Abstract of the article: the originality of Russian literature. Abstract on the topic "Russian literature"

there are a lot of questions. here are some of them:

How? how? How many? how much? at what time? in what degree? Where? Where? where? When? since when? How long? how long? Why? from what? For what? for what purpose? For what?

ADVERB is one of the independent parts of speech, unchangeable, and mainly acts as a circumstance in a sentence.

Depending on which part of speech the word is attached to, it can indicate a sign of action (if to a verb) or a sign of a sign (if to an adjective or other adverb).

Adverbs are divided into categories depending on their meaning. Each category answers its own questions. You can see this in the table below.

I will only additionally give examples of sentences with adverbs.

Dad patted his uncle on the shoulder in a friendly manner. He clapped (how?) in a friendly manner (adverb of image and method of action).

We haven't had this much fun on the weekend for a long time. We had fun (when?) a long time ago (adverb of time).

A village appeared in the distance. Appeared (where?) in the distance (adverb of place).

The adverb does not change, the form of the word is always preserved. You can distinguish an adverb from other parts of speech by asking questions; most often an adverb answers the question how? We answer quickly, well, easily.

Below is a table with a definition of what an adverb is.



Adverbs do not change at all, they do not even decline or conjugate, they also do not have an ending, it answers the question

• HOW?,
• WHERE?
• WHERE?
• WHEN?

more detailed information about the adverb can be found here.

We studied the adverb at one time, I think, in the sixth grade. Now, by modern programs, children receive their first ideas about this part of speech already in the fourth grade.

I personally always liked the adverb - firstly, it is an unchangeable part of speech - it does not have an ending, it does not decline, does not conjugate, etc., so it was easier with it. Secondly, an adverb is difficult to confuse with another part of speech.

So, adverb- this is a part of speech that denotes a sign of action (for example: Polina Fine draws), or a sign of another sign (for example: not for long flowering plant).

An adverb answers the following questions:

• Where?
• where?
• For what?
• Why?
• How many?
• how much?
• in what degree?



• What question does the adverb answer?

  Question on knowledge of the Russian language. Let's remember the definition of an adverb.

  Adverb This is an independent (significant) part of speech that denotes a sign of an action, a sign of an object or another sign. Question to adverb depends on its meaning, that is, the meaning that it expresses.

  In a sentence, an adverb is usually an adverb and answers the questions:

  • to what extent?
  • Where?
  • where?
  • When?
  • Why?
  • For what?

  Remember when you were a child and were taught in lessons: where, where, when, where, why, why and how?

  Most often, an adverb refers and is used with a verb (to speak correctly), less often it refers and is used with an adjective (a clear day in spring), a participle (beautifully blooming flower), a gerund (to run, throwing your legs high), another adverb (it is essentially difficult to say), a noun (an expert against your will).

In my early childhood, adverbs were one of my favorite parts of speech at school. First of all, because the questions that are answered by adverbs are very easy to remember in the form of a counting rhyme. Where, where, when, where, why, why and how. That's all)).

An adverb is an independent (notional) part of speech that denotes a sign of an action, a sign of an object or a sign of another sign. The questions posed to an adverb depend on the meaning that the adverb expresses.

Adverbs:

denoting a course of action - answer the questions: how?, in what way

denoting degree and measure - answer the questions: how much?, how much?, to what extent?, to what extent?

denoting the place of action - answer the questions: where? where?, from where?

indicating the time of action - answer the questions: when? since when? until when?, how long?

denoting the reason for an action - answer the questions: why?, why?

denoting the purpose of an action - answer the questions: why?, for what purpose?, for what?

Determinative adverbs:

expressing an assessment of an action/attribute (qualitative) - answering the questions how?, in what way?

defining the measure of an action or attribute (quantitative) - answer the questions: how much?, to what extent?, in what quantity?, to what extent?

indicating the method of performing an action - answer the questions: how? how?

characterizing likening and comparison - answer the questions - how?, in what way?, according to what?

defining the totality - answer the questions: in what quantity?, to what extent? how?

An adverb in a sentence is most often a circumstance, since it shows a sign of something, an action, a sign, an object. Accordingly, the adverb answers the questions how?, when?, how much? and others. But an adverb can also be a predicate if the sentence is impersonal. Here is a table showing the main categories of adverbs and what questions they answer:



And here are examples of their use:

walk barely (how? in what way? course of action)

came yesterday (when? Adverb of time)

came from there (from where? Adverb of place)

came twice (how many? Adverb of measure)

left rashly (Why? Adverb of reason)

left out of spite (for what purpose? Adverb of purpose).

For example:

Tomorrow I won't go to work. The adverb tomorrow answers the question When?

Near The cat was sitting with the table. He got up and went to right. The adverb nearby answers Where? The right has a question Where?

I did this on purpose. There will be a question here How?

Adverb- This independent part speech that denotes a sign of an action or a sign of a sign. An adverb is an unchangeable part of speech. The adverb answers several questions: How?(for example, slowly), Where?(for example, near, about), Where?(for example, forward, left), where?(for example, from a distance), When?(for example, in the evening), For what?(for example, in the heat of the moment), for what purpose?(for example, out of spite), in what degree?(e.g. quieter). Adverbs most often refer to verbs.

The adverb answers the questions -Where?

In what degree?

If we classify adverbs by meaning, adverbs can be circumstantial (manner of action, measure of degree, time) and attributive (qualitative, quantitative, etc.)

Russian literatureXIXcentury

The 19th century is the heyday of Russian literature, which develops at a feverish pace; directions, trends, schools and fashions change with dizzying speed; Every decade has its own poetics, its own ideology, its own artistic style. The sentimentalism of the tenths gives way to the romanticism of the twenties and thirties; the forties see the birth of Russian idealistic “philosophy” and Slavophile teaching; the fifties - the appearance of the first novels by Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy; the nihilism of the sixties gives way to the populism of the seventies, the eighties are filled with the glory of Tolstoy, artist and preacher; in the nineties, a new flowering of poetry began: the era of Russian symbolism.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian literature, having experienced the beneficial effects of classicism and sentimentalism, was enriched with new themes, genres, artistic images and creative techniques. She entered her new century on the wave of the pre-romantic movement, aimed at creating a national literature that was unique in its forms and content and that met the needs of the artistic development of our people and society. This was the time when, along with literary ideas, a wide penetration into Russia of all kinds of philosophical, political, historical concepts that had formed in Europe at the turn of the 19th century began.

In Russia romanticism as an ideological and artistic direction in the literature of the early 19th century, it was generated by the deep dissatisfaction of the advanced part of Russians with Russian reality. The formation of romanticism

Connected with the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. His ballads are imbued with ideas of friendship and love for the Fatherland.

Realism It was established in the 30s and 40s along with romanticism, but by the mid-19th century it became the dominant trend in culture. According to his ideological orientation, he becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of the great realists is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice.

For some time now it has become a habit to talk about nationalities, demand nationality, complain about the lack of nationality in works of literature - but no one thought to define what he meant by this word. “Nationalism in writers is a virtue that may well be appreciated by some compatriots - for others it does not exist or may even seem like a vice” - this is how A.S. thought about nationality. Pushkin

Living literature must be the fruit of the people, nourished but not suppressed by sociability. Literature is and is literary life, but its development is constrained by the one-sidedness of the imitative trend, which kills the people, without which there cannot be a full literary life.

In the mid-1930s, critical realism established itself in Russian classical literature, opening up enormous opportunities for writers to express Russian life and Russian national character.

The special effective force of Russian critical realism lies in the fact that, pushing aside progressive romanticism as the predominant trend, it mastered, preserved and continued its best traditions:

Dissatisfaction with the present, dreams of the future. Russian critical realism is distinguished by its strong national identity and in the form of its expression. The truth of life, which served as the basis for the works of Russian progressive writers, often did not fit into traditional genre-specific forms. Therefore, Russian literature is characterized by frequent violations of genre-specific forms.

V. G. Belinsky most decisively condemned the errors of conservative and reactionary criticism, who saw in Pushkin’s poetry a transition to realism, considered “Boris Godunov” and “Eugene Onegin” to be the peaks, and abandoned the primitive identification of nationality with common people. Belinsky underestimated Pushkin’s prose and his fairy tales; on the whole, he correctly outlined the scale of the writer’s work as the focus of literary achievements and innovative endeavors that determined the further development of Russian literature in the 19th century.

In Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” there is a palpable desire for nationality, which manifests itself early in Pushkin’s poetry, and in the poems “The Bakhchisarai Fountain” and “Prisoner of the Caucasus” Pushkin moves to the position of romanticism.

Pushkin's work completes the development of Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. At the same time, Pushkin stands at the origins of Russian literature, he is the founder of Russian realism, the creator of Russian literary language.

Tolstoy's brilliant work had a huge influence on world literature.

In the novels “Crime and Punishment” and “The Idiot,” Dostoevsky realistically depicted the clash of bright, original Russian characters.

The work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin is directed against the autocratic-serf system.

One of the writers of the 30s is N.V. Gogol. In the work “Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka” the bureaucratic world is disgusting to him and he, like A.S. Pushkin, plunged into fairy world romance. Maturing as an artist, Gogol abandoned the romantic genre and moved on to realism.

The activities of M.Yu. Lermontov also date back to this time. The pathos of his poetry lies in moral issues about the fate and rights of the human person. The origins of Lermontov's creativity are connected with the culture of European and Russian romanticism. IN early years he wrote three dramas marked with the stamp of romanticism.

The novel “Heroes of Our Time” is one of the main works of psychological realism literature of the 19th century.

Stage 1 of V.G. Belinsky’s critical activity dates back to the same time. He had a huge influence on the development of literature, social thought, and reading tastes in Russia. He was a fighter for realism and demanded simplicity and truth from literature. The highest authorities for him were Pushkin and Gogol, to whose works he devoted a number of articles.

Having studied V.G. Belinsky’s letter to N.V. Gogol, we see that it is directed not only against Gogol’s anti-social, political and moral sermons, but in many ways against his literary judgments and assessments.

In the conditions of post-reform life, Russian social thought, which found its primary expression in literature and criticism, increasingly turned more and more persistently from the present to the past and future in order to identify the laws and trends of historical development.

Russian realism of the 1860-1870s acquired noticeable differences from Western European realism. In the works of many realist writers of that time, motifs appeared that foreshadowed and prepared the shift to revolutionary romance and socialist realism that would occur at the beginning of the 20th century. The flowering of Russian realism manifested itself with the greatest brightness and scope in the novel and story in the second half of the 19th century. It was the novels and stories of the largest Russian artists of that time that acquired the greatest public resonance in Russia and abroad. The novels and many stories of Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky almost immediately after their publication received a response in Germany, France, and the USA. Foreign writers and critics felt in the Russian novel of those years the connection between specific phenomena of Russian reality and the processes of development of all mankind.

The flourishing of the Russian novel, the desire to penetrate into the depths of the human soul and at the same time comprehend the social nature of society and the laws in accordance with which its development occurs, became the main distinctive quality of Russian realism of the 1860-1870s.

The heroes of Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov, Nekrasov thought about the meaning of life, about conscience, about justice. In the structure of the new realistic novel and story, their hypotheses were confirmed or rejected, their concepts and ideas about the world when faced with reality too often dissipated like smoke. Their novels should be regarded as a real feat of the artist. I.S. Turgenev did a lot for the development of Russian realism with his novels. The most famous novel was “Fathers and Sons.” It depicts a picture of Russian life at a new stage of the liberation movement. Turgenev's last novel, Nov, was received by Russian critics. In those years, populism was the most significant phenomenon in public life.

The flourishing of critical realism also manifested itself in Russian poetry of the 1860s and 1870s. One of the peaks of Russian critical realism of the 60-80s was the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin. The brilliant satirist, using allegories and personifications, skillfully posed and pursued the most pressing questions modern life. Accusatory pathos is inherent in the work of this writer. The stranglers of democracy had a sworn enemy in him.

A significant role in the literature of the 80s was played by such works as “ Little nothings of life", "Poshekhonskaya satire". With great skill, he reproduced in them the terrible consequences of serf life and no less terrible pictures of the moral decline of post-reform Russia. “The Tale of How a Man Fed 2 Generals” or “The Wild Landowner” are devoted to the most important problems of Russian life; they were published with great censorship difficulties.

The greatest realist writers not only reflected life in their works, but also looked for ways to transform it.

The literature of post-reform Russia, which worthily continued the traditions of critical realism, was the most philosophical and social in Europe.

Bibliography.

History of Russian literature of the 11th-20th centuries

Textbook on Russian literature

(Yu.M. Lotman)

3. Great Russian writers of the 19th century

(K.V. Mochulsky)

4. Russian literature of the 19th century

(M.G.Zeldovich)

5. History of Russian literature first

half of the 19th century

(A.I. Revyakin)

6. Russian history literature of the 19th century century

(S.M. Petrova)

7. From the history of the Russian novel of the 19th century

(E.G. Babaev)

Test

N.V.Gogol (1809-1852)

a) the story “The Overcoat”

b) the story “Viy”

c) the poem “Hanz Kuchulgarten”

2. F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881)

a) the novel “Demons”

b) the novel “Notes from the Dead House”

c) the novel “The Player”

d) novel “Teenager”

3. V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852)

a) ballad “Lyudmila”

b) ballad “Svetlana”

4. A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837)

a) poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”

b) drama “Boris Godunov”

c) poem “House in Kolomna”

d) the poem “Gavriliad”

e) the story “Kirdzhali”

e) fairy tale “The Groom”

5. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889)

a) fairy tale “The Ram of the Unremembered”

b) fairy tale “Horse”

c) fairy tale “Emelya the Worker and the Empty Drum”

d) fairy tale “The Selfless Hare”

e) novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs”

6. M.Yu. Lermantov (1814-1841)

a) the poem “Mtsyri”

b) drama “Masquerade”

7. L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910)

a) the novel “Anna Karenina”

b) the story “Polikushka”

c) novel “Resurrection”

Plan

1. Establishment of humanism, citizenship and nationality in the literature of the first half of the 19th century

2. Development of realistic traditions in literature

post-reform Russia.

Test

by cultural studies

Subject: Russian literatureXIXcentury

Student: Golubova Elena Alexandrovna

Teacher: Slesarev Yuri Vasilievich

Faculty: accounting and statistical

Speciality: accounting, analysis and audit

Global significance And national identity Russian literature of the 19th century. Your opinion about the works known to you on this issue. When studying which school topics Can you use a methodology to solve the above problem?

In Russia in the 19th century there is an unprecedented rise in literature and is included on equal terms in cultural process. This era is usually characterized as the “golden age”, the heyday of creativity and the emergence of philosophical thought, the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. Literarycentrism - important feature. From the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, and study our history. More than one generation of people - Humans - has grown up on this “classic”. Romanticism takes over artistic method, although at the end of the 30s of the XIX century leading place Realism will take over in literature.

Russian literature is distinguished by its humanity, purposefulness and humanity, striving to express its opinion. In Russia, philosophy is individual. One of the main problems is the problem of morality; each author has his own solutions to this problem. Moral issues became the main one and almost all Russians pissed and converged in the 1st formation high ideals. What is high in Russia is overcoming selfishness and individualism. And the high, active, heroic attitude is the most demanding for Russian writers. In Russia it has never been possible to live a separate destiny. Russian society is always collective. The Russian liter is characterized by moral choices for oneself and for the whole world. Russ the author showed life in community with the whole world. The epic nature of thinking is connected with this: Russian heroes always communicate with the nation; Gogol Tolstoy’s heroes. This soil was very good. favorable for the development of novels. Russ novels rendered big influence to the west. The heroes were colossal; they were not familiar to the reader; the Russians knew how to address the question of existence. But the essence is also the opposite moment when the authors penetrated into the national. In order to consider this issue in more detail, you can turn to Kasyanova’s work “Russian national character“In the book she says that a Russian person is characterized by a value system, such as the ability to achieve a goal. Russia and the West have different goals in life. The idea of ​​cultivating high feelings and ideals is high, and high is selfishness.

The global significance of literature is closely related to national identity: romantics turn to national events, since the 19th century is the century of epoch-making events on a global scale (the War of 1812), these are changes public consciousness, expressed spirit of patriotism. The reforms of 1861 lead to the polarization of social consciousness and the sense of personality finds its expression in the images of literature. For example, the era of Decembrism gives rise to the ideal of a free personality, thus the theme of a free personality becomes central. The activities of writers were not limited to their subjective spiritual world: they actively showed interest in public life, folklore works and interacted with foreign writers. Therefore, the literature of the 19th century has a global coverage of the entire socio-political life of that time and reflects the worldview of its era. National identity is reflected in the typology of portraits of people, generalization of their vices and pronounced personality traits: 1) In the center is a liter. 19 in the problem of growing a sense of personality: image young man does not satisfy the modern way of life 2). A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type « extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type “ little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.

• 3).National atmosphere in literature, development of Russian national character
• 4).Condemnation by writers of the isolation of the intelligentsia from the people, as isolation from their roots. 5).ideal of personality - the relationship of one person with the existence of the entire people (lack of egocentrism, self-will)
• 6) the writer’s attention to the psychological and social analysis. You can also refer to Belinsky’s work on the Russian liter. At school, this question can be used in introductory Russian lessons of the 19th century. For example, maybe such a topic as thin liters as an art form

The Great French Revolution also influenced Russia. Russia. Abolition or limitation of autocratic power: abolition of feudal economic institutions, and above all serfdom; establishment of firm legality, excluding arbitrariness and corruption; protection of the human person; finally, the fight against ignorance, prejudice, social and nationalist prejudices; enlightenment of the broadest strata of the people - this is the force field of ideas in which classical Russian literature developed. There are a number of clear features that distinguish literary development first half of the 19th century centuries from the second. The literature of the first half of the 19th century is distinguished by the extraordinary capacity and universality of the artistic images it created. At this time, the foundations of Russian literary classics, its living cells, which carry a unique “genetic code”. This is a literature of short, but promising artistic formulas in their further development, containing powerful figurative energy, still compressed in them, not yet unfolded. It is no coincidence that many of them will become proverbs, become a fact of our everyday language, part of our spiritual experience: almost all of Krylov’s fables, many poems from “Woe from Wit” and “Eugene Onegin”, “Nozdrevschina”, “Manilovschina”, “Chichikovschina” by Gogol, “Repetilovschina”, “silence” by Griboyedov, etc. In Russian literature, the first half of the 19th century, the problem of artistic form, brevity and accuracy of the linguistic design of a poetic image occupies a large place. The process of developing a literary language is underway. Hence the intense and lively debate about the fate of the Russian language between the “Shishkovists” and the “Karamzinists.” Hence the genre universalism of Russian writers of the first half of the 19th century. The works of Russian writers of the first half of the 19th century are small in volume, but significant in the figurative power that they contain.

Literary and social movement (activities of literary societies and circles) of the first third of the 19th century. Main trends in Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century.

A specific feature of social life at the beginning of the 19th century was the organization of literary societies, which was an indicator of the relative maturity of literature and the desire to give it the character of a public matter. The earliest of them was one that arose in Moscow in January 1801 "Friendly Literary Society", which grew out of a student circle of graduates of Moscow University and the university Noble boarding school - brothers Andrei and Alexander Ivanovich Turgenev, A.F. Voeikov, A.S. Kaisarov, V.A. Zhukovsky, S.G. Rodzianka. How a circle of young like-minded people opened in St. Petersburg on July 15, 1801 "Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and Arts". His interests were not limited to literature alone. The society included sculptors (I. I. Terebenev, I. I. Galberg), artists (A. I. Ivanov), archaeologists, historians, doctors (A. I. Ermolaev, I. O. Timkovsky, D. I. languages, etc.). “Society has chosen literature, science and art as the subject of its exercises,” wrote V.V. Popugaev, with the goal of “mutually improving ourselves in these three branches of human abilities” and “contributing to the best of our ability to improve these three branches.” But the leading position in Society was occupied, of course, by writers. Unlike the Friendly Literary Society, they were alien to the Karamzin direction, adhered to educational traditions and developed a civic theme in their work. Among them were people of different social origins: people from petty bureaucrats, clergy, and merchants. In 1811, at Moscow University it was organized "Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature", which existed for more than 100 years. It included among its ranks teachers, writers and simply lovers of fine literature. At first, the chairman of the society was Professor Anton Antonovich Prokopovich Antonsky. The society organized a preparatory committee of six active members, which prepared the next open meetings: selected works for oral reading, discussion or publication in the proceedings of the society. The meetings usually opened with the reading of an ode and ended with the reading of a fable. In between, other genres of literature in poetry and prose were discussed, and articles of a scientific nature were read. “Conversation of lovers of the Russian word” (1811 1816) and opposing her "Arzamas" fell into the center of the literary and social struggle of the first quarter of the 19th century. With the closure of “Conversation...” and the end of the literary dispute with it, a crisis began in the activities of “Arzamas” (1815-1818). In 1817, members of secret Decembrist organizations - N. M. Muravyov, M. F. Orlov, N. I. Turgenev - joined it. Dissatisfied with the fact that society is busy discussing literary issues, the Decembrists are trying to give it a political character. The loose structure of society does not satisfy their serious intentions. They are trying to adopt strict “laws” of society at the meeting and insist on publishing a special journal. A split ensues, and in 1818 the society's activities ceased. Founded in 1818-1819, the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” and the “Green Lamp” became branches (“governments”) of secret Decembrist organizations. Participants in the Union of Welfare, in accordance with the charter, were obliged to penetrate legal literary societies and monitor their activities. The meetings of the “Green Lamp” took place in the house of N. Vsevolozhsky, in a hall illuminated by a lamp with a green lampshade. It was a literary association with a radical political orientation, not registered in government circles. This included young oppositionists, among whom were people with republican convictions. The meetings of the “Green Lamp” were attended by poets (F. Glinka, N. Gnedich, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin), theater critics (D. Barkov, Ya. Tolstoy), publicist A. Ulybyshev, society dandies seething with freethinking (P. Kavelin, M. Shcherbinin). In 1816, with the permission of the government, the “Free Society of Competitors of Education and Charity” was founded, which in 1818 received the highest approval under the name of the “Free Society of Amateurs Russian literature”, with the right to publish its own magazine “Competitor of Education and Charity. Proceedings of the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.” All benefits from the publication were assigned to “those who, while engaged in the sciences and arts, require support and charity.” The Decembrists (F. Glinka, brothers N. and A. Bestuzhev, K. Ryleev, A. Kornilovich, V. Kuchelbecker, O. Somov), having become members of this society, began a decisive struggle against its well-intentioned wing (N. Tsertelev, B Fedorov, D. Khvostov, V. Karazin). The struggle was crowned with success, and from 1821 the society became a legal branch of the Decembrist movement. Regular meetings began to be held to discuss the most pressing problems humanities, literature and art. Members of the society support with their works the magazines close to their convictions: “Son of the Fatherland”, “Nevsky Spectator”, and then the almanac “Polar Star” created by Ryleev and Bestuzhev. The publication of its own magazine “Competitor of Education and Charity” becomes permanent. Thus, in the early 1820s, the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” “became the most influential and most significant of all organizations of this type” (R.V. Jesuitova). The activities of the society were discontinued at the end of 1825 due to the Decembrist uprising and the investigation into their case. In 1823 in Moscow, with the participation of V.F. Odoevsky, D.V. Venevitinov, I.V. Kireevsky, S.P. Shevyrev and M.P. Pogodin, the “Society of the wise” was opened - an association of a new type, gravitating not to social literary and political, but to philosophical and aesthetic problems, which acquired particular popularity and significance in the post-Decembrist era.

Briefly in the table:

In the first half of the 19th century there was no classicism, no sentimentalism, no romanticism in its pure form. TO early XIX V. Russian literature has already survived (but not outlived!) an artistic movement on a pan-European scale - classicism. However, it is no coincidence that the first phase of the classical period of Russian literature coincided with the formation and flowering of another pan-European movement in it - sentimentalism. Awareness of the value of the human personality, conditioned, and sometimes constrained, regulated by social relations; interest in the “life of the heart,” in feeling, in sensitivity - this is the soil on which Russian sentimentalism developed and which then served as the starting point for further literary evolution. At the same time, both the formation of sentimentalism and the emergence of all subsequent trends and schools were possible only because Karamzin’s reform and the movement it caused gave literature new language- the language of subtle emotional experiences, overflows of feelings, fluctuations and changes in mood, deep heartfelt inclination, longing, melancholy - in a word, the language of the “inner man.” Thus, the main channel of Russian literary evolution in the first half of the century was the same as in the West: sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. But the appearance of each of these stages was extremely unique, and the originality was determined both by the close interweaving and merging of already known elements, and by the emergence of new ones - those that Western European literature did not know or hardly knew. It can be argued that at the beginning of the century, in sentimentalism and partly in romanticism, the picture was determined by the fusion of elements, and in subsequent directions (realism) - by the advancement of still unknown, new ones.

The essence of romanticism as an artistic method. The originality of Russian romanticism, its varieties.

Romanticism arose earlier in Europe and Russian romanticism borrows a lot. Romanticism is born out of disappointment with reality; it is a kind of reaction to the Great French Revolution. Romanticism has two homelands, Germany (among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. Subsequently development, German romanticism is distinguished by an interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs, which was especially clearly expressed in the works of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected it to a critical revision) and England (the first representatives are the poets of the “Lake School” ", Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, having become acquainted with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they contrast modern bourgeois society with old, pre-bourgeois relations, glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings. A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron). At the center of the romantics’ picture of the world is personality. Its essence is not in the mind or feelings, but the main essence of personality is in freedom of spirit. And the goal of every personality is “in the strength and desire to become like God and always have the infinite before your eyes.” Characteristic romantic hero– exclusivity. The individual's desire to absolute freedom. But she encounters obstacles: 1) society (fleeing from the world or expelled by it), 2) nature (unity/conflict with nature), 3) fate (fate). Romantics believe that a person does not know the world, but he experiences it. Contemplation is a special vision that allows you to penetrate from the external to the internal. The favorite motif of romantics is mystical. Romanticism is also characterized by “two worlds” - the romantic person is in two worlds (the real and his own). Genres: story, short story, elegy, ode (civic romanticism), excerpt (the embodiment of genre freedom), lyric poem, dramatic poems (in dialogue), the ballad is a favorite genre of romantics, with the poetics of horror at its core. It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible. Stages of development of Russian romanticism:

1810s - the emergence and formation of a psychological movement in romanticism. Zhukovsky, Batyushkov.

The end of the 1810s - 1820s - the emergence of a civil movement in romanticism. Ryleev, Kuchelbecker, Glinka.

1820 – maturity of the psychological movement. Pushkin, Baratynsky, Vyazemsky, YazYkov.

1830 – emergence of a philosophical movement. Baratynsky, poets of wisdom, Tyutchev, Odoevsky’s prose, Lermontov, Benediktov’s lyrics. The penetration of romanticism into prose.

1840 – decline of romanticism. It becomes the object of the image. Novel "Hero of Our Time".

Psychological course: characterized by the development of ideas of self-knowledge, self-improvement of the individual as the most correct way of human transformation.

Civil: a person is part of society, which means he is destined for civic activity.

Philosophical: man, his destiny, his place in the world are predestined and depend on the general laws of the universe, are subject to fate.

Lyrics by V. Zhukovsky. The originality of the creative method. Themes and images.

Zhukovsky is considered the first Russian romantic. He was a deeply religious person; in his opinion, the world is divided into an earthly world and an afterlife. Poetry exhibits features of pantheism (God is in everything). A person must strive to transform earthly life. The work begins with a translation of Thomas Gray’s elegy “The Country Cemetery.” The elegy opens with a description of the approaching evening, when the “malice of the day” does not dominate the solitary person, when the vain worries of a noisy day leave him. In the mysterious silence, feelings become sharper, inner vision awakens, the soul responds to the fundamental, age-old questions of existence. At a rural cemetery, the young poet is faced with the question of the meaning of life. The first original elegy "Evening". The moment of transition from one state to another. The poet-singer recognizes himself as a friend of the villages and an opponent of the urban form of civilization; he bitterly regrets the disintegration of his circle of friends, the death of one of his closest friends. He fears that “the search for honors” and “the vain honor of being considered pleasant in the world” may drown out the memory of friendship and love. Towards the end of the poem, he predicts a special fate for the poet, which contains a hint of his chosen role as a romantic:

Fate has judged me: to wander along an unknown path,

To be a friend of peaceful villages, to love the beauty of Nature,

Breathe oak forest silence under the dusk

And, looking down at the foam of water,

Sing the Creator, friends, love and happiness.

O songs, pure fruit of heartfelt innocence!

Zhukovsky glorifies a peaceful life, devoid of external conflicts. In the landscape he created, there is, as it were, a character who perceives its beauty, responding extremely sensitively and subtly to the most diverse manifestations of the natural landscape. It is this natural world, which evokes whimsical and changeable experiences and moods in the lyrical “I,” that constitutes the actual content of the elegy. “Evening” - in comparison with the sentimentalist elegy - is new both in method and in techniques psychological drawing type of romantic text: successive memories, thoughts, moods and feelings are designed to express a new spiritual experience that is unique in its internal content, especially reliable in reflections on the transience of youth, on the losses of life path person. Unlike the poets of the 18th century. Zhukovsky’s task is, first of all, to convey the reactions of the lyrical “I” in their particularly refined, individually unique form:

How incense sleeps with the coolness of plants!

How sweet is the splashing of the jets in the silence by the shore!

How softly the zephyr blows across the waters

And the fluttering of the flexible willow!

In the elegy “The Inexpressible” (1819), the poet expressed regret about the impossibility of capturing a moment of beauty, of catching and capturing in words the play of light, the play of shadows and sunspots, the reflection of shining clouds in water - all the diversity of living, constantly changing nature.

What is our earthly language compared to wondrous nature?

With what careless and easy freedom

She scattered beauty everywhere...

And yet, in his poetry, he set himself this task: to give a visible, sounding, figurative embodiment of the inexpressible - that which flashes in the depths of human consciousness, that emerges momentarily in bright bursts from the recesses of the subconscious and almost never lends itself to definition in logical concepts. And very often Zhukovsky managed to solve it brilliantly. So here, in “The Inexpressible,” he found words with which he evoked in the reader the idea of ​​a fire of colors in the blue of the sky and in the reflection of clouds in the blue of water, evoked the illusion of our participation in that beauty in nature that arose in the unsteady, almost elusive glimpses and what echoed in human soul. After all, it is for the perception of beauty!

One of the most famous is the elegy “The Sea”. It reveals the classic image of the sea, the poet personifies himself as the elements. The sea is a huge soul. The image of the sky also appears. There is earthly bondage and heaven. The sea reflects the light of the sky. The finale is the calming of the sea. In this poem, the poet paints the sea in three scenes: in a calm state, during a storm and after it. The calm surface of the sea reflects the azure of the sky and the “golden clouds” and the shine of the stars. In a storm, the sea beats and waves rise. It does not immediately calm down and after it, despite the outer calm, in its depths, as the lyrical hero says, it hides confusion. It is easy to see that Zhukovsky does not just describe seascape. The poet is talking about something intimate, dear to him. The sea appears to the lyrical hero as a living, thinking and feeling creature, concealing a “deep secret” within itself. The author shows us his experiences through a description of nature. Mood lyrical hero merged with the mood of the sea.

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The complexity and originality of Russian literature of the 20th century

Literary movements Realism Modernism Literary avant-garde

REALISM - (Latin - material, real) - a direction in literature and art that most fully reveals reality, striving to objectively reflect the truth of life in artistic images, their typicality and individuality, the reliability of the image of the world.

Realist artists Realist writers Ivan Alekseevich Bunin Maxim Gorky Alexander Ivanovich Kuprin Leonid Nikolaevich Andreev V. Surikov V. Polenov

Modernism Symbolism Acmeism Futurism

Symbolism

Symbolism Senior Symbolists Junior Symbolists Mystics-seekers of God Decadent-individualists A literary and artistic movement that considered the goal of art to be an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols. All-Unity: Beauty, Goodness, Truth.

Senior Symbolists Valery Bryusov Konstantin Balmont Zinaida Gippius

Mystics - God-seekers D.S.Merezhkovsky Z.N.Gippius N.Minsky Decadent individualists V.Ya.Bryusov K.D.Balmont F.K.Sologub

Younger Symbolists Alexander Blok Andrey Bely Vyacheslav Ivanov

Symbolism enriched Russian poetic culture with many discoveries. The symbolists gave poetic word previously unknown mobility and polysemy, taught Russian poetry to discover additional shades and facets of meaning in words. Their searches in the field of poetic phonetics turned out to be fruitful: K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, I. Annensky, A. Blok, A. Bely were masters of expressive assonance and effective alliteration. The rhythmic possibilities of Russian verse have expanded, and the stanzas have become more diverse. However, the main merit of this literary movement is not associated with formal innovations.

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