Life of Russians in the 17th century. The life of a Russian peasant woman in the 16th–17th centuries
Key dates and events: 1654 - reunification of Ukraine with Russia.
Historical figures: Alexey Mikhailovich; Bohdan Khmelnitsky.
Basic terms and concepts: nationality.
Working with the map: to show the territory of Left Bank Ukraine; the Siberian lands that became part of Russia and the cities and villages founded there.
Response plan: 1) Russia - multinational state; 2) Russian people; 3) Ukrainians; 4) the peoples of the Volga and Urals regions; 5) peoples of the Caucasus; 6) peoples of Siberia; 7) the importance of the formation of a multinational state.
Material for the answer:Total number population of Russia by the end of the 15th century. barely exceeded 10 million people. Most of them were Russians. The resettlement of their main part in the 15th century. covered the center of the European part of the country. At the same time, there has been a significant increase Russian population on the Volga lands annexed under Ivan IV. The tsarist government encouraged resettlement to new territories, granting land to the nobles and not oppressing the migrant peasants.
As explorers developed the Siberian and Far Eastern territories, the Russians began building settlements in eastern regions countries. They exchanged goods with the local population: they exchanged agricultural and livestock products for furs, fish, meat and skins of sea animals; passed on to the local population their experience in cultivating land, building houses, and running a household. At the same time, where the process of colonization of new lands breaks down, Europeans (in in this case- Russians) had an impact on the indigenous people and bad influence. Siberian peoples for the first time experienced the effects of “fire water” (vodka), the deceit and greed of some representatives of the “white king”.
Of the total population of the country, up to 15% (approximately 1.4 million people by the end of the century) were Ukrainians. Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of Russia subject to the preservation of autonomy: Moscow administered these territories through the hetman; traditional administrative-territorial management was preserved; the judicial and financial systems remained independent; army in the amount of 60 thousand. The Cossacks were also led by a hetman. At first, the Moscow Tsar put up with this state of affairs, but he could not and did not want, in the conditions of strengthening his power, to preserve the free spirit of Cossack governance in Ukraine.
After joining Russia, contradictions began to grow within the Ukrainian population itself. Property inequality has increased. The Cossack elders concentrated in their hands not only great wealth, but also power: in short term she managed to obtain a significant part of the crop
burly Ukrainian lands; subjugate the poor peasants; gain control of land adjacent to cities (which caused indignation among the urban population); Even in matters of city government, the new Ukrainian nobility tried to achieve privileges for themselves. All this caused indignation among the poor sections of the rural and urban population. The tsarist government, to which both sides constantly turned for support, tried to maintain neutrality. The question of the subordination of the Ukrainian clergy to the Moscow Patriarch also caused sharp disagreements.
All this led to a fierce political struggle in Ukraine, during which various forces advocated not only the preservation of Moscow citizenship, but also a return to Poland and even a transition “under the arm” of the Turkish Sultan. Only towards the end of the century did this struggle end with the final victory of Moscow’s supporters. By this time, the system of governance of the Hetmanate (the so-called Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev, which were under the rule of the hetman) had finally taken shape. Under the hetman there was an elders' council (council). She allocated her representatives to the main positions - orders. The territory of the Hetmanate was divided into ten regiments, headed by colonels and regimental foreman. Big cities maintained self-government. At the same time, Moscow governors with military garrisons were installed in all Ukrainian cities. And in Moscow, a special Little Russian order was formed, which was in charge of issues of governing Ukraine.
The conquest of the peoples of the Volga region and the Urals was completed by the beginning of the 19th century. At the same time, military-administrative centers arose (Ufa, Sarapul, Samara, etc.), protecting these lands from raids by nomads from the east. A special feature of the Volga and Urals regions was multinational composition population. Tatars, Mari (Cheremis), Chuvash, Mordovians, Udmurts, and Bashkirs lived here. To maintain its power over them, the tsarist government sowed discord between these peoples. The main support of the central government in the region became the Tatar nobility, the majority of which switched to the service of the Moscow ones. to the kings. It was the “service Tatars,” along with the Russians, who seized the lands of local peasants and imposed taxes on them. Christianization, intensively carried out by the tsarist government, played a large role in the enslavement of the local population. “The newly baptized immediately received greater advantages compared to those who maintained their faith. All this caused constant unrest in the Volga region.
The conquest of Astrakhan and access to the Caspian Sea, which took place back in XU! century, led to the fact that Russia found itself in direct contact with the peoples North Caucasus, with whom since the days Ancient Rus' There were trade and political ties. Some of them (Nogais, Kumyks) actively fought against Russian penetration into the Caucasus. Others (Kabardians, Imeretians, Kakhetians) tried, with the help of Moscow, to resist their enemies who threatened their safety. Russia considered establishing ties with the peoples of the Caucasus as one of its most important tasks, since this led to the weakening of the positions of its longtime enemy - the Ottoman Empire.
In the fight against Persia in 1639, Kakheti was forced to swear allegiance to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. And in L650 The Imeretian Tsar accepted Moscow citizenship. Of course, at that time there could not be strong ties between Russia and the Caucasian states and peoples. But the first step in this direction was taken already in the XNUMXth century.
The total population of Siberia by the end of the 16th century. did not exceed 200 thousand people. At 75 sq. km of territory there was one inhabitant. To the east of the Ob lived many peoples and tribes at various stages of development. Vast expanses of tundra from European North the Nenets occupied the lower reaches of the Yenisei. The Russians called them Samoyeds. The main occupation of the Nenets was reindeer herding, with fishing and hunting as secondary occupations. Religious ideas The Nenets were associated with the veneration of the spirits of deceased ancestors. The servants of this kulyl were shamans.
Dalyl to the east, from the Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk lived the Tungus (Evenki) tribes. They settled in tents and, along with hunting, engaged in fishing. The Tungus had a tribal system: they lived in large tribes, which, in turn, were divided into clans. There were frequent bloody wars between individual tribes and clans.
Buryats lived along the Angara and the shores of Lake Baikal. It is related to montolas nomadic people engaged in cattle breeding. They raised horses, cattle, sheep and camels. They also engaged in hunting and fishing. The Buryats who lived west of Lake Baikal were engaged in agriculture: they sowed millet, buckwheat, and barley. They often exchanged the products of their labor with the Tungus for furs. In the 18th century Among the Buryats, a tribal nobility has already begun to emerge.
One of the most numerous peoples north-eastern Siberia in the 18th century. there were Yakuts (Sakha). They spoke Turkic. These were pastoral tribes. Unlike other
72 of the region's peoples, they stored hay for livestock for the winter and knew how to make cottage cheese and cottage cheese from milk. They had developed fishing (especially among the poor who did not have livestock). Hunting for fur-bearing animals served as one of the auxiliary types of fishing. A feature of the Yakuts was the presence of a developed craft - blacksmithing and pottery production. Their living conditions also differed from neighboring tribes: in the winter they lived in wooden huts, and in the summer - in “Urus”, built on poles and covered with birch bark. In the 17th century. The formation of the nobility also begins among the Yakuts.
In the extreme northeast of Siberia lived the tribes of the Yukagirs, Chukchi, Koryaks, Kamchadals, and Kurils. Until the arrival of the Russians, they did not know iron: they used arrows with stone tips, axes made of stone, knives made of rock crystal, and wooden utensils. The Kamchadals and Kuriles ate heavily on fish and herbs. The Yukagirs, Koryaks and Chukchi were reindeer herders.
In the Amur region lived the Daur tribes, whose development was greatly influenced by Chinese civilization. Their main occupation was agriculture (they sowed rye, wheat, oats, barley, millet, buckwheat, hemp, and peas). Daurs knew how to receive vegetable oil, were engaged in gardening, gardening, and raised horses, cows, sheep, pigs and chickens. Hunting and fishing were secondary activities. The Daurs built cities protected from enemy attacks by ditches, walls and towers.
Thus, it was in the seventeenth century that Russia became not only the largest, but also the most multinational and ethnically diverse state in the world. At the same time, throughout the 17th century. The process of formation of the Russian nation was underway.
The time of Grozny is a time of great changes, including in the field of culture. The Russian state needed literate people. At the Council of the Stoglavy, convened in 1551, the question of taking measures to spread education among the population was raised. The clergy were offered to open schools to teach children to read and write. Children were educated, as a rule, in monasteries. In addition, it was common among rich people home schooling. One of the most significant achievements of the 16th century was printing. The first printing house appeared in Moscow in 1553, and soon books of church content were printed here. As a result, to XVII century There is an increase in literacy, which was facilitated by the transfer of printing from expensive parchment to cheaper paper.
Clothing production in the 16th-17th centuries. continued to remain in the household. The peasants made their own clothes, from start to finish. In boyar estates, all this work was carried out with the help of servants in home workshops. Home production of clothing in Rus' for such a long time is explained special treatment to things that are so close to the person himself. It was believed that clothing should protect the human body not only from the cold, but according to existing ideas, also from evil forces, which, if neglected, could cause a lot of harm.
The main clothing in the 16th century was the shirt. Shirts were made from woolen fabric (hair shirt) and linen and hemp fabric. The rather low neckline was covered with a round, often false collar-necklace, decorated with embroidery. Rich necklaces were embroidered with colored silks, gold threads and pearls. When leaving home, such a collar was a mandatory part of the suit. The hem of the shirt and the bottom of the sleeves were decorated. Shirts varied in length and were worn untucked over pants, belted with a belt. Pants were a must men's clothing. But there was no single term to designate this clothing yet. The pants made them narrow, almost tight-fitting to the legs. They were attached to the body using a cord or ribbon, and at the bottom they were tucked into onuchi - pieces of fabric (canvas or wool) that wrapped around the legs and tied on top with rope or belt frills. Ruffles were used to attach posts or bast shoes to the legs. In the 17th century, boots with hard heads and tops became widespread. Nobles wore colorful, elegant boots with turned-up toes and high wooden or stacked heels. They were made from expensive imported leather - colored morocco - and decorated with embossing and pearls. The poor had boots made of natural or black leather. Men's wearing of hats was considered mandatory. Taking off your hat in front of someone meant showing humility and emphasizing your respect. They bared their heads in front of elders and nobles.
During this period in women's clothing skirts began to be used (spidnitsa, sayan) and a sundress appeared. Initially, they were among the townspeople and nobility, but gradually appeared among the peasants. U married women The custom of covering the head was strictly observed. Girls walked with their heads uncovered, their hair loose, or they braided their hair. The women's headdress was complex and consisted of several parts. In the 16th-17th centuries, towel bedspreads and shawls continued to be worn. The kika or kichka, a symbol of marriage, was widespread and was an elegant cap with a soft crown. As well as magpies and kokoshniks, which, in combination with a sundress, were especially characteristic of the costume of the nobility.
The dress was highly prized. They took great care of it, passed it down by inheritance, and “compensated” it for their service (not necessarily something new). Worn things were repaired, scraps were left for finishing, rags were stored for patches.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. The church had a significant influence on the culture and life of the Russian people. At this time, such a work as “Domostroy” was created - a collection of rules worldly wisdom- under the final editorship of Archpriest Sylvester. Much attention it focuses on the fight against drunkenness. Many chapters are devoted to detailed housekeeping: how to cut a dress, keep the dishes clean, how to buy goods and make annual supplies, how to maintain a garden. As well as the norms of behavior of citizens, and women are significantly limited in their rights, unlike men. It says that material and economic concerns should completely occupy a woman, starting from the age of 12, when she could legally get married. Outside the house, conversations were allowed exclusively about housekeeping and handicrafts. In general, Domostroy preaches humility and submission to authorities and the head of the family.
The man was the head of the family. Only he had the right to vote at various meetings. He disposed of the property and could apply any punishment. "Domostroy" allowed beating one's wife and children for educational purposes. For disobedience to parents, the church threatened with excommunication. The richer and more noble the family, the more strictly the children were raised, and the women led a completely reclusive lifestyle. Peasant women were not so limited in movement, since they bore the same burdens as men working life. The working day in the family began early and was interrupted at noon for lunch. This was followed by an afternoon nap. This was a mandatory procedure and deeply amazed foreigners. After sleep, work resumed and continued until dinner. With the end of daylight, everyone went to bed.
It was common among Russian peoples big family. Peasant family consisted of several married couples who ran a collective farm and owned common property. The townspeople had smaller families and usually consisted of parents and children. The families of feudal lords were even smaller, since boys were taken into the sovereign's service, where they could receive a salary and estate, and acquire own family. Early marriages were widespread and took place mainly among their own class.
With the introduction of Christianity, marriages began to be formalized in the church through weddings. Getting a divorce (“dissolution”) was not easy. It was permitted only in special cases, for example, tonsure as a monk of one of the spouses. The Orthodox Church allowed marriage no more than three times. A fourth marriage was strictly prohibited. The rite of baptism was considered fundamental and vital. The unbaptized had no rights, not even the right to burial.
Official holidays were especially revered days church calendar: Christmas, Easter, Trinity, etc. On holidays, street performances were also organized. Traveling artists, buffoons, were known back in Ancient Rus'. In addition to playing the harp, pipes, and songs, the buffoons' performances included acrobatic performances and competitions with predatory animals. The holidays were accompanied by public feasts - fraternities. There were games and fun, for example, the capture of a snowy city, wrestling and fist fights, small towns, leapfrog. IN XVI Russia recognizes the cards. The favorite pastime of kings and nobles was hunting.
Life, public life and the culture of the Russian people in the 17th century were characterized by a very uncertain vector of their development. In people's minds, antiquity is mixed with the active introduction of various innovations.
Old lifestyles began to gradually withdraw, but new ones were not yet fully accepted. IN early XVII century, when the state was shrouded in turmoil, culture was not influenced by either the church or state power.
Therefore, in this period, for the first time in the entire history of Russian culture, attempts to introduce freedom of speech and opinion were noticed. The Russian public gradually began to enter the New Age. The basis of art became the individual person, and not society as a whole.
Enlightenment and science in the 17th century
In the 17th century, the percentage of the literate population increased significantly. Business writing begins to emerge. Printed books gradually began to come into use, but they have not yet succeeded in replacing manuscripts.
The first printed manuals on arithmetic and grammar are published, which makes it possible to increase the number of literate people among the lower strata of society. During the period of confrontation between the Old Believers and the Orthodox Church, primary schools begin to move away from the monastic beginning and acquire a secular character.
Families of boyars and merchants began to hire specially trained teachers for their children, sometimes foreigners, who taught classes at home. Scientific discoveries were also very significant. Medical knowledge, as before, was based on herbal treatment, but the process of exchanging experience with foreign doctors is beginning to emerge.
The first institutions for training doctors and pharmacists are opened. In the 17th century, significant attention was paid to the development of astrology: the Russian public learned about the teachings of Copernicus and began, on its basis, to develop their own views on the heliocentric system.
Literature in the 17th century
In the first half of the 17th century for literary process was a characteristic description tragic events Time of Troubles.
Historical thoughts were thoroughly imbued with patriotic feelings and calls for the fight against foreign invaders - they glorified the heroes who defended the Fatherland and the ordinary Russian people, who succumbed to severe oppression, but were still able to withstand the unequal battle.
Chronicles were also widespread in literature, which were created mainly by the clergy of the Old Believer Church. A striking example This is the “Life of Archpriest Avvakum” - the author’s biographical story about his own everyday suffering, provoked by a schism in the church. The literature is also beginning to include new genre- a realistic story, which would later serve as the basis for the emergence of journalism.
Architecture and construction in the 17th century
In the 17th century, architecture underwent very significant changes. Wooden buildings are being replaced by brick and stone ones. Baroque elements appeared in the temple architecture, which later became known as the “Moscow Naryshkin Baroque.”
Along with church buildings, active construction of public buildings begins: the Kremlin building can be completely reconstructed, huge retail premises in large cities.
Art in the 17th century
In the 17th century, Russia began to actively develop performing arts. Since the church authorities began actively persecuting buffoons (they were recognized by the clergy as servants of Satan), they were replaced by the first organized court theater troupes.
In the 17th century There is a transition to the culture of the “New Time”, ties with Europe are expanding. Muscovite Rus' was drawn to education and enlightenment. During secularization of culture Secular culture is developing, there is a move away from religiosity, and attention to the human personality is increasing. However Orthodox Church resisted innovation. She feared the penetration of “Latinism” - a “Western infection” that would shake the Orthodox faith and “Russianness”.
Socio-political thought. Historical works are being written about the Troubles: “ Temporary» Ivan Timofeeva, « Legend» Avraamiya Palitsyna, « Another legend» Ivan Katyrev-Rostovsky. The authors saw the cause of the Troubles in the suppression of the Rurik dynasty. They gave the role of the determining force in events to “providence” (the will of God).
The justification for the principles of absolutism appeared in the treatise “ Politics» Croatian Yuri Krizhanich(1618–1683) – supporter of the idea of Slavic unity under the auspices of the Moscow state. Arriving in Moscow in 1659, he proposed a program of reforms, but “for some stupid word” he was exiled to Tobolsk, where he spent 16 years. In 1676 he left Russia.
In the 17th century Russian freethinkers appeared, oriented towards the West. Prince I. A. Khvorostinin He abandoned Orthodoxy, was exiled to a monastery, then fled to Poland, where he wrote “Words of Days and Kings.” He assured that “there are no people in Moscow, everyone is stupid, there is no one to live with”; “Moscow people sow the land with rye, but they all live in lies.” “He was a kind of Russian freethinker with a Catholic lining,” writes V. O. Klyuchevsky, “imbued with a deep antipathy to Byzantine-church callous rituals and to all Russian life imbued with it, a distant ancestor of Chaadaev.”
Clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz G. K. Kotoshikhin Having fled to Sweden, he wrote the essay “About Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.” He critically (but not always objectively) described the Moscow order: “And some boyars, having set their rules, do not answer anything, because the tsar favors many boyars not according to their intelligence, but according to their breed, and many are not literate...”.
Folklore. Fairy tales, historical songs created the image of an ideal king. The people's favorite hero was S. Razin.
Chronicle. In 1630, the last chronicle was written - “ New Chronicler", covering events from the death of Ivan IV to the end of the Time of Troubles.
Literature. In the 17th century New genres arose: satire, drama, poetry. Fictional characters appeared.
Household stories : « The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”. IN " Tales of Woe-Misfortune“A young man who left his parents suffers hardships and repents in a monastery. " The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery"tells about the suffering of a youth from whom the prince took his bride.
Biographical stories: "The Tale of Uliani Osoryina"" Its author is Ulyana’s son, Murom nobleman Druzhina Osorin.
Autobiographical stories: « The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself" Avvakum talks about the church schism of the 17th century, using the example of his own life full of suffering, he speaks of devotion to the ideals of ancient Russian life and rejection of “Latin” novelty. His emotional story is written in simple language.
Satirical stories : “Service to the Tavern”, “The ABC of the Naked and Poor Man”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox” have accusatory character. "The Tale of Ersha Ershovich" And "About the Shemyakin Court" ridicule the unjust and selfish court . The small fish Ruff, who was arguing with the boyar's son Bream, was judged by the judges - "Messrs. Sturgeon, Beluga and White Fish" - "for bribes" and found guilty, after which Ruff "spit in the judges' eyes." Judge Shemyaka, hoping for an offering, decided the case in favor of the poor man, who secretly showed him a stone wrapped in a scarf. IN " Kalyazinskaya petition" And " Tales of Hawkmoth“The church was criticized, the morals of the clergy were ridiculed.
Translated fiction : “The Tale of Bova the Prince”, “The Story of the Brave Knight Peter of the Golden Keys...”.
Syllabic versification – poems in which the number of syllables in each line is the same . Belarusian educator, writer and poet Simeon Polotsky(1629–1680), invited to Moscow in 1661 to teach the royal children, composed syllabic poems (collections “ Vertograd multicolor" And " Rhymelogion"). Syllabic poetry was ponderous, pompous, and it idealized autocratic rule. Polotsky is the author of the play “ About King Nebuchadnezzar", comedy" Parable of the Prodigal Son" Pupils and successors of Polotsk - Karion Istomin, Sylvester (Simeon) Medvedev.
In the 17th century a handwritten newspaper was published for the tsar “ Chimes».
Typography. All R. XVII century paper production was established in Russia. However, there was not enough of it, so paper was brought from Europe. Book printing expanded. More than 150 people worked at the Moscow Printing Yard. In the 1st half. XVII century Over 200 books were published - liturgical books, official documents, textbooks. Handwritten books were still widespread.
Education. The development of trade, industry, and the state apparatus contributed to the spread of education. “Grammar” was published M. Smotritsky(1629) , primer Karion Istomina, printed multiplication table – “Reading Conveniently” (1682). "ABC" V. Burtseva 2,400 copies sold out in one day. “Psalters” and “Books of Hours” were published for educational purposes. In 1672, the first bookstore opened in Moscow.
In 1649, the boyar F.M. Rtishchev(1626–1673) opened a school at the St. Andrew's Monastery, inviting 30 learned monks from Kyiv. In the 1640s, the scientist Epiphany Slavinetsky(† 1675) opened a school in the Chudov Monastery. In 1665 Simeon Polotsky opened a school in the Zaikonospassky Monastery. In 1680–1681 On the initiative of the patriarch, a school was opened at the Printing House (Typographic School).
IN 1687 under Princess Sophia, two Greeks who studied in Italy, brothers Likhý yes (IoannikiyLikhý d, 1633–1717 and SophronyLikhý d, 1652–1730) - opened the first higher education institution in Russia at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow educational institution – Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy on the model of European universities. Grammar, rhetoric, “piitika”, logic, philosophy, theology, physics, Slavic, Greek, Polish and Latin were taught in Greek and Latin. The Academy was intended for people of “every rank, dignity and age”; it trained the clergy and officials. After the Likhuds were exiled to the Ipatiev Monastery in 1701, the academy fell into decay.
Medicine. Medical knowledge was based on folk “healing books” and “herbalists”, “Pharmacopeia” (“Pharmacology”) Ivana Venediktova. Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich now has his own medical service. It is known that he wore glasses. IN Pharmacy order They trained pharmacists and doctors; in 1654, 30 archers were trained here to “treat” (treat) military men. Epiphany Slavinetsky translated into Russian the work of a Western European anatomist of the 16th century. A. Vesalius"About the structure human body" Vesalius was one of the first to study the human body by dissecting the dead. In Russia this was prohibited by the church. F. M. Rtishchev He built hospitals and almshouses at his own expense.
Scientific knowledge. In the 17th century accumulation was underway scientific knowledge. In Russia they knew how to extract cubic and square roots, solve equations. The “Book of Sosh Letter” contained information on geometry. 500 titles of printed books have been published, including works on military affairs - “Charter of military, cannon and other affairs” Onisima Mikhailova(1621). The properties of explosives (gunpowder) were known.
Geographical information was recorded in the "Book of Large Drawings", an atlas Reshetova, “Descriptions of new lands, that is, the Siberian kingdom”, “Drawing book of Siberia” S.U. Rémezova, “Drawing for Russian and Swedish cities to the Varangian Sea.” In 1675–1678 N.G. Spafarius(1636–1708) described China during his travels. The heliocentric system of N. Copernicus was known, but the prejudice about the Sun revolving around a flat Earth prevailed.
Historical writings. Record order was engaged in collecting historical materials. Historical works written F. Griboyedov, typographical "reference" (editor) Polikarpov and author "Scythian history» Andrey Lyzlov. Monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel created " Synopsis”(review), in which he proved the regularity of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.
Architecture . Happened secularization architecture - a departure from church rigor and asceticism. An elegant, festive “Moscow style”, or “ patterned" Posad churches were built at the expense of merchants and townspeople; secular sentiments manifested themselves in them: Moscow churches Trinity in Nikitniki (1628–1636),Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki(1649–1652), Yaroslavl churches Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom in Korovniki, John the Baptist in Tolchkovo.
Architect Bazhen Ogurtsov built a gingerbread house Terem Palace Moscow Kremlin (1635–1636), erected a stone tent on the Spasskaya Tower, and the English watchmaker H. Galovey installed the Kremlin chimes. The Kremlin with its hipped towers turned from a defensive structure into the ceremonial residence of the tsars. In the village of Kolomenskoye, a wooden country palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was erected: 270 rooms and 3 thousand windows. (In the 18th century it was dismantled due to dilapidation and restored in 2010). In the 1670s–1680s. the residence of the Rostov metropolitan was built - Rostov Kremlin. In Ivanovo buildings from the 17th century have been preserved. – Uspenskayawooden church and a stone building - Shchudrovskaya tent owners of the village of the princes of Cherkassy.
Patriarch Nikon opposed the secularization of architecture. He banned tented churches and demanded the construction of traditional 5-domed cross-domed cathedrals. Nikon built cathedrals New Jerusalem about the monastery near Moscow and Iverskogo monastery in Valdai.
At the end of the 17th century. arose under the influence of Western Europe Naryshkin style, or "Moscow Baroque". Characteristic features: upward direction, multi-tiered structure, combination of red brick masonry with white stone trim (church Pokrova in PhilI X 1690–1693, built by the uncle of Peter I – OK. Naryshkin).
Serf architect Yakov Batxvó stov erected Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan. In the 1690s. M.I. Choglokov built Sukharev Tower in Moscow.
Painting. There are two trends in icon painting: Godunovskaya And Stroganovskaya schools. Godunov’s icons are archaic, commissioned by Boris Godunov, based on the paintings of Andrei Rublev. The Stroganov school is named after the customers - the Stroganov merchants. Features of Stroganov icon painting: miniature writing, painting details in a small area, graceful elegance of poses, abundance of gold and silver (icon painters Procopius Chirin, Istoma Savin and etc.).
Artist "royal isographer" Simon Ushakov(1626–1686), striving for realism and secularism, he painted icons “as the mirror shows.” Icon “Savior not made by hands"represents the living, spiritualized face of Christ. Icon " Planting the All-Russian State Tree"depicts Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter watering a tree, on the branches of which medallions-portraits of Moscow princes and tsars are mounted. The desire for realism allowed Ushakov, for the first time in Russian icon painting, to depict a naked female body - the biblical Bathsheba.
Fresco painting became more secular and festive (painting of the Trinity Church in Nikitniki). Artel of Kostroma and Yaroslavl artists Guria Nikitina(Kineshemtseva) (1630s–1691) And Savin's forces created bright frescoes of the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet.
The process of secularization was expressed in the desire for realism in icons and portraits. Arose Parsiý on(from the word “person”) – portrait combiningtechniques of icon painting and secular painting. Parsuns were painted on wooden boards, like icons, but they depicted secular people (“ Prince Skopin-Shuisky», « Tsar Feodor Ioannovich»).
In con. XVII century painters moved from parsuna to European portraits on canvas (portraits of Prince B. I. Repnin, steward G. P. Godunov, L. K. Naryshkin). The level of wood carving has increased.
Theater . The performances of buffoons - traveling artists - were popular among the people. The buffoons' "games" continued pagan traditions. In 1648, the royal charter prohibited “shame” (spectacles), “hari” (masks) and “demonic blaring vessels.” They were ordered to be broken and burned. For disobedience, they were ordered to be beaten with batogs. However, there were still people who “ordered bears and buffoons to play satanic games in the streets, marketplaces and crossroads, to roar with tambourines, beat their hands and dance.”
Was at the royal court Fun Chamber- a booth theater with jesters and dwarfs. In 1672, Alexei Mikhailovich opened a court theater. All roles in the plays were played by men. Plays based on legendary historical and biblical subjects (“The Act of Artaxerxes,” “Judith”), secular comedies and ballet performances were performed. Western musical instruments were used: organs, violins. After the death of the king, the theater was closed.
Life . Housing . Rich and poor homes were very different from each other. Rich houses had painted ceilings and walls, carpets, engravings, mirrors, and chandeliers. The main type of poor Russian dwelling was a log house - a hut. Foreigners noted the uncomfortability of the hut: “black” heating, small windows and doors, lack of beds, lighting with a torch, keeping young livestock in the hut in winter, smoky and stale air. “As for the buildings of this country and the way of life of these people,” wrote G. Airman, who visited Russia in 1669 as part of the Swedish embassy, “their dwellings can rather be compared with stalls for cattle and pigs than with houses...”
Home life corresponded to “Domostroy”. Family divorces were prohibited by the church. For the 17th century Only two decisions of the church court on divorce are known. There was a fight against smoking: people caught smoking were whipped and exiled to Siberia.
Cloth It was heavy, fur, with long sleeves. Alexei Mikhailovich issued a decree banning European clothing and haircuts: so that no one “accepts foreign, German and other customs, does not cut the hair on his head, and does not wear dresses and hats from foreign designs...”. Shaving the beard was persecuted - “for the image of a fornicator.” Fyodor Alekseevich, on the contrary, forbade people to come to the palace in Russian clothes and ordered them to be replaced with European caftans. Traditional Russian clothes, in his opinion, were “decent women's dress both service and travel time are not needed.”
Nutrition . The food remained traditional. The people drank kvass, honey, and beer. Rich houses had imported wines, spices, and fruits. In 1638, tea appeared in Russia - a gift to the Moscow Tsar from the Mongol Khan.
Entertainment . The king and noble people were avid hunters. Alexey Mikhailovich compiled a manual on falconry - “ Uryadnik: new position and arrangement of the falconer's path" To feed the royal falcons and gyrfalcons, peasants paid “pigeon duty”; the krechatna kept more than 100 thousand pairs of pigeons.
Thus, Russian culture XVII V. developed under the influence of social conflicts, changes in socio-economic life, and expansion of ties with Western European countries. The development of a new secular culture.
The rich and diverse culture of the Slavs managed to preserve most of the rituals and customs. The Russian people have always been original and have honored their traditions from time immemorial. Over time cultural heritage underwent significant changes, but still the age-old connections were not lost, in modern world there is still room for ancient legends and superstitions. Let's try to remember the most important customs, rituals and traditions of the Russian people.
Through me
The basis of the centuries-old culture of the Slavs has always been family, clan, and continuity of generations. The rituals and customs of the Russian people entered a person’s life from the moment of his birth. If a boy was born, he was traditionally swaddled in his father's shirt. It was believed that in this way he takes on all the necessary masculine qualities. The girl was wrapped in her mother's clothes so that she would grow up to be a good housewife. From an early age, children revered their father and unquestioningly fulfilled all his demands and wishes. The head of the family was akin to God, who gave continuation to his family.
So that the child receives a blessing from higher powers, was not ill and developed well, the father presented his heir to the deities. First of all, he showed the baby to Yarila, Semarglu and Svarog. The Gods of Heaven must give their protection to the baby. Then it was the turn of Mother Earth, or, as she was otherwise called, the Goddess Mokosh. The child was placed on the ground and then dipped into water.
Bratchina
If you delve into history and look for which rituals and customs of the Russian people were the most fun and populous, then the brotherhood will take one of the main places. This was not a spontaneous gathering of people and a mass celebration. They had been preparing for this ritual for months. Especially for the brotherhood, livestock was fattened and beer was brewed in large quantities. In addition, drinks included wine, mead and kvass. Each invitee had to bring a treat. The place for the celebration was chosen by everyone honest people. Random person I couldn’t get to the brotherhood - everyone had to receive an invitation. At the table, the most honorable places were occupied by people whose merits were valued most highly. Buffoons and singer-songwriters came to entertain the feasters. The festivities could last several hours, and sometimes several weeks.
Wedding
Modern youth do not even suspect that all wedding traditions come from ancient times. Some have undergone changes, some have remained the same as in the times of our ancestors. Of all the rituals and customs of the Russian people, weddings are considered the most exciting.
By long tradition it had several stages. Matchmaking, bridesmaids, collusion, pre-wedding week, hen and stag parties, wedding, gathering of the wedding train, wedding, wedding feast, trial of the newlywed, withdrawals - without these important components it is impossible to even imagine getting married in Rus'.
Despite the fact that now they treat this much more simply, some wedding customs, rituals, proverbs of the Russian people continue to live. Who is not familiar with the expression: “You have goods, we have merchants”? It is with these words that the groom’s parents come to get married.
And the tradition of carrying a young wife into the house in his arms is associated with the desire to deceive the brownie. This is how the husband fooled the owner of the house, making it clear that he was carrying a newborn family member in his arms, and not a stranger. Vytiye can now cause horror, but previously not a single preparation for a wedding was complete without this ritual. They lamented and cried for the bride, as in our time for a dead person.
The ritual of showering young people with grain has survived to this day - for large families and wealth. In ancient times, bells on the wedding train were used to scare away evil spirits, but now they have been replaced cans tied to the bumper of a car.
Theft and bride price are also old Russian customs. The composition of the dowry also has not undergone significant changes - feather beds, pillows, blankets are still given by parents to the bride before the wedding. True, in ancient times the girl herself had to make them with her own hands.
Yule rituals
After the establishment of Christianity in Rus', new church holidays appeared. The most beloved and long-awaited is Christmas. From January 7 to January 19, Christmas festivities took place - a favorite youth fun. All the legends, superstitions, rituals and customs of the Russian people associated with these days have survived to our time.
Young girls gathered in small groups to tell fortunes for the betrothed and find out from which end of the village to wait for the matchmakers. The most extreme way to see your chosen one was considered to be a trip to the bathhouse with a mirror and a candle. The danger was that you had to do this alone and at the same time remove the cross from yourself.
Carols
The culture, customs and rituals of the Russian people are closely connected with the world of nature and animals. In the evenings, young people went to caroling. Dressed up in animal skins or bright costumes, they knocked on houses and begged for food from the owners with carol songs. Refusing such guests was fraught - they could easily destroy the woodpile, freeze the door, or commit other minor mischief. Carolers were treated to sweets and it was always believed that their wishes (generosity) would ensure prosperity and peace in the house for the whole year, and save the owners from illnesses and misfortunes. The custom of dressing up as animals is rooted in paganism - this way it was possible to scare away evil spirits.
Superstitions and signs for Christmas
It was believed that losing something on the eve of a holiday meant suffering losses for the whole year. Dropping or breaking a mirror means trouble. There are many stars in the sky - to big harvest. Doing handicrafts on Christmas Eve means being sick all year.
Maslenitsa
The most cheerful and delicious holiday in Rus' actually has a rather gloomy interpretation. In the old days, the dead were commemorated on these days. Actually, the burning of an effigy of Maslenitsa is a funeral, and pancakes are a treat.
This holiday is interesting because it lasts a whole week, and each day is dedicated to a separate ritual. On Monday they made a stuffed animal and rolled it on a sleigh throughout the village. On Tuesday, mummers walked throughout the village and gave performances.
“Bear” entertainment was considered a distinctive feature of this day. The trained owners of the forest staged entire performances, depicting women in their usual activities.
On Wednesday, the main celebration began - pancakes were baked in houses. They set up tables on the streets and sold food. It was possible under open air taste hot tea from the samovar and eat pancakes. Also on this day it was customary to go to the mother-in-law for a treat.
Thursday was a special day when all the good guys could compete in heroic strength. Maslenitsa fist fights attracted guys, everyone wanted to show off their prowess.
On Friday, pancakes were baked at the son-in-law’s house, and it was his turn to treat all the guests. On Saturday, the daughters-in-law received guests from among their husband's relatives.
And Sunday was called “forgiveness.” It is on this day that it is customary to apologize for grievances and visit the cemetery to say goodbye to the dead. The effigy of Maslenitsa was burned and from that day on it was believed that spring had come into its own.
Ivan Kupala
The customs, legends and rituals of the Russian people associated with this holiday have been preserved to this day. Of course, many things have changed, but the basic meaning remains the same.
According to legend, on the day of the summer solstice, people tried to appease the great heavenly being so that it would give them a good harvest and ward off illness. But with the advent of Christianity, Kupala merged with the feast of John the Baptist and began to bear the name Ivan Kupala.
The most interesting thing about this holiday is that legends talk about a great miracle happening on this night. Certainly, we're talking about about the flowering of fern.
This myth has caused many people to wander through the forest at night in the hope of seeing a miracle for several centuries. It was believed that anyone who sees a fern bloom will find out where all the treasures in the world are hidden. In addition, all the herbs in the forest acquired special medicinal powers that night.
The girls wove wreaths from 12 different herbs and floated them down the river. If he drowns, expect trouble. If it floats long enough, get ready for a wedding and prosperity. To wash away all sins, one had to swim and jump over the fire.
Peter and Fevronia Day
Tradition says that Prince Peter became seriously ill and saw prophetic dream that the maiden Fevronia will help him heal. He found the girl, but she demanded that he marry her as payment. The prince gave his word and did not keep it. The illness returned, and he was forced to ask for help again. But this time he kept his promise. The family was strong and it was these Saints who became the patrons of marriage. The original Russian holiday is celebrated immediately after Ivan Kupala - July 8th. It can be compared to Western Valentine's Day. The difference is that in Russia this day is not considered a holiday for all lovers, but only for married people. All future spouses dream of getting married on this day.
Saved
This is another sweet holiday whose roots go back to ancient times. On August 14, Russia celebrates the Honey Savior. On this day, the honeycombs are filled with a sweet delicacy and it is time to collect the viscous amber-colored liquid.
August 19 - Apple Spas. This day marks the arrival of autumn and the beginning of the harvest. People rush to church to bless the apples and taste the first fruits, since until that day it was forbidden to eat them. You need to treat all your family and friends with fruits. In addition, they bake apple pies and treat all passers-by.
Nut Spas starts on August 29th. From that day on, it was customary to dig potatoes, bake pies from fresh bread flour, and store nuts for the winter. Great holidays were held throughout the country - festivities were held in villages before the harvest, and fairs were held in cities. On this day, birds begin to fly to warmer regions.
Intercession
On October 14, people said goodbye to autumn and welcomed winter. It often snowed on this day, which was compared to the bride’s veil. It is on this day that it is customary to get married, because the Intercession gives love and happiness to all people in love.
There are also special rituals for this holiday. For the first time, women lit a fire in the stove, symbolizing warmth and comfort in the house. Branches or logs of fruit trees had to be used for these purposes. This way it was possible to ensure a good harvest for the next year.
The hostess baked pancakes and Pokrovsky loaf. This bread had to be treated to neighbors, and the leftovers had to be hidden until Lent.
Also on this day one could ask the Mother of God for protection for children. The woman stood with the icon on the bench and read a prayer over her family. All the children knelt down.
Young girls and boys were having get-togethers. It was believed that the Mother of God gave protection to everyone who got married on this day.
You can learn more about all the traditions in training course Basics religious cultures And secular ethics(ORKSE). The customs and rituals of the Russian people are revealed there with maximum accuracy and described in accordance with historical facts.
