The theme and idea of ​​the work of art briefly. What is the idea of ​​a work

Any analysis of a literary work begins with identifying its theme and idea. There is a close semantic and logical connection between them, thanks to which the literary text is perceived as an integral unity of form and content. A correct understanding of the meaning of the literary terms theme and idea allows us to establish how accurately the author was able to embody his creative idea and whether his book is worth the reader's attention.

The theme of a literary work is a semantic definition of its content, reflecting the author’s vision of the depicted phenomenon, event, character or other artistic reality.

An idea is a writer’s plan, pursuing a specific goal in creating artistic images, using the principles of plot construction and achieving the compositional integrity of a literary text.

What is the difference between a theme and an idea?

Figuratively speaking, a theme can be considered any reason that prompted the writer to take up the pen and transfer the perception of the surrounding reality reflected in artistic images onto a blank sheet of paper. You can write about anything; another question: for what purpose, what task should I set myself?

The goal and task determine the idea, the disclosure of which constitutes the essence of an aesthetically valuable and socially significant literary work.

Among the diversity literary themes there are several main directions that serve as reference points for flight creative imagination writer. These are historical, social, everyday, adventure, detective, psychological, moral and ethical, lyrical, philosophical themes. The list goes on. It will include both original author's notes and literary diaries, and stylistically refined extracts from archival documents.

The theme, felt by the writer, acquires spiritual content, an idea, without which the book page will remain just a coherent text. The idea can be reflected in a historical analysis of problems important to society, in the depiction of complex psychological moments, on which human destiny depends, or simply in creating a lyrical sketch that awakens in the reader a sense of beauty.

The idea is the deep content of the work. Theme is a motive that allows you to realize a creative idea within a specific, precisely defined context.

The difference between a topic and an idea

The theme determines the actual and semantic content of the work.

The idea reflects the tasks and goals of the writer, which he strives to achieve while working on a literary text.

The theme has formative functions: it can be revealed in small literary genres or developed in a large epic work.

The idea is the main content core literary text. It corresponds to the conceptual level of organization of the work as an aesthetically significant whole.

(No ratings yet)

Essays on topics:

1. The story “Mowers” ​​is a poetic sketch accompanied by the writer’s reflections on the fate of his people. The reason for writing the story was the writer heard...
2. The novel “Doctor Zhivago” by B. L. Pasternak found its reader not so long ago, because Soviet officials for a long time considered it forbidden...
3. In 1835, the collection “Arabesques” was published in St. Petersburg, in which Nikolai Gogol’s story “Scraps from the Notes of a Madman” was published. She...
4. Myths are found in the folklore of all peoples of the world. The roots of the word “myth” stretch back to ancient Greece - it means “tradition, legend”....

When analyzing a work of art, it is always important not only what the author wanted to say in it, but also what he accomplished - “had an impact.” A writer's plan can be realized in greater or less to a lesser extent, but it is the author’s point of view in assessing the characters, events, and problems raised that should be the ultimate truth in the analysis

Definition of the concept

Illustrative examples

Let us recall one of the masterpieces of Russian and world literature of the 19th century - L. N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”. What the author said about him: he loved “folk thought” in the book. What are the main ideas of the work? This is, first of all, a statement that the people are the main asset of the country, driving force history, creator of material and spiritual values. In the light of this understanding, the author develops the narrative of the epic. Tolstoy persistently leads the main characters of “War and Peace” through a series of tests, to “simplification”, to familiarization with the people’s worldview, worldview, and worldview. Thus, Natasha Rostova is much closer and dearer to the writer and to us than Helen Kuragina or Julie Karagina. Natasha is far from being as beautiful as the first, and not as rich as the second. But it is in this “countess”, who hardly speaks Russian, that there is something primordial, national, natural that makes her similar to common people. And Tolstoy sincerely admires her during the dance (episode “Visiting Uncle”), and describes her in such a way that we too fall under the amazing charm of the image. The author's idea of ​​the work is remarkably revealed using examples from Pierre Bezukhov. Both aristocrats, who at the beginning of the novel live with their own personal problems, each go through their own paths of spiritual and moral quest. And they also begin to live in the interests of their country and the common people.

Cause-and-effect relationships

The idea of ​​a work of art is expressed by all its elements, the interaction and unity of all components. It can be considered a conclusion, a kind of “ life lesson”, which the reader makes and extracts, becoming familiar with the literary text, becoming familiar with its content, and becoming imbued with the thoughts and feelings of the author. Here it is important to understand that parts of the writer’s soul exist not only in positive, but also negative heroes. In this regard, F. M. Dostoevsky said very well: in each of us, the “ideal of Sodom” is fighting with the “ideal of Madonna,” “God with the devil,” and the battlefield of this battle is human heart. Svidrigailov from Crime and Punishment is a very revealing personality. A libertine, a cynic, a scoundrel, in fact a murderer; sometimes pity, compassion and even some decency are not alien to him. And before committing suicide, the hero does several good deeds: he settles Katerina Ivanovna’s children, lets Dunya go... And Raskolnikov himself, the main character of the work, obsessed with the idea of ​​becoming a superman, is also torn by conflicting thoughts and feelings. Dostoevsky, a very difficult person in everyday life, reveals different sides of his “I” in his heroes. From biographical sources about the writer, we know that at different periods of his life he played a lot. Impressions of the destructive impact of this destructive passion are reflected in the novel “The Gambler.”

Theme and idea

There remains one more important question to consider - how the theme and idea of ​​the work relate. In a nutshell, this is explained as follows: the theme is what is described in the book, the idea is the author’s assessment and attitude towards it. Let's say Pushkin's story " Stationmaster" It reveals the life of a “little man” - powerless, oppressed by everyone, but having a heart, soul, dignity and awareness of himself as part of a society that looks down on him. This is the topic. And the idea is to reveal the moral superiority of a small person with a rich inner world over those who are above him on the social ladder, but are poor in soul.

General concept of the theme of a literary work

The concept of theme, as well as many other terms of literary criticism, contains a paradox: intuitively a person, even far from philology, understands what is being discussed; but as soon as we try to define this concept, to assign some more or less strict system of meanings to it, we find ourselves faced with a very difficult problem.

This is due to the fact that the topic is a multidimensional concept. Literally translated, “theme” is what is laid down, what is the support of the work. But this is where the difficulty lies. Try to answer the question unambiguously: “What is the basis of a literary work?” Once you ask this question, it becomes clear why the term “theme” resists clear definitions. For some, the most important thing is life material - something what is being depicted. In this sense, we can talk, for example, about the theme of war, about the theme of family relationships, about love adventures, about battles with aliens, etc. And each time we will reach the level of the theme.

But we can say that the most important thing in the work is what major problems of human existence the author poses and solves. For example, the struggle between good and evil, the formation of personality, the loneliness of a person, and so on ad infinitum. And this will also be a theme.

Other answers are possible. For example, we can say that the most important thing in a work is language. It is the language and words that represent the most important theme of the work. This thesis usually causes more difficulty for students to understand. After all, it is extremely rare that this or that work is written directly about words. It happens, of course, that this happens; it is enough to recall, for example, the well-known prose poem by I. S. Turgenev “Russian Language” or, with completely different accents, the poem “Perverten” by V. Khlebnikov, which is based on a pure language game, when a line is read the same from left to right and from right to left:

Horses, tramp, monk,

But it’s not speech, it’s black.

Let's go, young man, down with copper.

The rank is called with a sword on the back.

Hunger, why is the sword long?

In this case, the linguistic component of the topic clearly dominates, and if you ask the reader what this poem is about, we will hear a completely natural answer that the main thing here is the language game.

However, when we say that language is a topic, we mean something much more complex than the examples just given. The main difficulty is that a phrase said differently also changes the “slice of life” that it expresses. In any case, in the minds of the speaker and the listener. Therefore, if we accept these “rules of expression,” then we automatically change what we want to express. To understand what we are talking about, it is enough to remember a joke known among philologists: what is the difference between the phrases “the young maiden trembles” and “the young maiden trembles”? One can answer that they differ in their style of expression, and this is true. But we, for our part, will pose the question differently: are these phrases about the same thing, or do “young maiden” and “young girl” live in different worlds? Agree, intuition will tell you that it’s different. These are different people, they have different faces, they speak differently, they have different social circles. All this difference was suggested to us solely by language.

These differences can be felt even more clearly if we compare, for example, the world of “adult” poetry with the world of poetry for children. In children's poetry, horses and dogs do not “live”, horses and dogs live there, there is no sun and rain, there is sun and rain. In this world, the relationships between the heroes are completely different, everything always ends well there. And it is absolutely impossible to depict this world in the language of adults. That’s why we cannot take the “language” theme of children’s poetry out of the equation.

As a matter of fact, the different positions of scientists who have different understandings of the term “topic” are associated precisely with this multidimensionality. Researchers identify one or the other as the determining factor. This is also reflected in the training manuals, which creates unnecessary confusion. Thus, in the most popular textbook on literary criticism of the Soviet period - in the textbook by G. L. Abramovich - the topic is understood almost exclusively as a problem. This approach is, of course, vulnerable. There are a huge number of works where the basis is not problematic at all. Therefore, G. L. Abramovich’s thesis is rightly criticized.

On the other hand, it is hardly correct to separate the topic and the problem, limiting the scope of the topic exclusively to the “circle of life phenomena.” This approach was also characteristic of Soviet literary criticism in the mid-twentieth century, but today it is a clear anachronism, although echoes of this tradition are sometimes still noticeable in secondary and higher schools.

A modern philologist must be clearly aware that any infringement of the concept of “theme” makes this term non-functional for the analysis of a huge number of works of art. For example, if we understand a theme exclusively as a circle of life phenomena, as a fragment of reality, then the term retains its meaning when analyzing realistic works (for example, the novels of L. N. Tolstoy), but becomes completely unsuitable for analyzing the literature of modernism, where familiar reality is deliberately distorted, or even completely dissolves in a language game (remember the poem by V. Khlebnikov).

Therefore, if we want to understand the universal meaning of the term “topic,” we must talk about it on a different plane. It is no coincidence that last years the term “theme” is increasingly interpreted in line with structuralist traditions, when a work of art is viewed as a holistic structure. Then the “theme” becomes the supporting links of this structure. For example, the theme of a blizzard in Blok’s work, the theme of crime and punishment in Dostoevsky, etc. At the same time, the meaning of the term “theme” largely coincides with the meaning of another basic term in literary criticism – “motive”.

The theory of motive, developed in the 19th century by the outstanding philologist A. N. Veselovsky, had a huge influence on the subsequent development of the science of literature. We will dwell on this theory in more detail in the next chapter; for now we will only note that motifs are the most important elements of the entire artistic structure, its “load-bearing supports.” And just as the load-bearing supports of a building can be made of different materials (concrete, metal, wood, etc.), the load-bearing supports of the text can also be different. In some cases this life facts(without them, for example, no documentary is fundamentally possible), in others - the problematic, in the third - the author's experiences, in the fourth - language, etc. In a real text, as in real construction, combinations of different materials.

This understanding of the theme as the verbal and subject supports of the work eliminates many misunderstandings associated with the meaning of the term. This point of view was very popular in Russian science in the first third of the twentieth century, then it was subjected to sharp criticism, which was more ideological than philological in nature. In recent years, this understanding of the topic has again found an increasing number of supporters.

So the theme can be properly understood if we return to the literal meaning of the word: that which is laid down as a foundation. The theme is a kind of support for the entire text (event-based, problematic, linguistic, etc.). At the same time, it is important to understand that the different components of the concept of “topic” are not isolated from each other, they represent a single system. Roughly speaking, a work of literature cannot be “disassembled” into vital material, issues and language. This is only possible in educational purposes or as an auxiliary technique for analysis. Just as in a living organism the skeleton, muscles and organs form a unity, in works of literature the different components of the concept of “theme” are also united. In this sense, B.V. Tomashevsky was absolutely right when he wrote that “the topic<...>is the unity of meanings of the individual elements of the work.” In reality, this means that when we talk, for example, about the theme of human loneliness in “A Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov, we already have in mind the sequence of events, and the problems, and the construction of the work, and language features novel.

If we try to somehow organize and systematize all the almost endless thematic wealth of world literature, we can distinguish several thematic levels.

See: Abramovich G. L. Introduction to literary criticism. M., 1970. pp. 122–124.

See, for example: Revyakin A.I. Problems of studying and teaching literature. M., 1972. S. 101–102; Fedotov O.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature: In 2 parts. Part 1. M., 2003. P. 42–43; Without a direct reference to the name of Abramovich, a similar approach is also criticized by V. E. Khalizev, see: Khalizev V. E. Theory of Literature. M., 1999. P. 41.

See: Shchepilova L.V. Introduction to literary criticism. M., 1956. pp. 66–67.

This tendency manifested itself among researchers directly or indirectly associated with the traditions of formalism and - later - structuralism (V. Shklovsky, R. Jacobson, B. Eikhenbaum, A. Evlakhov, V. Fischer, etc.).

For more details on this, see, for example: Revyakin A.I. Problems of studying and teaching literature. M., 1972.. P. 108–113.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 2002. P. 176.

Thematic levels

Firstly, these are those topics that affect the fundamental problems of human existence. This, for example, is the theme of life and death, the fight against the elements, man and God, etc. Such themes are usually called ontological(from Greek ontos – essence + logos – teaching). Ontological issues dominate, for example, in most of the works of F. M. Dostoevsky. In any specific event, the writer strives to see a “glimmer of the eternal,” a projection of the most important issues of human existence. Any artist who poses and solves such problems finds himself in line with the most powerful traditions, which in one way or another influence the solution of the topic. Try, for example, to depict the feat of a person who gave his life for other people in an ironic or vulgar style, and you will feel how the text begins to resist, the topic begins to demand a different language.

The next level can be formulated in the most general form as follows: "A Man in Certain Circumstances". This level is more specific; ontological issues may not be affected by it. For example, a production theme or a private family conflict may turn out to be completely self-sufficient from the point of view of the topic and not claim to solve the “eternal” issues of human existence. On the other hand, the ontological basis may well “shine through” this thematic level. Suffice it to recall, for example, the famous novel by L. N. Tolstoy “Anna Karenina”, where family drama comprehended in the system eternal values person.

Next you can highlight subject-visual level. In this case, ontological issues may fade into the background or not be updated at all, but the linguistic component of the topic is clearly manifested. The dominance of this level is easy to feel, for example, in a literary still life or in humorous poetry. This is exactly how poetry for children, as a rule, is structured, charming in its simplicity and clarity. It makes no sense to look for ontological depths in the poems of Agnia Barto or Korney Chukovsky; often the charm of a work is explained precisely by the liveliness and clarity of the thematic sketch created. Let us recall, for example, the cycle of poems by Agnia Barto, known to everyone since childhood, “Toys”:

The owner abandoned the bunny -

A bunny was left in the rain.

I couldn't get off the bench,

I was completely wet.

What has been said, of course, does not mean that the subject-visual level always turns out to be self-sufficient, that there are no deeper thematic layers behind it. Moreover, the art of modern times generally tends to ensure that the ontological level “shines through” through the object-visual level. It is enough to recall M. Bulgakov’s famous novel “The Master and Margarita” to understand what we are talking about. Let's say, Woland's famous ball, on the one hand, is interesting precisely for its picturesqueness, on the other - almost every scene in one way or another touches on the eternal problems of man: this is love, and mercy, and the mission of man, etc. If we compare the images of Yeshua and Behemoth, we can easily feel that in the first case the ontological thematic level dominates, in the second – the subject-pictorial level. That is, even within one work you can feel different thematic dominants. So, in famous novel M. Sholokhov’s “Virgin Soil Upturned” is one of the most bright images– the image of Grandfather Shchukar – mainly correlates with the subject-visual thematic level, while the novel as a whole has a much more complex thematic structure.

Thus, the concept of “topic” can be viewed from different angles and have different shades of meaning.

Thematic analysis allows the philologist, among other things, to see some patterns in the development of the literary process. The fact is that each era actualizes its own range of topics, “resurrecting” some and seemingly not noticing others. At one time, V. Shklovsky noted: “each era has its own index, its own list of topics prohibited due to obsolescence.” Although Shklovsky primarily had in mind the linguistic and structural “supports” of the themes, without overly updating the realities of life, his remark is very prescient. Indeed, it is important and interesting for a philologist to understand why certain topics and thematic levels are relevant in a given historical situation. The "thematic index" of classicism is not the same as that of romanticism; Russian futurism (Khlebnikov, Kruchenykh, etc.) actualized completely different thematic levels than symbolism (Blok, Bely, etc.). Having understood the reasons for such a change in indices, a philologist can say a lot about the features of a particular stage in the development of literature.

Shklovsky V.B. On the theory of prose. M., 1929. P. 236.

External and internal theme. System of intermediary signs

The next step in mastering the concept of “topic” for a novice philologist is to distinguish between the so-called "external" And "internal" themes of the work. This division is arbitrary and adopted only for the convenience of analysis. Of course, in a real work there is no “separately external” and “separately internal” theme. But in the practice of analysis, such a division is very useful, since it allows you to make the analysis concrete and demonstrative.

Under "external" topic usually understand the system of thematic supports directly presented in the text. This is vital material and the plot level associated with it, the author’s commentary, and in some cases the title. In modern literature, the title is not always associated with the external level of the topic, but, say, in the 17th - 18th centuries. the tradition was different. There, a brief summary of the plot was often included in the title. In a number of cases, such “transparency” of titles causes modern reader smile. For example, the famous English writer D. Defoe, creator of “The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe,” used much more extensive titles in his subsequent works. The third volume of Robinson Crusoe is called: “Serious reflections of Robinson Crusoe throughout his life and amazing adventures; with the addition of his visions of the angelic world." And the full title of the novel, “The Joys and Sorrows of the Famous Mole Flanders,” takes up almost half the page, since it actually lists all the adventures of the heroine.

IN lyrical works, in which the plot plays a much smaller role, and often is completely absent, the external theme can include “direct” expressions of the author’s thoughts and feelings, devoid of metaphorical veil. Let us recall, for example, the textbook famous lines of F. I. Tyutchev:

You can't understand Russia with your mind,

The general arshin cannot be measured.

She has become something special.

You can only believe in Russia.

There is no discrepancy here between about what it is said that What it is said, it is not felt. Compare with Blok:

I don't know how to feel sorry for you

And I carry my cross carefully.

Which sorcerer do you want?

Give me the robber's beauty.

These words cannot be taken as a direct declaration; a gap arises between about what it is said that What said.

The so-called "thematic image". The researcher who proposed this term, V. E. Kholshevnikov, commented on it with a quote from V. Mayakovsky - “felt thought.” This means that any object or situation in the lyrics serves as a support for the development of the author’s emotions and thoughts. Let us recall the textbook famous poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Sail”, and we will easily understand what we are talking about. At the “external” level, this is a poem about a sail, but the sail here is a thematic image that allows the author to show the depth of human loneliness and the eternal tossing of a restless soul.

Let's sum up the intermediate results. The external theme is the most visible thematic level directly presented in the text. With a certain degree of convention, we can say that the external theme includes what about what the text says.

Another thing - internal subject. This is a much less obvious thematic level. In order to understand internal topic, it is always necessary to abstract from what is directly said, to grasp and explain the internal connection of the elements. In some cases, this is not so difficult to do, especially if you have developed a habit of such recoding. Let’s say, behind the external theme of I. A. Krylov’s fable “The Crow and the Fox,” we would without much difficulty feel the internal theme - the dangerous weakness of a person in relation to flattery addressed to himself, even if Krylov’s text did not begin with an open morality:

How many times have they told the world,

That flattery is vile and harmful; but everything is not for the future,

And a flatterer will always find a corner in the heart.

A fable in general is a genre in which the external and internal thematic levels are most often transparent, and the morality that connects these two levels completely simplifies the task of interpretation.

But in most cases it's not that simple. Internal theme loses its obviousness, and correct interpretation requires both special knowledge and intellectual effort. For example, if we think about the lines of Lermontov’s poem “It’s lonely in the wild north...”, we can easily feel that the internal theme can no longer be interpreted unambiguously:

It's lonely in the wild north

There's a pine tree on the bare top,

And dozes, swaying, and snow falls

She is dressed like a robe.

And she dreams of everything in the distant desert,

In the region where the sun rises,

Alone and sad on a flammable cliff

A beautiful palm tree is growing.

We can easily see the development of the thematic image, but what is hidden in the depths of the text? Simply put, what are we talking about here, what problems worry the author? Different readers may have different associations, sometimes very far removed from what is actually in the text. But if we know that this poem is a free translation of a poem by G. Heine, and we compare Lermontov’s text with other translation options, for example, with a poem by A. A. Fet, then we will get much more compelling reasons for the answer. Let's compare with Fet:

In the north there is a lonely oak

It stands on a steep hill;

He sleeps, sternly covered

Both snow and ice carpet.

In a dream he sees a palm tree,

In a distant eastern country,

In silent, deep sadness,

Alone, on a hot rock.

Both poems were written in 1841, but what a difference between them! In Fet’s poem there are “he” and “she”, yearning for each other. Emphasizing this, Fet translates “pine” as “oak” - in the name of preserving the love theme. The fact is that in German “pine” (more precisely, larch) is the word male, and the language itself dictates the reading of the poem in this vein. However, Lermontov not only “crosses out” the love theme, but in the second edition in every possible way enhances the feeling of endless loneliness. Instead of the “cold and bare peak” the “wild north” appears, instead of the “distant eastern land” (cf. Fet) Lermontov writes: “in the distant desert”, instead of the “hot rock” - “a flammable cliff”. If we summarize all these observations, we can conclude that the internal theme of this poem is not the melancholy of separated people who love each other, like Heine and Fet, or even the dream of another wonderful life - Lermontov’s theme is dominated by the “tragic insurmountability of loneliness in a common kinship of fate,” as R. Yu. Danilevsky commented on this poem.

In other cases, the situation can be even more complex. For example, I. A. Bunin’s story “The Gentleman from San Francisco” is usually interpreted by the inexperienced reader as the story of the absurd death of a rich American, whom no one feels sorry for. But a simple question: “What bad did this gentleman do to the island of Capri and why only after his death, as Bunin writes, “peace and tranquility returned to the island”?” – confuses students. This is due to the lack of analytical skills, the inability to “link” various fragments of text into a single the whole picture. At the same time, the name of the ship - “Atlantis”, the image of the Devil, the nuances of the plot, etc. are missed. If you connect all these fragments together, it turns out that the internal theme of the story will be the eternal struggle between two worlds - life and death. The gentleman from San Francisco is terrifying by his very presence in the world of the living, he is alien and dangerous. That is why the living world calms down only when it disappears; then the sun comes out and illuminates “the unsteady massifs of Italy, its near and distant mountains, the beauty of which human words are powerless to express.”

It is even more difficult to talk about an internal topic in relation to large works that raise a whole range of problems. For example, only a qualified philologist with sufficient knowledge and the ability to abstract from the specific twists and turns of the plot can discover these internal thematic springs in L. N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” or in M. A. Sholokhov’s novel “Quiet Don”. Therefore, it is better to learn independent thematic analysis on works of relatively small volume - there, as a rule, it is easier to feel the logic of the interrelations of thematic elements.

So, we conclude: internal theme is a complex complex consisting of problems, internal connections of plot and linguistic components. A correctly understood internal theme allows you to feel the non-randomness and deep connections of the most heterogeneous elements.

As already mentioned, the division of thematic unity into external and internal levels is very arbitrary, because in a real text they are merged. It is more of an analysis tool than the actual structure of the text as such. However, this does not mean that such a technique represents any kind of violence against the living organics of a literary work. Any technology of cognition is built on some assumptions and conventions, but this helps to better understand the subject being studied. For example, an X-ray is also a very conventional copy of the human body, but this technique will allow you to see what is almost impossible to see with the naked eye.

In recent years, after the appearance of a well-known study among specialists by A.K. Zholkovsky and Yu.K. Shcheglov, the opposition of external and internal thematic levels received another semantic nuance. The researchers suggested distinguishing between so-called “declared” and “elusive” topics. “Elusive” themes are most often touched upon in a work, regardless of the author’s intention. These are, for example, the mythopoetic foundations of Russian classical literature: the struggle between space and chaos, motives of initiation, etc. In fact, we are talking about the most abstract, supporting levels of the internal theme.

In addition, the same study raises the question of intraliterary topics. In these cases, thematic supports do not go beyond the literary tradition. The simplest example is a parody, the theme of which is, as a rule, another literary work.

Thematic analysis involves understanding the various elements of the text in their relationships at the external and internal levels of the topic. In other words, the philologist must understand why the external plane is an expression exactly this internal. Why, reading poems about pine and palm trees, we sympathize human loneliness? This means that there are some elements in the text that ensure the “translation” of the external plane into the internal one. These elements can be roughly called intermediaries. If we can understand and explain these intermediary signs, the conversation about thematic levels will become substantive and interesting.

In the strict sense of the word intermediary is the entire text. In essence, this answer is impeccable, but methodically it is hardly correct, since for an inexperienced philologist the phrase “everything is in the text” is almost equal to “nothing.” Therefore, it makes sense to clarify this thesis. So, what elements of the text can you first pay attention to when conducting a thematic analysis?

Firstly, it is always worth remembering that no text exists in a vacuum. It is always surrounded by other texts, it is always addressed to a specific reader, etc. Therefore, often the “intermediary” can be located not only in the text itself, but also outside it. Let's give a simple example. The famous French poet Pierre Jean Beranger has a funny song called “Noble Friend.” It is a monologue of a commoner, to whose wife a rich and noble count is clearly not indifferent. As a result, the hero receives certain favors. How does the hero perceive the situation:

Last winter, for example

The minister has appointed a ball:

The count comes for his wife, -

As a husband, I got there too.

There, squeezing my hand in front of everyone,

Called me my friend!..

What happiness! What an honor!

After all, I’m a worm compared to him!

Compared to him,

With a face like that -

With His Excellency himself!

It is not difficult to feel that behind the external theme - the enthusiastic story of a small person about his “benefactor” - something completely different is hidden. Beranger's entire poem is a protest against slave psychology. But why do we understand this way, since there is not a word of condemnation in the text itself? The fact of the matter is that in this case, a certain norm of human behavior acts as a mediator, which turns out to be violated. Elements of the text (style, plot fragments, willing self-deprecation of the hero, etc.) expose this unacceptable deviation from the reader’s idea of ​​a worthy person. Therefore, all elements of the text change polarities: what the hero considers a plus is a minus.

Secondly, the title can act as an intermediary. This does not always happen, but in many cases the title turns out to be involved in all levels of the topic. Let us recall, for example, Gogol’s “Dead Souls,” where the outer series (Chichikov’s purchase of dead souls) and the inner theme (the theme of spiritual dying) are connected by the title.

In a number of cases, misunderstanding of the connection between the title and the internal theme leads to curious reading. For example, a modern reader quite often perceives the meaning of the title of L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” as “war and peacetime,” seeing here a device of antithesis. However, in Tolstoy’s manuscript it is not “War and Peace”, but “War and Peace”. In the 19th century, these words were perceived as different. “Peace” – “the absence of quarrel, hostility, disagreement, war” (according to Dahl’s dictionary), “Mir” – “matter in the universe and force in time // all people, the whole world, the human race” (according to Dahl). Therefore, Tolstoy did not have in mind the antithesis of war, but something completely different: “War and the human race,” “War and the movement of time,” etc. All this is directly related to the problems of Tolstoy’s masterpiece.

Third, the epigraph is a fundamentally important mediator. The epigraph, as a rule, is selected very carefully; often the author abandons the original epigraph in favor of another, or the epigraph does not appear at all in the first edition. For a philologist, this is always “food for thought.” For example, we know that L.N. Tolstoy initially wanted to preface his novel Anna Karenina with a completely “transparent” epigraph condemning adultery. But then he abandoned this plan, choosing an epigraph with a much more voluminous and complex meaning: “Vengeance is mine and I will repay.” This nuance alone is enough to understand that the problems of the novel are much broader and deeper than a family drama. Anna Karenina’s sin is just one of the signs of the colossal “unrighteousness” in which people live. This change of emphasis actually changed the original concept of the entire novel, including the image of the main character. In the first versions we meet a woman of repulsive appearance, in the final version she is a beautiful, intelligent, sinful and suffering woman. The change of epigraphs reflected a revision of the entire thematic structure.

If we remember N.V. Gogol’s comedy “The Inspector General,” we will inevitably smile at its epigraph: “There’s no point in blaming the mirror if your face is crooked.” It seems that this epigraph has always existed and represents a genre remark of comedy. But in the first edition of The Inspector General there was no epigraph; Gogol introduces it later, surprised by the incorrect interpretation of the play. The fact is that Gogol's comedy was initially perceived as a parody of some officials, on some vices. But the future author of Dead Souls had something else in mind: he made a terrible diagnosis of Russian spirituality. And such a “private” reading did not satisfy him at all, hence the peculiar polemical epigraph, strangely echoing the famous words of the Governor: “Who are you laughing at! You’re laughing at yourself!” If you read the comedy carefully, you can see how Gogol emphasizes this idea at all levels of the text. universal lack of spirituality, and not at all the arbitrariness of some officials. And the story with the epigraph that appeared is very revealing.

Fourth, you should always pay attention to proper names: the names and nicknames of the characters, the location of the action, the names of objects. Sometimes the thematic clue is obvious. For example, N. S. Leskov’s essay “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” already in the title itself contains a hint of the theme of Shakespearean passions so close to the writer’s heart, raging in the hearts of seemingly ordinary people Russian outback. The “talking” names here will be not only “Lady Macbeth”, but also “Mtsensk District”. “Direct” thematic projections have many of the names of the heroes in the dramas of classicism. We feel this tradition well in A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit.”

In other cases, the connection between the hero's name and the internal theme is more associative and less obvious. For example, Lermontov's Pechorin already refers to Onegin with his last name, emphasizing not only the similarities, but also the differences (Onega and Pechora are northern rivers that gave their names to entire regions). This similarity and difference was immediately noticed by the insightful V. G. Belinsky.

It may also be that it is not the name of the hero that is significant, but his absence. Let us remember the previously mentioned story by I. A. Bunin, “The Gentleman from San Francisco.” The story begins with a paradoxical phrase: “A gentleman from San Francisco - no one remembered his name either in Naples or Capri...” From the point of view of reality, this is completely impossible: the scandalous death of a supermillionaire would have preserved his name for a long time. But Bunin has a different logic. Not only the gentleman from San Francisco, none of the Atlantis passengers are ever mentioned by name. At the same time, the old boatman who appears occasionally at the end of the story has a name. His name is Lorenzo. This is, of course, no coincidence. After all, a name is given to a person at birth; it is a kind of sign of life. And the passengers of Atlantis (think about the name of the ship - “non-existent land”) belong to another world, where everything is the other way around and where there should be no names. Thus, the absence of a name can be very significant.

Fifthly, it is important to pay attention to the style of the text, especially if we're talking about about fairly large and diverse works. Style analysis is a self-sufficient subject of study, but this is not what we are talking about now. We are talking about thematic analysis, for which what is more important is not a scrupulous study of all the nuances, but rather a “change of timbres.” It is enough to recall M. A. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” to understand what we are talking about. The life of literary Moscow and the history of Pontius Pilate are written in completely different ways. In the first case, we feel the pen of a feuilletonist; in the second, we have before us an author who is impeccably accurate in psychological details. Not a trace remains of irony and ridicule.

Or another example. A. S. Pushkin’s story “The Snowstorm” is the story of two novels by the heroine, Marya Gavrilovna. But the internal theme of this work is much deeper than the plot intrigue. If we carefully read the text, we will feel that the point is not that Marya Gavrilovna “accidentally” fell in love with the person with whom she was “accidentally” and mistakenly married. The fact is that her first love is completely different from her second. In the first case, we clearly feel the author’s gentle irony; the heroine is naive and romantic. Then the style pattern changes. Before us is an adult, interesting woman, which very well distinguishes “book” love from real love. And Pushkin very precisely draws the line separating these two worlds: “It was in 1812.” If we compare all these facts, we will understand that Pushkin was not concerned Funny case, not an irony of fate, although this is also important. But the main thing for the mature Pushkin was the analysis of “growing up”, the fate of romantic consciousness. Such precise dating is not accidental. The year 1812 - the war with Napoleon - dispelled many romantic illusions. The heroine’s private fate turns out to be significant for Russia as a whole. This is precisely the most important internal theme of “Blizzard”.

At sixth In thematic analysis, it is fundamentally important to pay attention to how different motives relate to each other. Let us recall, for example, A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Anchar”. In this poem, three fragments are clearly visible: two approximately equal in volume, one much smaller. The first fragment is a description of the terrible tree of death; the second is a small plot, a story about how the ruler sent a slave to get poison to certain death. This story actually ends with the words “And the poor slave died at the feet / of the Invincible Lord.” But the poem does not end there. Last stanza:

And the prince fed that poison

Your obedient arrows

And with them he sent death

To neighbors in alien borders, -

it's already new fragment. The internal theme - the verdict on tyranny - receives a new round of development here. The tyrant kills one to kill many. Like the anchar, he is doomed to carry death within himself. The thematic fragments were not chosen by chance; the last stanza confirms the legitimacy of the pairing of the two main thematic fragments. Analysis of the options shows that Pushkin chose his words most carefully at the borders fragments. It took a long time to find the words “But a man / Sent a man to the anchar with an imperious gaze.” This is not accidental, since this is where the thematic support of the text lies.

Among other things, thematic analysis involves studying the logic of the plot, the correlation of different elements of the text, etc. In general, we repeat, the entire text represents the unity of external and internal themes. We paid attention only to some components that an inexperienced philologist often does not update.

For an analysis of the titles of literary works, see, for example. in: Lamzina A.V. Title // Introduction to Literary Studies / Ed. L. V. Chernets. M., 2000.

Kholshevnikov V. E. Analysis of the composition of a lyric poem // Analysis of one poem. L., 1985. pp. 8–10.

Lermontov Encyclopedia. M., 1981. P. 330.

Zholkovsky A.K., Shcheglov Yu.K. To the concepts of “theme” and “ poetic world» // Scientific notes of Tartu State. un-ta. Vol. 365. Tartu, 1975.

See, for example: Timofeev L.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. M., 1963. pp. 343–346.

The concept of the idea of ​​a literary text

Another basic concept of literary criticism is idea artistic text. The delimitation of the topic of an idea is very conditional. For example, L.I. Timofeev preferred to talk about the ideological and thematic basis of the work, without highlighting the differences too much. In O.I. Fedotov’s textbook, the idea is understood as an expression of the author’s tendency; in fact, we are talking only about the author’s attitude towards the characters and the world. “An artistic idea,” writes the scientist, “is subjective by definition.” In the authoritative textbook on literary criticism edited by L. V. Chernets, built on the dictionary principle, there was no place at all for the term “idea”. This term is not updated in the voluminous anthology compiled by N.D. Tamarchenko. Even more wary is the attitude towards the term “artistic idea” in Western criticism of the second half of the twentieth century. The tradition of a very authoritative school was reflected here “ new criticism"(T. Eliot, K. Brooks, R. Warren, etc.), whose representatives sharply opposed any analysis of the “idea,” considering it one of the most dangerous “heresies” of literary criticism. They even introduced the term “heresy of communication”, implying a search for any social or ethical ideas in the text.

Thus, the attitude towards the term “idea”, as we see, is ambiguous. At the same time, attempts to “remove” this term from the vocabulary of literary scholars seem not only incorrect, but also naive. Talking about an idea involves interpretation figurative meaning works, and the overwhelming majority of literary masterpieces are imbued with meanings. That is why works of art continue to excite the viewer and reader. And no loud statements by some scientists will change anything here.

Another thing is that one should not absolutize the analysis of an artistic idea. There is always a danger here of “breaking away” from the text, of leading the conversation into the mainstream of pure sociology or morality.

This is exactly what literary criticism of the Soviet period was guilty of; hence, gross errors arose in the assessments of this or that artist, since the meaning of the work was constantly “checked” with the norms of Soviet ideology. Hence the accusations of lack of ideas addressed to outstanding figures of Russian culture (Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva, Shostakovich, etc.), hence the attempts, naive from a modern point of view, to classify the types of artistic ideas (“idea - question”, “idea - answer”, “false” idea”, etc.). This is also reflected in the teaching aids. In particular, L.I. Timofeev, although he talks about the conventions of classification, still specifically singles out even “an idea is a mistake,” which is completely unacceptable from the point of view of literary ethics. An idea, we repeat, is the figurative meaning of a work, and as such it can be neither “correct” nor “wrong.” Another thing is that this may not suit the interpreter, but personal assessment cannot be transferred to the meaning of the work. History teaches us that the assessments of interpreters are very flexible: if, say, we trust the assessments of many of the first critics of “A Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov (S. A. Burachok, S. P. Shevyrev, N. A. Polevoy, etc. ), then their interpretations of the idea of ​​Lermontov’s masterpiece will seem, to put it mildly, strange. However, now only a narrow circle of specialists remembers such assessments, while the semantic depth of Lermontov’s novel is beyond doubt.

Something similar can be said about L. N. Tolstoy’s famous novel “Anna Karenina,” which many critics hastened to disavow as “ideologically alien” or not deep enough. Today it is obvious that the critics were not deep enough, but everything is in order with Tolstoy’s novel.

Such examples can go on and on. Analyzing this paradox of contemporaries’ lack of understanding of the semantic depth of many masterpieces, the famous literary critic L. Ya. Ginzburg perspicaciously noted that the meanings of masterpieces correlate with “modernity on a different scale,” which a critic not endowed with brilliant thinking cannot accommodate. That is why the evaluation criteria of an idea are not only incorrect, but also dangerous.

However, all this, we repeat, should not discredit the very concept of the idea of ​​a work and interest in this side of literature.

It should be remembered that an artistic idea is a very comprehensive concept and we can talk about at least several of its facets.

Firstly, this author's idea, that is, those meanings that the author himself more or less consciously intended to embody. An idea is not always expressed by a writer or poet logically, the author embodies it differently - in the language of a work of art. Moreover, writers often protest (I. Goethe, L. N. Tolstoy, O. Wilde, M. Tsvetaeva - just a few names) when they are asked to formulate the idea of ​​a created work. This is understandable, because, let us repeat O. Wilde’s remark, “the sculptor thinks with marble,” that is, he does not have an idea “torn off” from the stone. Similarly, a composer thinks in sounds, a poet in verses, etc.

This thesis is very popular among both artists and specialists, but at the same time there is an element of unconscious deceit in it. The fact is that the artist almost always reflects in one way or another both on the concept of the work and on the already written text. The same I. Goethe repeatedly commented on his “Faust,” and L. N. Tolstoy was even inclined to “clarify” the meanings of his own works. It is enough to recall the second part of the epilogue and afterword to “War and Peace”, the afterword to “The Kreutzer Sonata”, etc. In addition, there are diaries, letters, memoirs of contemporaries, drafts - that is, a literary scholar has at his disposal quite extensive material that directly or indirectly affects problem of the author's idea.

Confirming the author's idea by analyzing the literary text itself (with the exception of comparing options) is a much more difficult task. The fact is that, firstly, in the text it is difficult to distinguish the position of the real author from the image that is created in this work (in modern terminology, it is often called implicit author). But even direct assessments of the real and implicit author may not coincide. Secondly, in general, the idea of ​​the text, as will be shown below, does not copy the author’s idea - the text “says out” something that the author might not have had in mind. Thirdly, the text is a complex formation that allows various interpretations. This volume of meaning is inherent in the very nature of the artistic image (remember: an artistic image is a sign with an incremental meaning, it is paradoxical and resists unambiguous understanding). Therefore, each time we must keep in mind that the author, when creating a certain image, could have intended meanings that were completely different from those that the interpreter saw.

This does not mean that talking about the author’s idea in relation to the text itself is impossible or incorrect. It all depends on the subtlety of the analysis and the tact of the researcher. Parallels with other works of this author, a finely selected system of indirect evidence, the definition of a system of contexts, etc. are convincing. In addition, it is important to consider what facts of real life the author chooses to create his work. Often this very choice of facts can become a powerful argument in a conversation about the author's idea. It is clear, for example, that from countless facts civil war writers who sympathize with the Reds will choose one thing, and writers who sympathize with the Whites will choose another. Here, however, we must remember that a major writer, as a rule, avoids a one-dimensional and linear factual series, that is, the facts of life are not an “illustration” of his idea. For example, in M. A. Sholokhov’s novel “Quiet Don” there are scenes that sympathize Soviet power and the communists, it would seem, the writer should have omitted. Let's say, one of Sholokhov's favorite heroes, communist Podtelkov, chops down white prisoners in one of the scenes, which shocks even the seasoned Grigory Melekhov. At one time, critics strongly advised Sholokhov to remove this scene, it did not fit so well into the linear understood idea. Sholokhov at one point listened to this advice, but then, against all odds, he reintroduced it into the text of the novel, because volumetric the author's idea without it would be flawed. The writer's talent resisted such notes.

But in general, analysis of the logic of facts is a very effective argument in a conversation about the author’s idea.

The second facet of the meaning of the term “artistic idea” is text idea. This is one of the most mysterious categories of literary criticism. The problem is that the idea of ​​the text almost never completely coincides with the author’s. In some cases these coincidences are striking. The famous “La Marseillaise,” which became the anthem of France, was written as a regimental marching song by officer Rouget de Lille without any pretensions to artistic depth. Neither before nor after his masterpiece, Rouget de Lisle created anything like it.

Leo Tolstoy, when creating Anna Karenina, had one thing in mind, but it turned out something else.

This difference will be even more clearly visible if we imagine that some mediocre graphomaniac tries to write a novel full of deep meanings. In a real text, not a trace of the author’s idea will remain; the idea of ​​the text will turn out to be primitive and flat, no matter how much the author wishes otherwise.

We see this same discrepancy, albeit with other signs, in geniuses. Another thing is that in this case the idea of ​​the text will be incomparably richer than the author’s. This is the secret of talent. Many meanings important to the author will be lost, but the depth of the work will not suffer from this. Shakespeare scholars, for example, teach us that the brilliant playwright often wrote “on the topic of the day”; his works are full of allusions to real political events in England in the 16th – 17th centuries. All this semantic “secret writing” was important for Shakespeare, it is even possible that it was these ideas that provoked him to create some tragedies (most often in this regard, “Richard III” is remembered). However, all the nuances are known only to Shakespeare scholars, and even then with great reservations. But the idea of ​​the text does not suffer at all from this. In the semantic palette of the text there is always something that is not subordinate to the author, something that he did not mean and did not think about.

That is why the point of view, which we have already discussed, seems incorrect - that the idea of ​​the text exclusively subjective, that is, always connected with the author.

Moreover, the idea of ​​the text connected with the reader. It can only be felt and detected by the perceiving consciousness. But life shows that readers often actualize different meanings and see different things in the same text. As they say, as many readers as there are Hamlets. It turns out that you can’t completely trust either the author’s intention (what he wanted to say) or the reader (what he felt and understood). Then does it even make sense to talk about the idea of ​​the text?

Many modern literary scholars(J. Derrida, Y. Kristeva, P. de Mann, J. Miller, etc.) insist on the fallacy of the thesis about any semantic unity of the text. In their opinion, meanings are reconstructed every time a new reader encounters a text. All this is reminiscent of a children's kaleidoscope with an infinite number of patterns: everyone will see their own, and it is pointless to say which of the meanings is In fact and which perception is more accurate.

This approach would be convincing if not for one “but”. After all, if there is no objective semantic depth of the text, then all the texts will turn out to be fundamentally equal: the helpless rhymer and the brilliant Blok, the naive text of a schoolgirl and Akhmatova’s masterpiece - all this is absolutely the same, as they say, whoever likes what. The most consistent scientists of this direction (J. Derrida) precisely draw the conclusion about the fundamental equality of all written texts.

In fact, this neutralizes talent and crosses out the entire world culture, because it was built by masters and geniuses. Therefore, this approach, although seemingly logical, is fraught with serious dangers.

Obviously, it is more correct to assume that the idea of ​​the text is not fiction, that it exists, but does not exist in a once and for all frozen form, but in the form of a meaning-generating matrix: meanings are born whenever the reader encounters the text, but this is not a kaleidoscope at all, here there are their own boundaries, their own vectors of understanding. The question of what is constant and what is variable in this process is still very far from being resolved.

It is clear that the idea perceived by the reader is most often not identical to the author’s. In the strict sense of the word, there is never a complete coincidence; we can only talk about the depth of discrepancies. The history of literature knows many examples when the reading of even a qualified reader turns out to be a complete surprise for the author. Suffice it to recall the violent reaction of I. S. Turgenev to N. A. Dobrolyubov’s article “When will the real day come?” The critic saw in Turgenev’s novel “On the Eve” a call for the liberation of Russia “from the internal enemy,” while I. S. Turgenev conceived the novel about something completely different. The matter, as we know, ended in a scandal and Turgenev’s break with the editors of Sovremennik, where the article was published. Let us note that N.A. Dobrolyubov rated the novel very highly, that is, we cannot talk about personal grievances. Turgenev was outraged by the inadequacy of the reading. In general, as studies of recent decades show, any literary text contains not only a hidden author’s position, but also a hidden intended reader’s position (in literary terminology this is called implicit, or abstract, reader). This is a certain ideal reader for whom the text is built. In the case of Turgenev and Dobrolyubov, the discrepancies between the implicit and real readers turned out to be colossal.

In connection with all that has been said, we can finally raise the question of objective idea works. The legitimacy of such a question was already justified when we talked about the idea of ​​the text. The problem is, What considered an objective idea. Apparently, we have no other choice but to recognize as an objective idea some conditional vector quantity, which consists of an analysis of the author’s idea and the set of perceived ones. Simply put, we must know the author's intention, the history of interpretation, of which our own is a part, and on this basis find some of the most important points of intersection that guarantee against arbitrariness.

Right there. pp. 135–136.

Fedotov O.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. Part 1, M., 2003. P. 47.

Timofeev L.I. Decree. op. P. 139.

See: Ginzburg L. Ya. Literature in search of reality. L., 1987.

This thesis is especially popular among representatives of the scientific school called “receptive aesthetics” (F. Vodicka, J. Mukarzhovsky, R. Ingarden, especially H.R. Jauss and V. Iser). These authors proceed from the fact that a literary work receives its final existence only in the reader’s consciousness, therefore it is impossible to take the reader “out of brackets” when analyzing the text. One of the basic terms of receptive aesthetics is "expectation horizon"– is precisely intended to structure these relationships.

Introduction to Literary Studies / Ed. G. N. Pospelova. M., 1976. P. 7–117.

Volkov I.F. Theory of Literature. M., 1995. pp. 60–66.

Zhirmunsky V. M. Theory of Literature. Poetics. Stylistics. L., 1977. S. 27, 30–31.

Zholkovsky A.K., Shcheglov Yu.K. On the concepts of “theme” and “poetic world” // Scientific notes of the Tartu State University. un-ta. Vol. 365. Tartu, 1975.

Lamzina A.V. Title // Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work / Ed. L. V. Chernets. M., 2000.

Maslovsky V.I. Topic // Brief literary encyclopedia: In 9 vols. T. 7, M., 1972. pp. 460–461.

Maslovsky V.I. Topic // Literary encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1987. P. 437.

Pospelov G.N. Artistic idea // Literary encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1987. P. 114.

Revyakin A.I. Problems of studying and teaching literature. M., 1972. P. 100–118.

Theoretical poetics: concepts and definitions. Reader for students of philological faculties / author-compiler N. D. Tamarchenko. M., 1999. (Topics 5, 15.)

Timofeev L.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. M., 1963. pp. 135–141.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 2002. pp. 176–179.

Fedotov O.I. Fundamentals of the theory of literature. M., 2003. pp. 41–56.

Khalizev V. E. Theory of Literature. M., 1999. pp. 40–53.

1. Topic, themes, problems of the work.

2. Ideological plan works.

3. Pathos and its varieties.

Bibliography

1. Introduction to literary criticism: textbook / ed. L.M. Krupchanov. – M., 2005.

2. Borev Yu.B. Aesthetics. Theory of literature: encyclopedic dictionary of terms. – M., 2003.

3. Dal V.I. Dictionary of the living Great Russian language: in 4 volumes - M., 1994. - T.4.

4. Esin A.B.

5. Literary encyclopedic dictionary / ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaeva. – M., 1987.

6. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts / ed. A.N. Nikolyukina. – M., 2003.

7. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. – 4th ed. – M., 1989.

Literary scholars rightly argue that what gives a literary work its holistic character is not the hero, but the unity of the problem posed in it, the unity of the idea being revealed. Thus, in order to delve deeper into the content of the work, it is necessary to determine its components: topic and idea.

"Subject ( Greek. thema), - according to V. Dahl’s definition, - a proposal, position, task that is being discussed or explained.”

The authors of the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary give the topic a slightly different definition: “The topic [what is the basis] is 1) the subject of description, image, research, conversation, etc.; 2) in art, an object of artistic depiction, a range of life phenomena depicted by a writer, artist or composer and held together by the author’s intention.”

In the “Dictionary of Literary Terms” we find the following definition: “Theme is what is the basis of a literary work, the main problem posed in it by the writer.” .

In the textbook “Introduction to Literary Studies,” ed. G.N. Pospelov's theme is interpreted as an object of knowledge.

A.M. Gorky defines a theme as an idea, “which originated in the author’s experience, is suggested to him by life, but nests in the receptacle of his impressions still unformed and, demanding embodiment in images, arouses in him the urge to work on its design.”

As you can see, the above definitions of the topic are diverse and contradictory. The only statement with which we can agree without reservation is that the theme is truly the objective basis of any work of art. We have already talked above about how the process of birth and development of a theme occurs, how a writer studies reality and selects life phenomena, what is the role of the writer’s worldview in the selection and development of a theme ( see lecture “Literature - special kind artistic activity of man").

However, the statements of literary scholars that the theme is a circle of life phenomena depicted by the writer, in our opinion, are not comprehensive enough, since there are differences between the life material (the object of the image) and the theme (subject matter) of the work of art. The subject of depiction in works of fiction can be a variety of phenomena of human life, the life of nature, animals and flora, and material culture(buildings, settings, views of cities, etc.). Sometimes they are even depicted fantastic creatures– talking and thinking animals and plants, various kinds of spirits, gods, giants, monsters, etc. But this is by no means the topic of a literary work. Images of animals, plants, and views of nature often have an allegorical and auxiliary meaning in a work of art. They either represent people, as happens in fables, or are created to express human experiences (in lyrical images of nature). Even more often, natural phenomena with its flora and fauna are depicted as the environment in which human life with its social character takes place.

When defining a theme as vital material taken for depiction by a writer, we must reduce its study to the analysis of the depicted objects, and not characteristic features human life in its social essence.

Following A.B. Yesin, under topic literary work we will understand " object of artistic reflection , those life characters and situations (relationships of characters, as well as human interaction with society as a whole, with nature, everyday life, etc.), which seem to pass from reality into a work of art and form the objective side of its content ».

The theme of a literary work covers everything depicted in it and therefore can be comprehended with the necessary completeness only on the basis of penetration into all the ideological and artistic richness of this work. For example, to determine the theme of the work by K.G. Abramov "Purgaz" ( unification of the Mordovian people, fragmented into many often warring clans at the end of the 12th - early XIII centuries, contributing to the salvation of the nation, the preservation of its spiritual values), it is necessary to take into account and comprehend the multilateral development of this topic by the author. K. Abramov also shows how the character of the main character was formed: the influence of everyday life and national traditions the Mordovian people, as well as the Volga Bulgars, among whom, by the will of fate and his own desire, he had the opportunity to live for 3 years, and how he became the head of the clan, how he fought with the Vladimir princes and the Mongols for domination in the western part of the Middle Volga region, what efforts he made to ensure that the Mordovian people became united.

In the process of analyzing the topic, it is necessary, according to the authoritative opinion of A.B. Yesin, firstly, to distinguish between reflection object(topic) and image object(the specific situation depicted); secondly, it is necessary distinguish between concrete historical and eternal themes. Specific historical themes are characters and circumstances born and conditioned by a certain socio-historical situation in a particular country; they are not repeated beyond a given time, they are more or less localized (for example, the theme “ extra person"in Russian literature of the 19th century). When analyzing a specific historical topic, one must see not only the socio-historical, but also the psychological certainty of character, since comprehension of character traits helps to correctly understand the unfolding plot and the motivation for its twists and turns. Eternals themes record recurring moments in the history of various national societies; they are repeated in life in different modifications different generations, in different historical eras. These are, for example, the themes of love and friendship, life and death, relationships between generations and others.

Due to the fact that the topic requires various aspects of consideration, along with its general concept, the concept is also used topics, i.e. those lines of development of the theme that are outlined by the writer and constitute its complex integrity. Close attention to the variety of themes is especially necessary when analyzing large works that contain not one, but many themes. In these cases, it is advisable to highlight one or two main themes associated with the image of the central character, or a number of characters, and consider the rest as secondary ones.

When analyzing the content of a literary work, the definition of its problematics is of great importance. In literary criticism, the problematics of a literary work are usually understood as the area of ​​comprehension, the writer’s understanding of the reflected reality: « Issues (Greek. problema – something thrown forward, i.e. isolated from other aspects of life) – this is the writer’s ideological understanding of the social characters that he depicted in the work. This comprehension consists in the fact that the writer highlights and strengthens those properties, aspects, relationships of the characters depicted, which he, based on his ideological worldview, considers the most significant.”

In works of art that are large in volume, writers, as a rule, pose a variety of problems: social, moral, political, philosophical, etc. It depends on what aspects of the characters and what contradictions of life the writer focuses on.

For example, K. Abramov in the novel “Purgaz”, through the image of the main character, understands the policy of uniting the Mordovian people, scattered into numerous clans, however, the disclosure of this problem (socio-political) is quite closely connected with the moral problem (refusal of the woman he loved, the order to kill Tengush , one of the leaders of the clan, etc.). Therefore, when analyzing a work of art, it is important to understand not only the main problem, but also the entire problem as a whole, to identify how deep and significant it is, how serious and significant are the contradictions of reality that the writer depicted.

One cannot but agree with the statement of A.B. Esin that the problems contain the author’s unique view of the world. Unlike the topic, the problematic is the subjective side artistic content, therefore, the author’s individuality, “the author’s original moral attitude to the subject,” is maximally manifested in it. Often different writers create works on the same topic, however, there are no two major writers whose works would coincide in their problematics. The originality of the issue is a kind of calling card of the writer.

For practical analysis of the problem, it is important to identify the originality of the work, comparing it with others, to understand what makes it unique and unique. For this purpose, it is necessary to establish in the work under study type problems.

The main types of problems in Russian literary criticism were identified by G.N. Pospelov. Based on the classification of G.N. Pospelov taking into account modern level development of literary criticism A.B. Esin proposed his own classification. He singled out mythological, national, novel, sociocultural, philosophical problems. In our opinion, it makes sense to highlight the issues moral .

Writers not only pose certain problems, they look for ways to solve them, relate what they depict to social ideals. Therefore, the theme of a work is always connected with its idea.

N.G. Chernyshevsky, in his treatise “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality,” speaking about the tasks of art, asserts that works of art “reproduce life, explain life and pass judgment on it.” It is difficult to disagree with this, since works of fiction always express the ideological and emotional attitude of writers to the social characters they depict. The ideological and emotional assessment of the characters depicted is the most active aspect of the content of the work.

"Idea (Greek. idea – idea, prototype, ideal) in literature - an expression of the author’s attitude towards what is depicted, the correlation of this image with the ideals of life and man affirmed by writers“, - this definition is given in the “Dictionary of Literary Terms”. We find a somewhat refined version of the definition of an idea in the textbook by G.N. Pospelova: “ The idea of ​​a literary work is the unity of all aspects of its content; this is a figurative, emotional, generalizing thought of the writer, manifested in choice, and in comprehension, and in the assessment of characters ».

When analyzing a work of art, identifying an idea is very important and significant for the reason that the idea is progressive, corresponding to the course of history, trends social development, is a necessary quality of all truly artistic works. Understanding the main idea of ​​a work should follow from an analysis of its entire ideological content(the author's assessment of events and characters, the author's ideal, pathos). Only under this condition can we correctly judge him, his strength and weakness, the nature and roots of the contradictions in him.

If we talk about K. Abramov’s novel “Purgaz”, then the main idea that the author expresses can be formulated as follows: the strength of the people lies in their unity. Only by uniting all the Mordovian clans, Purgaz, as a talented leader, was able to resist the Mongols and liberate the Mordovian land from the conquerors.

We have already noted that the themes and issues of artistic works must meet the requirements of depth, relevance and significance. The idea, in turn, must meet the criteria of historical truthfulness and objectivity. It is important for the reader that the writer expresses such an ideological and emotional understanding of the depicted characters, which these characters are truly worthy of in terms of the objective, essential properties of their lives, in terms of their place and significance in national life in general, in the prospects for its development. Works that contain a historically true assessment of the phenomena and characters depicted are progressive in their content.

The primary source of artistic ideas in reality, according to I.F. Volkov, are “only those ideas that entered the artist’s flesh and blood, became the meaning of his existence, his ideological and emotional attitude to life.” V.G. Belinsky called such ideas pathos . “A poetic idea,” he wrote, “is not a syllogism, not a dogma, not a rule, it is a living passion, it is pathos.” Belinsky borrowed the very concept of pathos from Hegel, who in his lectures on aesthetics used the word “pathos” to mean ( Greek. pathos - a strong, passionate feeling) the artist’s high enthusiasm for comprehending the essence of the life depicted, its “truth”.

E. Aksenova defines pathos this way: “Pathos is an emotional animation, a passion that permeates a work (or its parts) and gives it a single breath - what can be called the soul of a work. In pathos, the artist’s feeling and thought form a single whole; it contains the key to the idea of ​​the work. Pathos is not always and not necessarily a pronounced emotion; This is where it shows up most clearly creative individuality artist. Along with the authenticity of feelings and thoughts pathos imparts liveliness and artistic persuasiveness to a work and is a condition for its emotional impact on the reader " Pathos is created artistic means: depiction of characters, their actions, experiences, events of their lives, the entire figurative structure of the work.

Thus, pathos is the writer’s emotional and evaluative attitude towards the person depicted, characterized by great strength of feelings .

In literary criticism, the following main types of pathos are distinguished: heroic, dramatic, tragic, sentimental, romantic, humorous, satirical.

Heroic pathos affirms the greatness of the feat of an individual and an entire team, its enormous significance for the development of a people, a nation, and humanity. Figuratively revealing the main qualities heroic characters, admiring them and praising them, the artist of words creates works imbued with heroic pathos (Homer “Iliad”, Shelley “Prometheus Unchained”, A. Pushkin “Poltava”, M. Lermontov “Borodino”, A. Tvardovsky “Vasily Terkin”; M Saigin “Hurricane”, I. Antonov “In a United Family”).

Dramatic pathos characteristic of works that depict dramatic situations, arising under the influence of external forces and circumstances that threaten the desires and aspirations of the characters, and sometimes their lives. Drama in works of art can be both ideologically affirming pathos, when the writer deeply sympathizes with the characters (“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”), and ideologically negating, if the writer condemns the characters of his characters in the drama of their situation (Aeschylus “Persians”).

Quite often, the drama of situations and experiences arises during military clashes between nations, and this is reflected in works of fiction: E. Hemingway “A Farewell to Arms”, E.M. Remarque “A Time to Live and a Time to Die”, G. Fallada “Wolf Among Wolves”; A. Bek “Volokolamsk Highway”, K. Simonov “The Living and the Dead”; P. Prokhorov “We ​​Stood” and others.

Often, writers in their works depict the drama of the situation and experiences of characters that arises due to social inequality of people (“Père Goriot” by O. Balzac, “The Humiliated and Insulted” by F. Dostoevsky, “The Dowry” by A. Ostrovsky, “Tashto Koise” (“ According to old customs") K. Petrova and others.

Often the influence of external circumstances gives rise to internal contradiction in a person’s mind, a struggle with himself. In this case, the drama deepens to the point of tragedy.

Tragic pathos its roots are associated with the tragic nature of the conflict in a literary work, due to the fundamental impossibility of resolving existing contradictions, and is most often present in the genre of tragedy. Reproducing tragic conflicts, writers depict the painful experiences of their heroes, difficult events in their lives, thereby revealing the tragic contradictions of life, which have a socio-historical or universal character (W. Shakespeare “Hamlet”, A. Pushkin “Boris Godunov”, L. Leonov “Invasion”, Y. Pinyasov “Erek ver” (“Living Blood”).

Satirical pathos. Satirical pathos is characterized by the denial of negative aspects public life and character traits of people. The tendency of writers to notice the comic in life and reproduce it on the pages of their works is determined primarily by the properties of their innate talent, as well as by the peculiarities of their worldview. Most often, writers pay attention to the discrepancy between people's claims and real capabilities, which results in the development of comical life situations.

Satire helps to understand the important aspects of human relationships, gives orientation in life, and frees us from false and outdated authorities. In world and Russian literature there are a lot of talented, highly artistic works with satirical pathos, including: the comedies of Aristophanes, “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by F. Rabelais, “Gulliver’s Travels” by J. Swift; “Nevsky Prospekt” by N. Gogol, “The History of a City” by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, “ dog's heart"M. Bulgakov). In Mordovian literature to some extent significant work with clearly expressed satirical pathos has not yet been created. Satirical pathos is characteristic primarily of the fable genre (I. Shumilkin, M. Beban, etc.).

Humorous pathos. Humor emerged as a special type of pathos only in the era of romanticism. As a result of false self-esteem, people not only in public, but also in everyday and family life can discover internal contradictions between who they really are and who they pretend to be. These people pretend to be important, which they actually do not have. Such a contradiction is comical and evokes a mocking attitude, mixed more with pity and sadness than with indignation. Humor is laughter at the relatively harmless comic contradictions of life. A striking example of a work with humorous pathos is the story “Posthumous Notes Pickwick Club» Charles Dickens; “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” by N. Gogol; “Lavginov” by V. Kolomasov, “An agronomist came to the collective farm” (“An agronomist came to the collective farm” by Yu. Kuznetsov).

Sentimental pathos characteristic primarily of sentimental works, created in the 18th century, characterized by exaggerated attention to the feelings and experiences of the heroes, depiction of the moral virtues of socially humiliated people, their superiority over the immorality of a privileged environment. As bright examples the works “Julia, or the new Heloise” by J.J. Rousseau, "Suffering" young Werther» I.V. Goethe, " Poor Lisa» N.M. Karamzin.

Romantic pathos conveys the spiritual enthusiasm that arises as a result of identifying a certain sublime principle and the desire to identify its features. Examples include the poems of D.G. Byron, poems and ballads by V. Zhukovsky and others. In Mordovian literature, works with clearly expressed sentimental and romantic pathos are absent, which is largely due to the time of the emergence and development of written literature (the second half of the 19th century).

CONTROL QUESTIONS:

1. What definitions of theme take place in literary criticism? Which definition do you think is most accurate and why?

2. What are the problems of a literary work?

3. What types of problems do literary scholars distinguish?

4. Why is problem identification considered important stage in the analysis of works?

5. What is the idea of ​​a work? How is it related to the concept of pathos?

6. What types of pathos are most often found in works native literature?

Lecture 7

PLOT

1. The concept of plot.

2. Conflict as the driving force of plot development.

3. Plot elements.

4. Plot and plot.

Bibliography

1) Abramovich G.L. Introduction to literary criticism. – 7th ed. – M., 1979.

2) Gorky A.M.. Conversations with young people (any publication).

3) Dobin E.S. Plot and reality. The art of detail. – L., 1981.

4) Introduction to literary criticism / ed. G.N. Pospelov. – M., 1988.

5) Esin A.B. Principles and techniques of analyzing a literary work. – 4th ed. – M., 2002.

6) Kovalenko A.G.. Artistic conflict in Russian literature. – M., 1996.

7) Kozhinov V.V.. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of literature: Main problems in historical coverage: in 2 books. – M., 1964. – Book 2.

8) Literary encyclopedic dictionary / ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev. – M., 1987.

9) Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts / ed. A.N. Nikolyukina. – M., 2003.

10) Shklovsky V.B.. Energy of delusion. Book about the plot // Favorites: in 2 volumes - M., 1983. - Volume 2.

11) Brief literary encyclopedia: in 9 t/hl. ed. A.A. Surkov. – M., 1972. – T.7.

It is well known that a work of art is a complex whole. The writer shows how this or that character grows and develops, what are his connections and relationships with other people. This development of character, the history of growth, is shown in a series of events, which, as a rule, reflect the life situation. Direct relationships between people presented in a work, shown in a certain chain of events, in literary criticism are usually designated by the term plot.

It should be noted that the understanding of plot as the course of events has a long tradition in Russian literary criticism. It developed back in the 19th century. This is evidenced by the work of the outstanding literary critic, representative of the comparative-historical school in Russian literary criticism of the 19th century A.N. Veselovsky "Poetics of Plots".

The problem of plot has occupied researchers since Aristotle. Much attention G. Hegel also paid attention to this problem. Despite such long history, the problem of the plot remains largely debatable to this day. For example, there is still no clear distinction between the concepts of plot and plot. In addition, the definitions of plot found in textbooks and teaching aids on literary theory are different and quite contradictory. For example, L.I. Timofeev considers the plot as one of the forms of composition: “Composition is inherent in every literary work, since we will always have in it one or another relationship of its parts, reflecting the complexity of the life phenomena depicted in it. But not in every work we will deal with a plot, i.e. with the revelation of characters through events in which the properties of these characters are revealed... One should reject the widespread and erroneous idea of ​​plot only as a distinct, fascinating system of events, due to which they often talk about the “non-plot” of certain works in which there is no such clarity and fascination of the system of events (actions). Here we are not talking about the absence of a plot, but about its poor organization, ambiguity, etc.

The plot in a work is always present when we are dealing with certain actions of people, with certain events that happen to them. By connecting the plot with the characters, we thereby determine its content, its conditionality by the reality that the writer is aware of.

Thus, we approach both composition and plot as a means of revealing, discovering a given character.

But in a number of cases, the general content of the work does not fit into the plot alone and cannot be revealed only in the system of events; hence - along with the plot - we will have extra-plot elements in the work; the composition of the work will then be broader than the plot and will begin to manifest itself in other forms.”

V.B. Shklovsky considers the plot as a “means of understanding reality”; in the interpretation of E.S. Dobin, the plot is a “concept of reality.”

M. Gorky defined the plot as “connections, contradictions, sympathies, antipathies and, in general, relationships between people - stories of growth and organization of one or another character, type.” This judgment, like the previous ones, in our opinion, is not accurate, because in many works, especially dramatic ones, characters are depicted outside the development of their characters.

Following A.I. Revyakin, we tend to adhere to this definition of the plot: « A plot is an event (or system of events) selected in the process of studying life, realized and embodied in a work of art, in which the conflict and characters in certain conditions social environment».

G.N. Pospelov notes that literary subjects are created in different ways. Most often, they fairly fully and reliably reproduce real life events. These are, firstly, works based on historical events (« Early years King Henry IV" by G. Mann, "The Damned Kings" by M. Druon; “Peter I” by A. Tolstoy, “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy; “Polovt” by M. Bryzhinsky, “Purgaz” by K. Abramov); Secondly, autobiographical stories(L. Tolstoy, M. Gorky); Thirdly, known to the writer life facts. The events depicted are sometimes completely the writer’s fiction, a figment of the author’s imagination (“Gulliver’s Travels” by J. Swift, “The Nose” by N. Gogol).

There is also such a source of plot creativity as borrowing, when writers widely rely on already known literary plots, processing and supplementing them in their own way. In this case, folklore, mythological, ancient, biblical, etc. subjects are used.

The main driving force of any plot is conflict, contradiction, struggle or, according to Hegel's definition, collision. The conflicts underlying works can be very diverse, but they, as a rule, have general significance and reflect certain life patterns. Conflicts are distinguished: 1) external and internal; 2) local and substantial; 3) dramatic, tragic and comic.

Conflict external – between individual characters and groups of characters – is considered to be the simplest. There are many examples of this type of conflict in the literature: A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, A.S. Pushkin “The Miserly Knight”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The History of a City”, V.M. Kolomasov "Lavginov" and others. A more complex conflict is considered to be one that embodies the confrontation between the hero and the way of life, the individual and the environment (social, everyday, cultural). The difference from the first type of conflict is that the hero here is not opposed by anyone in particular; he has no opponent with whom he could fight, who could be defeated, thereby resolving the conflict (Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”).

Conflict interior - a psychological conflict, when the hero is not at peace with himself, when he carries certain contradictions within himself, sometimes contains incompatible principles (Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”, Tolstoy “Anna Karenina”, etc.).

Sometimes in a work one can simultaneously detect both of these types of conflict, both external and internal (A. Ostrovsky “The Thunderstorm”).

Local(resolvable) conflict presupposes the fundamental possibility of resolution through active actions (Pushkin “Gypsies”, etc.).

Substantial(unresolvable) conflict depicts a persistently conflicted existence, and real practical actions capable of resolving this conflict are unthinkable (Shakespeare's Hamlet, Chekhov's The Bishop, etc.).

Tragic, dramatic and comic conflicts are inherent dramatic works with the same genre names. (For more information about the types of conflicts, see the book A.G. Kovalenko “Artistic conflict in Russian literature”, M., 1996).

Disclosure of a socially significant conflict in the plot contributes to the understanding of trends and patterns of social development. In this regard, it is worth noting some points that are essential for understanding the multifaceted role of the plot in the work.

The role of plot in the work of G.L. Abramovich defined it as follows: “First, we must keep in mind that the artist’s penetration into the meaning of the conflict presupposes, as the modern English writer D. Lindsay correctly says, “penetration into the souls of the people who are participants in this struggle.” Hence the great educational significance of the plot.

Secondly, the writer “willy-nilly becomes involved with his mind and heart in the conflicts that make up the content of his work.” Thus, the logic of the development of events by the writer is reflected in his understanding and assessment of the depicted conflict, his social views, which he one way or another conveys to the readers, instilling in them the attitude towards this conflict that is necessary, from his point of view.

Thirdly, every great writer focuses his attention on conflicts that are important for his time and people.”

Thus, the plots of the works of great writers have a deep socio-historical meaning. Therefore, when considering them, it is necessary first of all to determine which one social conflict lies at the heart of the work and from what positions it is depicted.

The plot will only fulfill its purpose when, firstly, it is internally complete, i.e. revealing the causes, nature and development paths of the depicted conflict, and secondly, it will attract the interest of readers and force them to think about the meaning of each episode, each detail in the movement of events.

F.V. Gladkov wrote that there are different gradations of plot: “... one book has a plot calm, there is no intrigue, cleverly tied knots, it is a chronicle of the life of one person or the whole group of people; another book with exciting plot: these are adventure novels, mystery novels, detective novels, criminal novels.” Many literary scholars, following F. Gladkov, distinguish two types of plots: the plot is calm (adynamic) and the plot is sharp(dynamic). Along with the named types of plots, modern literary criticism offers others, for example, chronic and concentric (Pospelov G.N.) and centrifugal and centripetal (Kozhinov V.V.). Chronicles are stories with a predominance of purely temporary connections between events, and concentric - with a predominance of cause-and-effect relationships between events.

Each of these types of plots has its own artistic possibilities. As noted by G.N. Pospelov, the chronicle of the plot is, first of all, a means of recreating reality in the diversity and richness of its manifestations. Chronic plotting allows the writer to master life in space and time with maximum freedom. Therefore, it is widely used in epic works large shape(“Gargantua and Pantagruel” by F. Rabelais, “Don Quixote” by M. Cervantes, “Don Juan” by D. Byron, “Vasily Terkin” by A. Tvardovsky, “Wide Moksha” by T. Kirdyashkin, “Purgaz” by K. Abramov) . Chronicle stories perform different artistic functions: they reveal the decisive actions of the heroes and their various adventures; depict the formation of a person’s personality; serve to master the socio-political antagonisms and everyday life of certain strata of society.

The concentricity of the plot - identifying cause-and-effect relationships between the events depicted - allows the writer to explore one conflict situation and stimulates the compositional completeness of the work. This type of plot structure dominated drama until the 19th century. Among the epic works, one can cite as an example “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Fire” by V. Rasputin, “At the Beginning of the Path” by V. Mishanina.

Chronicle and concentric plots often coexist (“Resurrection” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Three Sisters” by A.P. Chekhov, etc.).

From the point of view of the emergence, development and completion of the life conflict depicted in the work, we can talk about the main elements of plot construction. Literary scholars identify the following plot elements: exposition, plot, development of action, climax, peripeteia, denouement; prologue and epilogue. It should be noted that not all works of fiction that have plot structure, all designated plot elements are present. Prologue and epilogue are found quite rarely, most often in epic works that are large in volume. As for exposition, it is quite often absent from stories and novellas.

Prologue defined as an introduction to a literary work that is not directly related to the developing action, but seems to precede it with a story about the events that preceded it or about their meaning. The prologue is present in I. Goethe’s Faust, “What is to be done?” N. Chernyshevsky, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. Nekrasov, “Snow Maiden” by A. Ostrovsky, “Apple Tree at high road» A. Kutorkina.

Epilogue in literary criticism it is characterized as the final part in a work of art, reporting future fate heroes after those depicted in a novel, poem, drama, etc. events. Epilogues are often found in the dramas of B. Brecht, novels by F. Dostoevsky (“The Brothers Karamazov”, “The Humiliated and Insulted”), L. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”), K. Abramov “Kachamon Pachk” (“Smoke on the Ground” ).

Exposition (lat. expositio - explanation) call the background to the events underlying the work. The exposition sets out the circumstances, preliminarily outlines the characters, characterizes their relationships, i.e. The life of the characters before the start of the conflict (commencement) is depicted.

In the work of P.I. Levchaev’s “Kavonst kudat” (“Two Matchmakers”), the first part is an exposition: she paints life Mordovian village shortly before the first Russian revolution, the conditions in which people's characters were formed.

The exposition is determined by the artistic goals of the work and can be different in nature: direct, detailed, scattered, supplemented throughout the entire work, delayed (see “Dictionary of Literary Terms”).

Tie-up in a work of fiction, it is usually called the beginning of a conflict, the event from which the action begins and thanks to which subsequent events arise. The beginning can be motivated (if there is exposition) or sudden (without exposition).

In P. Levchaev’s story, the plot will be Garay’s return to the village of Anay, his acquaintance with Kirei Mikhailovich.

In subsequent parts of the work, Levchaev shows action development, That course of events that follows from the plot: meeting with his father, with his beloved girl Anna, matchmaking, Garay’s participation in a secret meeting.