Allah , omnipotent and incomprehensible to man. In order to tell humanity the truth about God and the world, special people were chosen - prophets, the last of whom was Muhammad.
The most important question in Islam was how the will of God and man relate.
In the 10th century The famous Muslim theologian al-Ashari tried to answer this question . He argued that Allah created man with all his future actions and that man only imagines that he has free will and freedom of choice. Supporters of this position formed the religious-legal school of the Shafiites. Other famous theologians al-Maturidi and Lbu Hanifa argued that a person has free will, and Allah helps him in good deeds and abandons him in bad deeds. This point of view is shared by the Hanifites.
The issue of free will was not the only controversial issue in Islam. Already in the 7th century. There were three main directions in Islam that still exist today. The division was based on a dispute about the principles of inheritance of religious and secular power. The Harajites argued that the head of a religious community could be any devout Muslim elected by the community. According to the Sunni concept , between the religious community and the future head of state - the caliph - a special agreement must be concluded, and the caliph himself must satisfy the following conditions: have the title of theologian-lawyer of the highest rank, be from the Quraysh tribe (Muhammad himself belonged to this tribe), be fair, wise, healthy and caring for his subjects. Shiites believed that state and religious power was of a divine nature and therefore could be inherited only by the direct heirs of Muhammad.
The main tenets of Islam are set out in the main holy book of Muslims - the Koran (from Arabic quran - reading). It is based on the commandments, sermons, ritual and legal institutions, prayers, edifying stories and parables of Muhammad, spoken by him in Medina and Mecca, recorded by his assistants (it is known that the prophet could neither read nor write, and his speech-revelations were initially recorded his companions even on palm leaves and stones).
2. Arab culture
2.1. Translation activities
Translations into Arabic of ancient, Iranian and Indian texts had a particularly fruitful influence on the development of Arab secular scientific and philosophical thought - this was one of the most productive attempts in the history of mankind to assimilate someone else's scientific and philosophical heritage.
Unlike the translators who worked in Europe under the leadership and control of the Christian clergy, the activities of Arab translators were not dictated by religious and didactic goals. They primarily translated Greek and Indian works that contained practically useful knowledge. They were interested in works on astrology and astronomy, alchemy and medicine, because their “customers” were seduced by the opportunity, with the help of astrology, to find out the future, with the help of alchemy, to gain power over nature and people, with the help of medicine, to preserve health and prolong life. Works on astronomy were also used for the needs of navigation. Even works on speculative subjects attracted attention to some extent for practical reasons. Thus, rivalry between sects in Islam, as well as between Islam and other faiths, stimulated the translation of works on philosophy and logic, which were perceived as a powerful tool in religious polemics.
Because of this focus on practically useful knowledge, translators ignored almost everything that went beyond the boundaries of science (as they understood it in the Middle Ages) and philosophy. Therefore, the Greek influence, so fruitful in the field of exact and natural sciences and philosophy, almost did not touch Arabic poetry and artistic prose. Traditional Islamic ideology could not tolerate the pagan spirit of Greek literature and mythology. The Arabs in the Middle Ages never became acquainted with Homer, nor with the great playwrights of Greece, nor with the ancient Greek lyricists.
The art of translation was considered as a specialty requiring special skills and good knowledge languages, and, as in any medieval craft, the subtleties of this art were passed on from generation to generation. Particularly famous as translators from Greek were the Syrian Hunayn ibn Ishaq (810-873) and his son Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died in 911), the Sabian from Harran Sabit ibn Kurra (836-901), the Syrian from Ba from Labakka Costa ibn Luqa (820-912), and from Persian - al-Hasan ibn Sahl (died 850) and Abdallah ibn al-Muqaffa (721-757). Members of the al-Munajim family became especially famous for their translation activities.
Description of work
The purpose of this work is to examine Arab culture in the Middle Ages
The objectives are:
Consider Islam as a world religion that has had a strong influence on the countries of the East;
Study Arab culture, namely how translation activities, science, philosophy, literature, architecture, and art of the Arabs developed;
Consider the life and customs of the Arabs.
1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam
2. Arab culture
2.1. Translation activities
2.2. Exact and natural sciences
2.3. Philosophy
2.4. Literature
2.5. Architecture. Art
3. Life and customs of the Arabs
CONCLUSION LIST OF REFERENCES USED
