Drama as a genre of literature examples. Mandatory list of dramatic works

Drama (Old Greek drama - action) is a type of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present.

Dramatic works are intended for production on stage; this determines the specific features of drama:

1) lack of narrative-descriptive image;

3) the main text of a dramatic work is presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue);

4) drama as a type of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and action are the main means of creating the image of a hero;

5) the volume of text and time of action is limited to the stage;

6) requirements performing arts dictated by such a feature of the drama as a certain exaggeration (hyperbolization): “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conventionality of what is happening, which A.S. said very well. Pushkin: “the very essence of dramatic art excludes verisimilitude... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet depicted his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who agreed etc.

Drama (ancient Greek δρᾶμα - deed, action) is one of the three types of literature, along with epic and lyric poetry, belonging simultaneously to two types of art: literature and theater. Intended for play on stage, drama formally differs from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of characters’ remarks and author’s remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Drama in one way or another includes any literary work constructed in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc.

Since ancient times it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; The ancient Greeks, ancient Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians created their own dramatic traditions independently of each other.

Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means “action.”

Types of Drama tragedy drama (genre) drama for reading (play for reading)

Melodrama hierodrama mystery comedy vaudeville farce zaju

History of drama The beginnings of drama are in primitive poetry, in which the later elements of lyricism, epic and drama merged in connection with music and facial movements. Earlier than among other peoples, drama as a special type of poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.

Dionysian dances

Greek drama, developing serious religious-mythological plots (tragedy) and funny ones, drawn from modern life(comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time had artlessly treated religious and secular narratives (mysteries, school dramas and interludes, fastnachtspiel, sottises).

French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered unchangeable for the aesthetic dignity of drama, such as: unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the beginning (clarification initial position and the characters of the heroes) through the middle vicissitudes (changes of positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a catastrophe); number characters very limited (usually from 3 to 5); these are exclusively the highest representatives of society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants-confidants, who are introduced onto the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and delivering remarks. These are the main features of French classical drama (Cornel, Racine).

Strictness of requirements classic style was already less observed in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from convention to depiction ordinary life(genre). Free from classical conventions, Shakespeare's work opened up new paths for drama. The end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries were marked by the appearance of romantic and national dramas: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.

In the second half of XIX century, realism takes over in European drama (Dumas fils, Ogier, Sardou, Palleron, Ibsen, Sudermann, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).

In the last quarter of the 19th century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take over the European stage (Hauptmann, Przybyszewski, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).

Design of a dramatic work Unlike other prose and poetic works, dramatic works have a strictly defined structure. A dramatic work consists of alternating blocks of text, each with its own purpose, and highlighted by typography so that they can be more easily distinguished from each other. Dramatic text may include the following blocks:

The list of characters is usually located before the main text of the work. If necessary, it gives a brief description of the hero (age, appearance, etc.)

External remarks - a description of the action, the situation, the appearance and departure of the characters. Often typed either in a reduced size, or in the same font as the replicas, but in a larger format. The external remarks may include the names of the heroes, and if the hero appears for the first time, his name is additionally highlighted. Example:

A room that is still called a nursery. One of the doors leads to Anya's room. Dawn, the sun will rise soon. It’s already May, the cherry trees are blooming, but it’s cold in the garden, it’s morning. The windows in the room are closed.

Dunyasha enters with a candle and Lopakhin with a book in his hand.

Replicas are the words spoken by the characters. Replies must be preceded by the name of the character and may include internal remarks. Example:

Dunyasha. I thought you left. (Listens.) It seems they are already on their way.

Lopakhin (listens). No... Get your luggage, this and that...

Internal remarks, unlike external ones, briefly describe the actions that occur during the hero’s utterance of a line, or the features of the utterance. If some complex action occurs during the utterance of a cue, you should describe it using an external cue, while indicating either in the remark itself or in the remark using an internal remark that the actor continues to speak during the action. An internal remark refers only to a specific replica of a specific actor. It is separated from the replica by brackets and can be typed in italics.

The two most common design methods are dramatic works: book and cinematic. If in a book format, different font styles, different sizes, etc. can be used to separate parts of a dramatic work, then in cinematic scripts it is customary to use only a monospaced typewriter font, and to separate parts of a work, use spacing, typesetting for different formats, typesetting for all capitalization, space, etc. - that is, only those facilities that are available on a typewriter. This allowed script changes to be made many times during production while maintaining readability .

Drama in Russia

Drama in Russia was brought from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appeared only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction predominated in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov; I. Lukin’s attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and morals remained in vain: all of their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous “Minor” and “Brigadier” by Fonvizin, “Sneak” by Kapnist and some comedies by I. A. Krylov .

At the beginning of the 19th century, Shakhovskaya, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin became imitators of light French drama and comedy, and the representative of stilted patriotic drama was the Puppeteer. Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", later "The Government Inspector", Gogol's "Marriage", become the basis of Russian everyday drama. After Gogol, even in vaudeville (D. Lensky, F. Koni, Sollogub, Karatygin) there is a noticeable desire to get closer to life.

Ostrovsky gave a number of remarkable historical chronicles and domestic comedies. After him, Russian drama stood on solid ground; the most outstanding playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, I. S. Turgenev, A. Potekhin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N. Ya. Solovyov, N. Chaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, gr. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborykin, Prince Sumbatov, Novezhin, N. Gnedich, Shpazhinsky, Evt. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Shcheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others.

- ▲ type of fiction, types of literature. epic genre. epic. prose fictional story about which l. events. prose (# works). fiction. lyrics. drama... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

This term has other meanings, see Drama. Not to be confused with Drama (a type of literature). Drama is a literary (dramatic), stage and cinematic genre. Received particular popularity in XVIII literature XXI centuries,... ... Wikipedia

In art: Drama is a type of literature (along with epic and lyric poetry); Drama is a type of stage cinematic action; a genre that includes various subgenres and modifications (such as bourgeois drama, absurdist drama, etc.); Toponym(s): ... ... Wikipedia

D. as a poetic genus Origin D. Eastern D. Ancient D. Medieval D. D. Renaissance From Renaissance to Classicism Elizabethan D. Spanish D. Classical D. Bourgeois D. Ro ... Literary encyclopedia

Epic, lyric, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of methods of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. W. F. Hegel), formal... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Drama (Greek dráma, literally - action), 1) one of the three types of literature (along with epic and lyric poetry; see literary genre). D. belongs simultaneously to theater and literature: being the fundamental basis of the performance, it is at the same time perceived in... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

Literary gender- GENUS LITERARY, one of three groups of works fiction epic, lyric, drama. The tradition of generic division of literature was founded by Aristotle. Despite the fragility of the boundaries between genera and the abundance of intermediate forms (lyric epic ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Epic, lyric, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of methods of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. Hegel), formal characteristics... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

ROD, a (y), prev. about (in) gender and in (on) gender, plural. s, ov, husband. 1. Main public organization primitive communal system, united by blood kinship. The elder of the clan. 2. A number of generations descending from one ancestor, as well as a generation in general... Dictionary Ozhegova

Books

• Pushkin, Tynyanov Yuri Nikolaevich. Yuri Nikolaevich Tynyanov (1894-1943) - an outstanding prose writer and literary critic - looked like Pushkin, which was what he was told about student years. Who knows, maybe it was this similarity that helped...

Drama - (ancient Greek action, action) - one of literary movements. Drama as a type of literature, in contrast to lyrics and like epic, drama reproduces, first of all, the world external to the author - actions, relationships between people, conflicts. Unlike the epic, it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form. As a rule, there are no internal monologues, author's characteristics of characters and direct author's comments of the person depicted. In Aristotle's Poetics, drama is described as the imitation of action through action and not through telling. This provision is still not outdated. Dramatic works are characterized by acute conflict situations that encourage characters to verbally physical actions. The author's speech can sometimes be in the drama, but it is of an auxiliary nature. Sometimes the author briefly comments on the remarks of his characters, points out their gestures and intonation.

Drama is closely related to theatrical art and must meet the needs of the theater.

Drama is seen as the crowning glory literary creativity. Examples of drama are the play “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky and “At the Bottom” by Gorkov.

ABOUT dramatic genres we must say without forgetting that drama itself is a genre that arose at the intersection of literature and theater. It is impossible to analyze them separately from each other. We have already talked about drama enough, however, we have not yet given the meaning of drama as a theatrical performance.

In order for any work to be called a drama, it must at least contain a conflict or a conflict situation. Conflict has the right to be both comical and tragic. Often drama contains a lot of both. This is probably why it is often interpreted in specialized literature as an intermediate genre.

Drama can be psychological (both on stage and in literature), social, philosophical, based on everyday life or historical conflict, a combination of the types listed above is also often found, this will be especially typical for literary drama. Drama can also be national, for example, Spanish drama can be distinguished - it is sometimes also called the “drama of honor” or “the comedy of the cloak and sword”, here everything entirely depends on what kind of conflict is developed in the drama. Drama genres can only appear in literature. There really aren't too many of them:

Play (a narrative in prose or poetic form, in which the characters, the author, and stage directions appear)

Comedy

Sideshow

Tragedy

Burlesque

Chronicle (historical, psychological, retrospective)

Scenario

Dramatic prose differs from ordinary prose primarily in that it contains many constantly changing events, while a large number of characters, much more than we say in an ordinary story, although the volume of the narrative may be the same. It is believed that the reader is able to remember no more than 5-7 acting characters, drama often violates this law; the reader of a dramatic work always has the opportunity to look at the flyleaf and see who exactly the hero is that he completely forgot about.

Drama(Ancient Greek δρμα - deed, action) - one of the three types of literature, along with epic and lyric poetry, belongs simultaneously to two types of art: literature and theater. Intended to be played on stage, drama formally differs from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of characters’ remarks and author’s remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Anything relates to drama in one way or another literary work, built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc.

Since ancient times, it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; The ancient Greeks, ancient Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians created their own dramatic traditions independently of each other.

Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means “action.”

Specifics of the drama literary kind is a member of a special organization artistic speech: unlike epic, there is no narration in drama and the direct speech of the heroes, their dialogues and monologues is of paramount importance.

Dramatic works are intended to be staged, and this determines specific features dramas:

1. lack of narrative-descriptive image;
2. “auxiliary” of the author’s speech (remarks);
3. the main text of a dramatic work is presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue);
4. drama as a type of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and action are the main means of creating the image of a hero;
5. the volume of text and time of action is limited by the stage;
6. The requirements of stage art also dictate such a feature of drama as a certain exaggeration (hyperbolization): “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conventionality of what is happening, which was very well said by A.S. Pushkin: “the very essence of dramatic art excludes verisimilitude... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet depicted his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who agreed etc.

The traditional plot outline for any dramatic work is:

EXPOSITION - presentation of heroes

TIE - collision

ACTION DEVELOPMENT - a set of scenes, development of an idea

CLIMAX - the apogee of the conflict

INTERCLOSURE

History of drama

The beginnings of drama are in primitive poetry, in which the later elements of lyricism, epic and drama merged in connection with music and facial movements. Earlier than among other nations, drama special kind poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.

Greek drama, developing serious religious-mythological plots (tragedy) and funny ones drawn from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time had artlessly treated religious and narrative secular plots (mysteries, school dramas and sideshows, fastnachtspiel, sottises).

French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered unchangeable for the aesthetic dignity of drama, such as: unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the beginning (clarification of the initial position and characters of the characters) through the middle vicissitudes (changes of positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a catastrophe); the number of characters is very limited (usually from 3 to 5); this is exceptional senior representatives society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants-confidants, who are introduced onto the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and delivering remarks. These are the main features of French classical drama (Cornel, Racine).

The rigor of the requirements of the classical style was no longer observed in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from convention to the depiction of ordinary life (genre). Free from classical conventions, Shakespeare's work opened up new paths for drama. Late XVIII and the first half of the 19th century were marked by the emergence of romantic and national dram: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.

In the second half of the 19th century, realism took over in European drama (Dumas the son, Ogier, Sardou, Palieron, Ibsen, Sudermann, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).

In the last quarter of the 19th century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take over the European stage (Hauptmann, Przybyszewski, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).

Types of Drama

• Tragedy - genre work of art, intended for stage production, in which the plot leads the characters to a catastrophic outcome. The tragedy is marked by stern seriousness, depicting reality in the most pointed way, like a clot internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form that takes on meaning artistic symbol. Most tragedies are written in verse. The works are often filled with pathos. The opposite genre is comedy.
• Drama (psychological, criminal, existential) is a literary (dramatic), stage and cinematic genre. It became especially widespread in the literature of the 18th-21st centuries, gradually displacing another genre of drama - tragedy, opposing it mainly everyday story and a style closer to everyday reality. With the emergence of cinema, it also moved into this art form, becoming one of its most widespread genres (see the corresponding category).
• Dramas typically depict specifically privacy man and his social conflicts. At the same time, the emphasis is often placed on universal human contradictions, embodied in the behavior and actions of specific characters.

  The concept of “drama as a genre” (different from the concept of “drama as a type of literature”) is known in Russian literary criticism. Thus, B.V. Tomashevsky writes:
  

  In the 18th century quantity<драматических>genres are increasing. Along with strict theatrical genres the lower, “fair” genres are put forward: Italian slapstick comedy, vaudeville, parody, etc. These genres are the sources of modern farce, grotesque, operetta, miniatures. Comedy splits, distinguishing itself as “drama,” that is, a play with modern everyday themes, but without the specific “comic” situation (“ bourgeois tragedy" or " tearful comedy»). <...>Drama decisively displaces other genres in the 19th century, in harmony with the evolution of the psychological and everyday novel.

  On the other hand, drama as a genre in the history of literature is divided into several separate modifications:

  Thus, the 18th century was the time of bourgeois drama (G. Lillo, D. Diderot, P.-O. Beaumarchais, G. E. Lessing, early F. Schiller).
  In the 19th century, realistic and naturalistic drama began to develop (A. N. Ostrovsky, G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Strindberg, A. P. Chekhov).
  At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, it developed symbolist drama(M. Maeterlinck).
  In the 20th century - surrealist drama, expressionist drama (F. Werfel, W. Hasenclever), absurdist drama (S. Beckett, E. Ionesco, E. Albee, V. Gombrowicz), etc.
  

  Many playwrights of the 19th and 20th centuries used the word “drama” to designate the genre of their stage works.

• Drama in verse is the same thing, only in poetic form.
• Melodrama is a genre of fiction, theatrical arts and cinema, whose works reveal the spiritual and sensory world heroes in particularly vivid emotional circumstances based on contrasts: good and evil, love and hate, etc.
• Hierodrama - in Old Order France (second half of the 18th century) the name of vocal compositions for two or more voices in biblical stories.
  Unlike oratorio and mystery plays, hierodramas used not the words of Latin psalms, but the texts of modern French poets and they were performed not in churches, but at spiritual concerts in the Tuileries Palace.
• In particular, “The Sacrifice of Abraham” (music by Cambini) and in 1783 “Samson” were presented to the words of Voltaire in 1780. Under the impression of the revolution, Desaugiers composed his cantata “Hierodrama”.
• Mystery is one of the genres of European medieval theater associated with religion.
• The plot of the mystery was usually taken from the Bible or Gospel and interspersed with various everyday comic scenes. From the middle of the 15th century, the mysteries began to increase in volume. The Mystery of the Acts of the Apostles contains more than 60,000 verses, and its performance in Bourges in 1536 lasted, according to evidence, 40 days.
• If in Italy the mystery died naturally, then in a number of other countries it was prohibited during the Counter-Reformation; in particular, in France - on November 17, 1548 by order of the Parisian parliament; in Protestant England in 1672, the mystery was banned by the Bishop of Chester, and three years later the ban was repeated by the Archbishop of York. In Catholic Spain, mystery performances continued until mid-18th century centuries, they were composed by Lope de Vega, and Tirso de Molina, and Calderon de la Barca, Pedro; It was only in 1756 that they were officially banned by decree of Charles III.
• Comedy is a genre of fiction characterized by a humorous or satirical approach, as well as a type of drama in which the moment of effective conflict or struggle between antagonistic characters is specifically resolved.
  Aristotle defined comedy as "imitation the worst people, but not in all their depravity, but in funny"(Poetics, Chapter V). The earliest surviving comedies were created in Ancient Athens and were written by Aristophanes.

  Distinguish sitcom And comedy of characters.

  Sitcom (situation comedy, situational comedy) is a comedy in which the source of humor is events and circumstances.
  Comedy of characters (comedy of manners) is a comedy in which the source of the funny is inner essence characters (morals), funny and ugly one-sidedness, exaggerated trait or passion (vice, flaw). Very often a comedy of manners is satirical comedy, makes fun of all these human qualities.

• Vaudeville - comedy play with couplet songs and dances, as well as the genre of dramatic art. In Russia, the prototype of vaudeville was a small comic opera of the late 17th century, which remained in the repertoire of the Russian theater and to early XIX century.
• Farce- a comedy of light content with purely external comic techniques.
  In the Middle Ages, farce was also called the form folk theater and literature, widespread in the XIV-XVI centuries in Western European countries. Having matured within the mystery, farce gained its independence in the 15th century, and in the next century it became the dominant genre in theater and literature. The techniques of farcical buffoonery were preserved in circus clowning.
  The main element of the farce was not conscious political satire, but a relaxed and carefree depiction of urban life with all its scandalous incidents, obscenity, rudeness and fun. The French farce often varied the theme of a scandal between spouses.
  In modern Russian, a farce is usually called profanation, an imitation of a process, for example, a trial.

Tragedy(from gr. Tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on the irreconcilable conflict of an unusual personality with insurmountable external circumstances. Usually the hero dies (Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare's Hamlet). The tragedy occurred in ancient Greece, the name comes from a folk belief in honor of the god of wine, Dionysus. Dances, songs and stories about his suffering were performed, at the end of which a goat was sacrificed.

Comedy(from the gr. comoidia. Comos - cheerful crowd and ode - song) - a type of dramatic arbitrariness in which the comic is depicted social life, behavior and character of people. There is a comedy of situations (intrigue) and a comedy of characters.

Drama - a type of dramaturgy intermediate between tragedy and comedy (“The Thunderstorm” by A. Ostrovsky, “Stolen Happiness” by I. Franko). Dramas mainly depict the private life of a person and his acute conflict with society. At the same time, the emphasis is often placed on universal human contradictions, embodied in the behavior and actions of specific characters.

Mystery(from the gr. mysterion - sacrament, religious service, ritual) - a genre of mass religious theater of the era late Middle Ages(XIV-XV centuries), common in the countries of Western Nvrotta.

Sideshow(from Latin intermedius - what is in the middle) - small comic play or a skit that was performed between the acts of the main drama. In modern pop art it exists as an independent genre.

Vaudeville(from the French vaudeville) a light comic play in which dramatic action is combined with music and dancing.

Melodrama - a play with acute intrigue, exaggerated emotionality and a moral and didactic tendency. Typical for melodrama is “ a happy ending", celebration goodies. The genre of melodrama was popular in the 18th century. 19th centuries, later acquired a negative reputation.

Farce(from Latin farcio I begin, I fill) is a Western European folk comedy of the 14th - 16th centuries, which originated from funny ritual games and interludes. Farce is characterized by the main features of popular ideas: mass participation, satirical orientation, and rude humor. In modern times, this genre has entered the repertoire of small theaters.

As noted, methods literary image often mixed inside individual species and genres. This mixture is of two kinds: in some cases there is a kind of inclusion, when the main generic characteristics are preserved; in others, the generic principles are balanced, and the work cannot be attributed to either epic, clergy, or drama, as a result of which they are called adjacent or mixed formations. Most often, epic and lyric are mixed.

Ballad(from Provence ballar - to dance) - a small poetic work with a sharp dramatic plot love, legendary-historical, heroic-patriotic or fabulous content. The depiction of events is combined in it with a pronounced authorial feeling, the epic is combined with lyrics. The genre became widespread in the era of romanticism (V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, T. Shevchenko, etc.).

Lyric epic poem- a poetic work in which, according to V. Mayakovsky, the poet talks about time and himself (poems by V. Mayakovsky, A. Tvardovsky, S. Yesenin, etc.).

Dramatic poem- a work written in dialogical form, but not intended for production on stage. Examples of this genre: “Faust” by Goethe, “Cain” by Byron, “In the Catacombs” by L. Ukrainka, etc.