What are the characteristic features of modern society? The structure of modern society. Social studies test in the "society" section

Question 1. How does history explain the origins of man and society?

In our country, three hypotheses of the origin of society are usually noted:

Natural (“labor created man” and turned the herd into a cultural community of producers),

Divine (“God created man” and commanded him the material world and the moral law),

Cosmic (“aliens created people” and manipulate human progress for their laboratory purposes).

Question 2. Can a person live outside of society? Is society simply the sum of living people? Does the fate of a person depend on the fate of society?

No, a person cannot exist normally outside of society. Man is a social being. The development of a person completely depends on society, just as the development of society depends on a person, because society is all of us together, it consists of individuals. Outside society, only degradation is possible. In life, we all develop qualities and talents, and this shapes our consciousness and intellect. And this can only be done in society. Any self-centered desires for privacy will not bring anything good.

Society in a broad sense is a form of association of people with common interests, values and goals. Human societies are characterized by a pattern of relations (social relations) between people, which can be described as the totality of such relations between its subjects.

The fate of a person, of course, depends on the fate of society. But this dependence is determined by the person himself. There are only a few people who think outside the categories of society. We are products of the social system. Since childhood, our consciousness has been sharpened for certain social forms. Plus, people by their nature are social creatures and the herd instinct forces them to stick together, do like everyone else, want what everyone else wants.

Question 3. What is the meaning of the scientific concept of “society”?

Question 4. What are social relations?

Social relations are various social relationships that arise in social interaction, related to the position of people and the functions they perform in society.

Social relations are a set of socially significant connections between members of society.

Social relations (social relations) - the relations of people to each other, consist of historically determined social forms, in specific conditions of place and time. Social relations (social relations) - relations between social subjects regarding their equality and social justice in the distribution of life's goods, conditions for the formation and development of personality, satisfaction of material, social and spiritual needs. Social relations are those relationships that are established between large groups of people. Beyond the sphere of manifestation, social relations can be divided into: economic, political, spiritual, social.

Question 5. What spheres of people’s life does society include?

Society can be divided into four areas, or spheres. They make it possible to identify its parts in a whole society, each of which includes elements and relationships, united according to their place and role in the life of society.

The economic sphere is largely decisive in relation to other spheres. It includes industrial and agricultural production, transport, and the service sector. This sphere covers economic relations that mediate production, distribution, exchange, and consumption.

The social sphere includes layers and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, family and household relations, educational institutions, medical care, and leisure.

The political sphere of social life includes state power, political parties, human relations related to the use of power to realize the interests of certain social groups.

The spiritual sphere covers science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and related human activities.

All four spheres interact with each other.

Question 6. How do social norms in the form of permission, prescription and prohibition differ from each other?

An order is the imposition by the relevant norm of law of a direct legal obligation to perform one or another legally significant action under the conditions provided for by this norm. Consequently, the norm indicates that one must act in the appropriate conditions exactly this way and not otherwise. For example, it has been established that public associations, in order to obtain status legal entity(in the civil legal sense) must undergo state registration with the authorized executive authorities; citizens who have reached the age of 14 must obtain a passport, etc.

A ban is actually also an order, but of a different legal content. Its meaning is that a rule of law imposes on its addressees a direct legal obligation to refrain from committing certain legally significant actions under the conditions provided for by this rule. For example, police officers are prohibited from using weapons against women, persons with obvious signs of disability, as well as in large crowds of people, for example, to free hostages, etc.

Permission is a legal permission to perform certain legally significant actions under the conditions provided for by this norm, or to refrain from performing them at one’s own discretion.

Question 7. What role do social norms play in the life of a person and society?

Social norms—rules of behavior that were developed in accordance with the needs of society—are aimed at preserving the integrity of society and regulating various relationships between people.

Social norms show what behavior society approves of and what it does not approve of. Customs are among the oldest social norms. Customs of hospitality, respect for elders, etc. are widespread.

Question 8. How did people’s lives change during the transition from one stage of social development to another?

Society has come a long way, on which science identifies several stages. If we consider first of all the means by which people produce the material goods they need, as well as the experience accumulated in such production, then we can see three stages in the development of society.

The first stage - traditional (agrarian) society - is characterized by the dominance of rural subsistence farming, class hierarchy, the decisive role in the life of society belongs to the guardians of the cult - priests or the church and the army. In these societies cities, crafts, trade, money, and writing appeared. But the family remains the main production unit, communal principles, traditions and customs prevail. The bulk of the population lives in villages.

At the next stage - in industrial society - significant changes occur.

Scientists point out the following differences between an industrial society and an agricultural one:

Industrial rather than agricultural production predominates;

decisive role in social life belongs not to small and large landowners, but to industrialists and businessmen;

At the center of social organization are not the church and the army, but corporations (associations of individuals with common commercial interests).

This society is based on the development of large-scale machine production, it is characterized by the use scientific achievements as the main factor of production.

The entire way of life of society is changing: Agriculture, transport, communications, professional skills, education, human culture. The share of the population employed in agriculture is decreasing, while the urban population is growing.

It is believed that modern Russia- it is too industrial society. The most economically developed countries of the world (USA, Japan, etc.), according to many scientists, are moving to the third stage of development - entering a post-industrial (information) society. Of particular importance here is not the quantity of labor expended, but its quality and, consequently, the qualifications, creativity, and personal qualities of the people involved in production. Experts consider scientific and technological progress and information technology to be the main factor of production in such a society. Computer processing of information and its transmission over any distance in as soon as possible. In a post-industrial society, the production of scientific knowledge, scientific research and development, based on university (comprehensive) education, become leading. Knowledge (information) turns into the most important factor in people’s life. In the economy, the service sector begins to dominate over the production of goods.

Question 9. How do you feel about the statement: “The emergence of man and the emergence of society are processes inextricably linked with each other”? Give arguments that confirm or refute this idea.

Man is a biosocial being that cannot exist outside of society. People have always strived to unite in communities to engage in any activity.

Question 10. In your history course you studied slave and feudal societies. What are the main differences between them in each of the four spheres of society discussed in this paragraph?

1. slaves did not have their own farm, their own means of production, but serfs in feudal society did, although very limitedly;

2. slaves could not have own families, and serfs could start a family (get married);

3. the slave was the full property of the slave owner, and the serf was also the property of the feudal lord, but had some freedom;

4. the slave was not interested in the results of his labor (they still don’t pay him, they can do whatever they want with him and even kill him), and the serf peasant, on the contrary, was interested (although the feudal lord appropriated a large share of his labor).

But a society of a feudal formation cannot be called only a class of serfs; in such a society there could also be free peasants, but there were few of them, since the land in their possession was small (in size), and as is known, the land provided the main income for such peasants.

Question 11. Express your opinion on the following statement: “It is impossible to live in society and be free from society.” Think about whether a person can become free if he lives outside of society.

Perhaps a person would be free without society, but in the 21st century society is everywhere. And not everyone could survive alone. How to survive alone? This is impossible. A man without people is not a man. Absolute freedom can not be. There is no escape from society.

Question 12. Give reasons for your position in relation to the following statement of the Russian publicist and literary critic V. G. Belinsky: “A living person carries the life of society in his spirit, in his heart, in his blood: he suffers from its ailments, suffers from its suffering, blooms with its health, blissfully enjoys its happiness, outside of his own, his personal circumstances.”

A person is not an egoist and lives not only with his own problems and his own happiness, but also with the problems and joys of those around him.

TestUnified State ExamBysocial studiesBytopic " Society

Part 1 . Level A assignments.

A1. A characteristic feature of an industrial society is

1) widespread use of non-economic coercion to

labor

2)weakness and underdevelopment of democratic institutions

3) the predominance of collective consciousness over individual

4) the predominance of private ownership

A2. Are the following statements about traditional society true?

A. Respect for customs, norms that have evolved over centuries,

the predominance of collective principles over private ones is distinguished

traditional society.

B. In a traditional society, individual

human abilities, initiative and

enterprise.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A3. The process of introducing values human society,knowledge about the world accumulated by previous generations is called

1)science

2) art

3) education

4) creativity

A4. . Are the following judgments about paths and forms true? social development?

A. In a traditional society, law as a regulator of social relations has not yet developed; its place was taken by unwritten traditions and customs.

B. In a post-industrial society, the industrial revolution is completed, mass production is formed.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A5. . Are the following statements about the process of globalization correct?

And all global processes are a consequence of increased international contacts.

B. The development of mass communication makes modern world holistic.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A6.. Are the following judgments about social progress true?

A. Modern ideas about social progress confirm its inconsistency.

B. The concepts of “progress” and “regression” are relative.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) A and B are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A7. Are the following statements true? global problems ah humanity?

A. Today there is a real threat to the survival of humanity as a biological species.

B. In order to survive, humanity must seriously take care of the environment.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A8. Are the following statements true?

A. “The last exploitative system, capitalism, as a result of the intensification of the class struggle, must inevitably be replaced by a socialist system, and then

communist".

B. “Capitalism is eternal and indestructible, because humanity is not

came up with nothing more perfect, corresponding to human nature.”

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both A and B are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A9. From the point of view of Marxism-Leninism, history was made under

impact:

1) higher unknowable forces

2) economic processes

3) outstanding personalities– leaders, dictators, etc.

4) changes in the cultural life of societies

Answer: __________________________

A10. Interaction of social groups, layers, classes, strata,

nations, religious communities is carried out:

1) in the economic sphere

2) in the political sphere

3) in the spiritual sphere

4) in the social sphere

Answer: _________________________

A11. Ecology studies the impact of human activities:

1) for the development of world religions

2) to improve the household, the life of people and ancient times

3) on the surrounding nature, the relationship between nature and society

4) on the cultural environment

Answer: _______________________

A12. . Are the following statements true?

A. “The natural environment surrounding man recedes before

artificial environment, but ultimately a person needs more of the latter.”

B. “For modern man, the artificial environment

can replace the natural environment."

1) only A is true2) only B is true

3) both A and B are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A13. Unlike nature, society

1) is a system 2) is in development

3) acts as a creator of culture 4) develops according to its own laws

A14. For modern post-industrial society characteristic of a leading role

1)mining industry

2)manufacturing industry

3) agriculture

4) information and information technology

A15. Are the following statements about the process of globalization correct?

A. The development of mass communication makes the modern world holistic.

B. All global problems are a consequence of economic integration.

1)Only A is correct.

2) Only B is correct.

3) Both judgments are correct.

4)Both judgments are incorrect.

A16. A community of people united by needs and interests,

which can only be best satisfied

joint efforts, joint activities is called:

1) conglomerate

2) society

3) system

4) queue

A17. . A. Toynbee formulated the law:

1) unity and struggle of opposites

2) changes in socio-economic formations

3) class struggle

4) “call-response”

1) A. Camus

2) D. Bell

3) O. Spengler

4)G. Plekhanov

A19. What characteristic is inherent in a nation as an ethnic community?

1) national identity

2) federal government structure

3)availability national army

4) separation of powers

A20. Which of the signs refers to traditional society?

1) predominance of routine technologies

2) rapid development of industry

3) introduction of scientific achievements into production

4)intensive development of information technology

A21. The essence of the problem of “North” and “South” is

1) depletion of natural resources

2) the gap in the level of economic development of the regions of the planet 3) the formation of a network of international terrorist

organizations

4)increasing cultural diversity

A22. Are the following judgments about the interaction of spheres true?

public life?

A. Processes occurring in one area of public life,

as a rule, do not affect the processes occurring in other

its spheres.

B. Outstanding works of art can be created in

periods of economic crises and political upheaval. 1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A23. Highlighting the main elements of society, their relationship and

interaction, scientists characterize society as

1) system

2) part of nature

3) material world

4) civilization

A24. The global problems of the modern world include

1) the emergence of new interstate associations

2) completion of the industrial revolution

3) a significant gap between the levels of development of regions

planets

4) intensive development of science

A25. Are the following statements true? various types societies?

A.In an industrial society, individual

human characteristics, initiative and

enterprise.

B. Respect for customs, norms that have developed over centuries,

the predominance of the collective over the private is distinguished

post-industrial society from industrial.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A26. Society in the broad sense of the word is called:

1) association of people by interests

2) residents of a particular country

3) a community of people existing on a certain historical stage

4) a set of forms of association of people

A27. Man influences nature:

1) favorable 2) its influence has no consequences

3) both favorable and unfavorable 4) unfavorable

A28. Does not apply to public relations

1) family relationships

2) relations between employee and employer

3) the relationship between nature and society

4) connections between and within social groups

A29. The social sphere of society directly depends on the level of:

1) economic development of the country

2) political development of the country

3) spirituality of society

4) development of interethnic relations

Part 2. Level B tasks.

IN 1. Fill in the missing word in the following phrase:

“... the environment is the nature that surrounds a person and on which his existence largely depends.”

AT 2. What concept does the following definition correspond to?

“A form of social development that is opposite to progress, a return to old, outdated forms, stagnation and degradation.”

AT 3. Civilization is:

A. A certain stage of social development

B. High level of culture and education

B. A set of certain norms that distinguish one community of people from another

D. A special state of society with rights and freedoms

1) true AB

2) true BG

3) true AG

4) ABC is true

AT 4. Match the definitions given in the first column with the concepts given in the second column.

DEFINITION

CONCEPT

1. Interaction of social groups, layers and classes

2. Relations in the sphere of power, issues of state, law

3. Various forms and levels of social consciousness

4, Production of material goods, their exchange and distribution

A. Political sphere

B. Economic sphere

B. Social sphere

D. Spiritual sphere

AT 5. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

“Social institutions provide boundaries and forms of joint

activities of people in different areas and differ from each other in their

mi _____________ (1). The main institutions of society are

__________________ (2). Without social institutions, no modern society can exist: institutions create conditions in

which human life flows, and the life of people gives rise to

and changes institutions. The development of social institutions occurs

in the course of_________________ (3) society.”

Select from the list provided the relevant concepts given in nominative case. Select each concept one by one, mentally filling in the gaps. At the same time, there are more variants of concepts than gaps.

A) private business

B) state

B) functional qualities

D) economics, family, education, religion

D) social needs

E) evolution

G) joint activities

Answer: ___________________________

AT 6. Establish a correspondence between the spheres of society and the elements of social life: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

SPHERE OF SOCIETY LIFE

KIND OF ACTIVITY

1. Economic

2. Political

3. Social

4. Spiritual

A. Activities of Parliament

B. Interaction of classes (strata)

B. Exchange of Products

D. Religious organizations

Q 7. Write in the word that is missing in the following phrase:

“Science, morality, religion, philosophy, cultural and educational institutions, religious organizations, and the corresponding activities of people are covered ... by the sphere of social life.”

Answer: ______________________________

Q 8. Which of the following is characteristic of both Western and Eastern civilizations?

1) Priority of the individual over the collective

2) Development of literature and art

3) The presence of social groups with different social status

4) Variety philosophical teachings

5) State regulation of the main aspects of social life

Write down the corresponding numbers in ascending order: ___________________

Q 9. Fill in the missing word:

“Material production is the creation of things, ... production is the creation of ideas.”

Answer: ________________________________

AT 10 O'CLOCK. Freedom is (check the correct one):

1) independence in thoughts and judgments

2) the opportunity to do whatever you want

3) the opportunity to express your opinion

4) responsible attitude towards one’s actions and actions

5) the right to do everything that is permitted by law

6) self-reliance

7) absence of any prohibitions

AT 11. Which of the following is a manifestation of global problems?

1) Depletion of fertile soil layer

2) Depletion of fresh water supplies

3) Decline in production

4) Increase in debt of developing countries to developed ones

5) Financial system crisis

6) Problems of war and peace

Write down the selected numbers in ascending order: ______________________

AT 12. Fill in the missing word:

“The Industrial Revolution is the replacement of... labor by machine, of manufacture by factory.”

B13. Find social phenomena in the list below.

1) The emergence of the state

2) The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one

3) Climate change on the planet

4) Formation of nations

5) Human ability for sensory cognition

6) Traditions and customs

7) A person’s genetic predisposition to any disease.

Write down the selected numbers in ascending order: __________________

B14. Find in the list below the features of society as a dynamic

systems and circle the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) isolation from nature

2) lack of relationship between subsystems and public institutions

3)ability for self-organization and self-development

4) separation from the material world

5) constant changes

6) the possibility of degradation of individual elements

Answer: _______________________________________________.

B15. Establish a correspondence between the spheres of public life and

social facts: to each position given in the first

column, select the corresponding position from the second

column.

SOCIAL FACTS

SPHERES OF PUBLIC LIFE

1) the use of metal ingots as an equivalent exchange

2) rising prices for goods in demand

3) creating an adventure novel

4) the existence of traditional families in modern society

5) active participation of Novgorod residents in the city council

A) spiritual

B) social

B) economic

D) political

Answer: ____________________

B16. Write down the missing word in the following phrase:

“The diverse connections that form between people in

various fields their life activities are called...

relationships."

Answer: _____________________

B17. Establish correspondence between concepts and definitions.

CONCEPTS

DEFINITIONS

1) Nationalism

2) Internationalism

3) Cosmopolitanism

A) The ideology of so-called world citizenship, which manifests itself both in the form of interethnic interaction and denies other national cultures.

B) Ideology based on the idea of national exclusivity and national superiority.

C) The ideology of solidarity, cooperation between races and peoples, based on equality and common interests.

Answer: ___________________

B18. All historical path K. Marx divided humanity into

five socio-economic formations. Find in

list below their names and circle the numbers under

by which they were consistently indicated by K. Marx:

1) capitalist

2) feudal

3) primitive communal

4) slaveholding

5) communist (socialism is its first phase).

Write the circled numbers in ascending order.

Answer: _____________________

B19. Fill in the words in place of the blanks.

Economic, social, political, spiritual _______

are _________________ social life.

Answer: ______________________

IN 20. Name the concept that matches the definition.

This is the progressive development of society

in an ascending line, from lower to higher, from simple to

complex, from less perfect to more perfect.

Answer: ____________________

AT 21. Establish the correspondence between the main spheres of society and

phenomena characteristic of them.

SPHERE OF SOCIETY LIFE

CHARACTERISTIC PHENOMENON

1) political

2) economic

3) social4) spiritual

A) Raising gasoline taxes.

B) Expressing no confidence in the government.

B) Premiere of M. P. Mussorgsky’s opera “Boris Godunov”.

D) Increase in old-age pensions by 200 rubles.

Answer: ______________________

B22. Distribute the following concepts: a) law, b) legal order,

c) good, d) sin, e) jurisdiction, f) justice,

g) prayer, h) contract, i) evil, j) property, k) freedom

conscience, m) trust, m) gratitude, o) sovereignty,

p) referendum, p) repentance, c) conscience, r) crime,

y) shame, f) love, x) communion, c) legal capacity,

h) diocese, w) canonization, w) superstition, e) jihad,

y) charter, i) freedom of speech - into three groups:

1) concepts related to the legal field - _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2) concepts related to the moral sphere - _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3) concepts related to the religious sphere - _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Answer: _________________________________________________________

B23. Establish the correspondence of groups and criteria for their classification

CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

GROUPS

1) specific role and place in society 2) organization of power, type of leadership

3) method of education

4) natural and artificial

5) the individual’s attitude to group norms

A) reference (standard) groups

B) organized and unorganized

B) formal and informal

D) small labor groups, small socio-political (party, trade union, etc.), amateur small groups, small age groups, groups based on gender (female, male), territorial and household

D) family, work team

Answer: ____________________________

B24. Classify the social relations listed below according to

three types (socio-cultural, political,

production):

1) creation political party

2) participation in a church choir

3) proposal for a new TV show project

4) holding a meeting of the joint stock company

5) lobbying for a bill to reduce property taxes

6) cancellation of the meeting of the trade union of public utility workers

7) adoption of a child from orphanage

8) transfer of a building protected as a cultural monument to private ownership

9) establishment of a creative union of animators

10) cancellation of registration of the party " National unity»

11) sale of a controlling stake in CJSC Istok

12) replenishment of the fund municipal library

Answer:

1) Socio-cultural: _____________________________________

2) Production: _____________________________________________

3) Political: _____________________________________________________

B25. Check the list below for signs

pre-industrial society:

Answer: __________________________________

B26. Check the list below for signs

post-industrial society:

1) the basis of production is land, agricultural labor

2) development of large machine industry

3) dominance manual labor

4) average life expectancy 40-50 years

5) the basis of production is knowledge, information

6) wide application of machinery

7) illiteracy of the majority of the population

8) the main type of export is means of production

9) the main type of export is raw materials

10) the main type of export is intellectual products (programs, technologies, inventions, etc.)

11) average life expectancy – up to 70 years

12) the leading role is played by the service sector, science, education

13) average life expectancy – over 70 years

14) continuous education of citizens

15) the problem of overcoming illiteracy of the population is being solved

Answer: ___________________________________

B27. The spiritual sphere of social life includes:

1) blacksmithing

2) sowing and harvesting grain

3) scientific discovery

4) creation of a new teaching method

5) theater performance

6) banking transactions

7) moral assessment of an action

8) creation of political theory

9) creation of economic theory

Answer: ____________________________________

Part 3. Level C assignments.

C1. Name any three characteristics of society as a dynamic system.

C2. What socio-economic formations do Marxists identify?

NW. Name three historical types of society. By what criteria are they identified?

C4. There is a statement: “Everything is for a person. It is necessary to produce as many goods as possible for him, and for this we have to “invade” nature, violating the natural laws of its development. Either man, his well-being, or nature and her well-being. There is no third".

What is your attitude to this judgment? Justify your answer based on knowledge of the social science course, facts of social life and personal experience.

C5. Give three examples of the interconnection of global problems of humanity.

C6. Read the text and complete the tasks for it.

Gaining more and more strength, civilization often revealed a clear

tendency to impose ideas through missionary activity or direct

violence coming from religious, in particular Christian, traditions... So

civilization was steadily spreading across the planet, using everything

possible ways and means - migration, colonization, conquest, trade,

industrial development, financial control and cultural influence. Few-

little by little all countries and peoples began to live according to its laws or created them according to

the pattern she established...

The development of civilization, however, was accompanied by the flourishing of rosy hopes and illusions that could not be realized... The basis of its philosophy and its actions has always been elitism. And the Earth, no matter how generous it is, is still unable to accommodate the continuously growing population and satisfy more and more of its needs, desires and whims. That is why a new, deeper split has now emerged - between overdeveloped and underdeveloped countries. But even this rebellion of the world proletariat, which seeks to join the wealth of its more prosperous brethren, takes place within the framework of the same dominant civilization... It is unlikely that it will be able to withstand this new test, especially now, when its own body is being torn apart by numerous ailments. NTR is becoming more and more obstinate, and it is becoming more and more difficult to pacify it. Having endowed us with hitherto unprecedented power and instilled a taste for a level of life that we had never even thought about, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and demands under control. And it’s time for our generation to finally understand that now the fate of not individual countries and regions, but of all humanity as a whole depends only on us.

A. Peccei

1) What global problems of modern society does the author highlight? List two or three problems.

2) What does the author mean by stating: “Having endowed us with hitherto unprecedented power and instilled a taste for a level of life that we had never even thought about, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and demands under control”? Make two guesses.

3) Illustrate with examples (at least three) the author’s statement: “The development of civilization... was accompanied by the flourishing of rosy hopes and illusions that could not come true.”

4) Is it possible, in your opinion, to overcome the contrast between rich and poor countries in the foreseeable future? Justify your answer.

“Human society is the highest stage of development of living systems, the main elements of which are people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor, products of labor, various forms of property and the centuries-old struggle for it, politics and the state, the totality of various institutions, the refined sphere of the spirit. Society can also be defined as a self-organized system of behavior and relationships between people and each other and with nature...

The concept of society covers not only living people, but also all past and future generations, i.e. all of humanity in its history and perspective. The unification of people into an integral system occurs and is reproduced regardless of the will of its members...

The life of a society is not limited to the lives of its constituent people. Society creates material and spiritual values that cannot be created by individual people... Society is a single social organism, the internal organization of which is a set of certain, diverse connections characteristic of a given system, which are ultimately based on human labor. The structure of human society is formed by: production and the production, economic, and social relations that develop on its basis, including class, national, and family relations; political relations and, finally, the spiritual sphere of society’s life - science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, etc.

People constantly carry out the process of social production of their lives: the production of material goods, the production of people as social beings, the production of the appropriate type of relationships between people, the very form of communication and the production of ideas. In society, economic, economic, state, family relations, as well as a whole series of ideological phenomena are intertwined in the most intricate way...

It is society that is the main condition for the more or less normal existence and development of people...”

1) Find in the text and write down two sentences in which the author lists the main elements of society.

2) Scientists call society dynamic system. Find three other words in the text that the author uses to characterize society as a system.

4) Based on the content of the text and knowledge of the social science course, provide three pieces of evidence that the basis of society “ultimately lies in human labor.”

C9. Read the text and complete the tasks for it.

It seems to me that today, when humanity has come close to environmental disaster, when all the terrible consequences of utopian claims for total control of social processes are extremely clear, the fate of the humanistic ideal is connected with the rejection of the idea of mastery, suppression and domination. The new understanding of the relationship between nature and humanity corresponds not to the ideal of anthropocentrism, but to the idea of co-evolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, developed by a number of modern thinkers, in particular, our famous scientist N.N. Moiseev, which can be interpreted as a relationship of equal partners, interlocutors, if you will. in an unprogrammed dialogue...

This can and should be understood in a broader sense. Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is conceived not as mastery and control, but as the establishment of equal partnership relations with what is outside of man: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of a different culture, with social processes, even with unreflected and “ opaque” processes of my own psyche.

In this case, freedom is understood not as an expression of a projective-constructive attitude towards the world, not as the creation of an objective world that is controlled and managed, but as such an attitude when I accept another, and the other accepts me. (It is important to emphasize that acceptance does not mean simple contentment with what is, but involves interaction and mutual change.) In this case, we are talking about... free acceptance based on understanding as a result of communication. In this case, we are dealing with a special kind of activity. This is not the activity of creating an object in which a person tries to capture and express himself, that is, an object that seems to belong to the subject. This is a mutual activity, the interaction of equal partners freely participating in the process, each of whom takes into account the other and as a result of which both of them change.

(V.A. Lektorsky)

1) What two realities of modern society require, in the author’s opinion, a new understanding of the humanistic ideal? What does he see as the essence of this new understanding?

2) Give any two phrases that reflect the author’s understanding of freedom.

3) Explain why anthropocentrism (the idea of mastery and domination) no longer corresponds to the humanistic ideal at the present stage. Give three explanations based on social science knowledge and facts of social life.

4) The author writes about the need to “establish equal partnerships with what is outside of man.” Based on the content of the text and knowledge of the social science course, suggest what these relationships with any three of the partners named by the author might consist of. (First name the partner with whom the partnership is being established, and then make a guess.)

Answers

Part 1 Level A

№ tasks

answer

Part 2 Level B

№ tasks

answer

natural

regression

A B C D

B;A;D;B

V;G;F

B;A;B;D

spiritual

2,3,4

spiritual

1,3,4,5,6

1,2,4,6

manual

1,2,4,6

3,5,6

VVABG

Public

BVA

3,4,2,1,5

Spheres, spheres

Social progress

B;A;D;C

1-a, b, d, h, j, l, o, p, t, c, yu, i;

2-c, e, i, m, n, s, y, f;

3-g,f,r,f,x,h,w,sch,e

G;C;B;D;A

1)2,3,7,8,9,12;

2)4,6,8,11;

3)1,5,10

1,3,4.7,9

5,10,12,13,14

3,4,5,7,8,9

Part 3. Level C

C1. The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:

- integrity;

- consists of interconnected elements;

- elements change over time;

- the nature of the relationship between systems changes;

- the system as a whole is changing.

Other characteristics may be given.

C2. Correct answer:

- primitive

- slaveholding

- feudal

- capitalist (bourgeois)

- socialist (communist)

NW. Traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial.

Signs:

- pre-industrial society: basis - agriculture;

- industrial society: the basis is large-scale industry;

- post-industrial (technotronic, technological) society: the basis is information.

C4. The correct answer may contain the following items:

- society and nature are interconnected;

- nature is the natural habitat of society;

- the purpose of production is to satisfy fundamental human needs for food and clothing;

- for centuries, people have been using the riches of nature, polluting the atmosphere, cutting down forests, extracting minerals, contaminating water, destroying soil;

- as a result, the threat of a global environmental catastrophe arose - irreversible changes in the natural conditions of life on Earth, threatening degradation and even death of humans;

- the current Criminal Code of the Russian Federation provides for serious liability for such environmental crimes as violation of environmental protection rules during work, water pollution, illegal hunting, etc.

Other positions may be given.

C5. Any three examples of the interconnection of global problems of our time can be given, for example:

- the threat of an environmental crisis affects the economy: developed countries seek to transfer “harmful” production to “third world” countries, which aggravates the “North-South” problem;

- the threat of international terrorism is intertwined with the problem of the threat of nuclear war in connection with the desire of terrorists to gain access to technologies for the production of weapons of mass destruction;

- the demographic problem in the modern world appears primarily as a problem of rapid demographic growth in third world countries, which widens the economic gap with developed countries.

C6. Contents of correct answers to tasks for the text.

1) Problems highlighted:

- limited resources;

- uneven development (the “North-South” problem);

- demographic;

- consequences of scientific and technological revolution.

2) Assumptions can be made:

- the presence of scientific knowledge and technical means for global transformations creates a threat to life itself on Earth;

- the formation of a consumer society makes speed and comfort priority values.

Other assumptions may be made without distorting the meaning of the judgment.

3) Can be specified, for example:

communist utopias;

- belief in omnipotence scientific and technological progress;

- faith in the ideals of freedom and justice as understood by the figures of the Enlightenment.

Other examples may be given that do not distort the meaning of the judgment.

4) If the answer is negative, then the following arguments are given:

the demographic situation in poor countries is exacerbating their lag behind rich countries;

the result is weak participation in the global division of labor;

as a consequence - one-sided economic development and dependence on rich countries. Other arguments may be given.

C8. Text.

1) The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) the realities of modern society:

- “humanity has come close to an environmental catastrophe”;

- “all the terrible consequences of utopian claims for total control of social processes are extremely clear”;

2) the essence of the new understanding of the humanistic ideal:

“the idea of co-evolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, which can be interpreted as a relationship of equal partners, if you like, interlocutors in an unprogrammed dialogue.”

These elements can be given in other formulations that are similar in content.

2) The answer may contain the following phrases:

1) “Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is conceived... as the establishment of equal partnership relations with what is outside of man: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of another culture, with social processes, even with unreflective and “opaque” processes my own psyche";

2) “freedom is understood... as such a relationship when I accept another, and the other accepts me”;

3) “free acceptance based on understanding as a result of communication.”

3) The following explanations may be given:

1) The establishment of human dominance over nature led to irreversible changes in the external environment.

2) Irreversible changes in the external environment negatively affect human health and the functioning of society.

3) The amount of resources that a rapidly growing population of humanity can use for its development has significantly decreased.

4) The establishment of dominance extended to a person’s attitude towards his own kind and public interests.

Other explanations may be given.

4) The correct answer may contain the following assumptions:

1) “relations with natural processes”: human use of nature-saving and resource-saving technologies, limiting consumption;

2) “relationships with another person”: recognition of the unconditional value of the personality of another person, respect for his freedom;

3) “relations with the values of another culture”: a tolerant attitude towards the values of another culture and the bearers of these values;

4) “relations with social processes”: rejection of personal and group egoism, consumerism, desire for social peace;

5) “relationships with unreflective and “opaque” processes of my own psyche”: Attentive attitude to your own psychological state, its gentle adjustment in necessary cases, maximum use of one’s own mental capabilities and states in activities.

Other assumptions may be made.

C9.Text.

1) The correct answer must contain the following items:

1) “people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor, the products of labor, various forms of property and the centuries-old struggle for it, politics and the state, the totality of various institutions, the refined sphere of the spirit”;

2) “production and the production, economic, and social relations that develop on its basis, including class, national, and family relations; political relations and, finally, the spiritual sphere of society’s life - science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, etc.”

2) The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:

1) living system;

2) complete system;

3) self-organized system.

3) The correct answer may contain the following arguments:

1) only in relationships with other people can a person reveal and develop his (socially significant) qualities that distinguish him from animals;

2) society performs numerous functions that ensure the physical survival and relatively comfortable existence of a person;

3) only in society are the social and spiritual needs of a person satisfied.

Other valid arguments are possible.

4) The correct answer may contain, for example, the following explanations:

in the process of labor

1) according to the theory of evolution, human ancestors acquired and developed their human qualities;

2) many social and prestigious needs of a person are realized;

3) the material needs of society are satisfied;

4) a certain social organization;

5) spiritual institutions are formed.

Other valid explanations are possible.

What are character traits modern society? The question is not an easy one, but if we talk about it globally and generally, we will get a very thorough answer. The modern social system is based on a post-industrial, information and legal society, in which knowledge, technology and science play a fundamental role. must be cultural and educated in both the humanitarian and technical senses.

Structure of modern society

Over the past one hundred and fifty years, society has changed radically. began to erase their social boundaries, the antagonism between employee and employer became more soft form, society has become more active and mobile. In the 21st century, due to many factors, a significant part of people began to live in cities. New technology for cultivating land and technological progress gradually displaced rural residents into industrial centers. But, despite all the technology, the role of labor in society remains very important.

and specialists

The structure of modern society gives rise to a huge variety of professions. In addition, every year more and more new specialists appear. Technologists, programmers, marketers, managers, and designers are considered in demand. What are the characteristic features of modern society, so are the requirements for modern workers - education, professionalism, sociability and punctuality.

Modern cities

Megacities and agglomerations have become unique symbols of modern society.

Cities are usually classified into small (up to 60 thousand population), medium (70 - 100 thousand), large (110 - 270 thousand), large (up to 1 million) and megacities (more than 1 million). Agglomerations are fused millionaire cities. The largest metropolitan area in the world is Tokyo with all its suburbs; its population is more than 29 million people.

Modern production

Huge enterprises and shopping centers are the main features of modern society.

Today's industry leaders are computers, energy, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications and electronics. Modern society is a society of production and consumption of goods and services.

The characteristic classes of society today are employers who own the means of production, and workers who sell their labor power.

In highly developed countries of the world, thanks to technological breakthroughs in electronics, automation and robotization of industrial enterprises have become a reality, but the role of the worker has not been usurped by machines.

For example, at Toyota factories that produce automobiles, a car is manufactured in just 10 days without the use of human labor; the process is controlled by only a few specialists.

But the real innovation in science is nanotechnology. This is work with substances at the level of the smallest particles (atoms and molecules).

Nanorobots are being actively developed, which can be compared in size to a molecule; they have a wide variety of functions, including movement, information processing, and execution of specified programs.

It should also be noted that all modern inventions are registered under intellectual property laws, and the author of the idea is always its owner. The modern world is, first of all, a legal society.

Modern means of communication

It is almost impossible to imagine the modern world without cars, airplanes and spaceships. New communication technologies have given society the ability to connect globally. With the help of space satellites, information can be transmitted to and from any point Cell phones and the Internet have become an indispensable means of communication for most people.

Each historically established type of society had its own famous discoveries. In primitive society, the beginning of the use of fire, the wheel and writing was progressive. In the industrial era, engines, factories and factories appeared, in the post-industrial era - computer equipment and the Internet. Therefore, what are the characteristic features of modern society can be judged by discoveries.

Information revolution

The information revolution is a radical transformation of society and relationships in it due to the increasing role of information.

The beginning of the information revolution occurs at the present stage where information technologies are actively spreading.

In total, the world knows four information revolutions. During the time of the first, writing was invented, the second - printing, the third - electricity, thanks to which radio, telegraph and telephone communications arose. The fourth information revolution began in the mid-twentieth century and continues to this day. It is associated with the invention of microprocessor technologies and the advent of the Internet.

The consequences of information transformations have brought to the fore the information industry, which is associated with the production of technical and information tools and technologies.

World Wide Web

A person in modern society can no longer exist without a computer. With its help, it became possible to receive, send and process information, perform complex calculations and maintain contact with users on the network. The global global network called the Internet has united millions of people different cultures and nationalities.

Through the Internet you can communicate, search and process information, buy goods, book tickets for both cinema and plane. Thanks to the Internet, people learn last news in the world, get a job, meet people and get married. Also, with the help of the World Wide Web, you can obtain information on almost all issues - from complex scientific definitions to a recipe for a culinary masterpiece.

IN last decade communication on the Internet has reached a new level through social networks, that is, virtual communities of people. Social media have become the main means of communication. The most popular of them is the legendary Facebook.

According to modern estimates, it has united more than 2 billion people around the world and is already available in almost all countries of the world. Using the Internet modern man can make your life much more productive and interesting.

This article gave a detailed answer to the question: “What are the characteristic features of modern society?” It can be firmly stated that modern society is based on technological progress, information technology, scientific knowledge, it is active and mobile.

How does modern biotechnology affect human life and society as a whole?
Will interference in the natural course of natural processes lead not only to the collapse of human civilization, but also to the death of the entire planet?

Please translate this text into German, thanks in advance!

Our faculty is located in an old building. Our elevators do not work well, there is no modern equipment and old furniture. But on the contrary, I like it. I also like the fact that our faculty is located in a grove. We run there during physical education classes. Now I find it difficult to study, since I have new subjects that I did not study at school. But I'm trying. There are many good teachers at the faculty,
I especially like the teacher German language. He has a special approach to his subject. I also made many new friends. They are very funny and good guys. There is a canteen near our university. We go there on a long break, but the food there is not very good. I come from a large family, so I received benefits for the hostel. This is very good, because renting an apartment in Minsk is very expensive.

Help

The historical process itself is very complex and represents the interaction of many objective and subjective factors. TO
objective factors include the natural living conditions of society, the objective needs of people to ensure necessary conditions their lives, as well as the state of material production, the existing social structure society, its political system, etc., which each new generation finds already established and which, to one degree or another, determine the life activity of people. Subjective factors historical process- these are various kinds of people’s abilities to make changes in certain aspects of social life through their actions. All people are directly or indirectly included in the historical process, since they are included in the process of social production, as well as in the political and spiritual life of society. In this respect, they are all participants in the historical process. But they become its subjects only to the extent that they act consciously: they realize their place in society, the social significance of their activities and the direction of the historical process. By consciously participating, say, in improving economic and social relations, the political system of society, in the development of its spiritual life, this or that person or social group acts as a subject of the historical process. IN Lately in science and politics they are increasingly talking about humanity as an independent subject of the historical process. There are good reasons for this. IN modern conditions humanity is increasingly emerging as a single whole due to the expansion and strengthening of economic, political and cultural ties between the peoples of all countries and the strengthening of their interdependence. It is within the framework of humanity as a single whole that the problems of ensuring universal peace, preserving and developing the natural environment, as well as creating conditions for the development of cooperation and mutual assistance of all peoples and states of our planet must now be solved. And humanity, to one degree or another, solves these problems, first of all, by establishing comprehensive cooperation between peoples and states. This is the focus of many activities international organizations. It is extremely important that in the presence of many contradictions and conflicts between individual social groups, nations, peoples and states, humanity as an independent entity continues to exist and contributes to the peaceful resolution of these contradictions and conflicts - local, regional and international. (V. Lavrinenko)

C 1. What three subjects of the historical process are named in the text? How does the subject, according to the author, differ from the participant?
C 2. The political system and material production are largely determined by the conscious activity of people. Why does the author classify them as objective factors of historical development? What other objective factors of historical development are mentioned in the text?
C 3. Give problems identified by the author that must be solved by the efforts of all mankind. How do we call these problems in modern social science? Give two other examples of such problems based on your own knowledge.
C 4. The text states that the activities of many international organizations contribute to the establishment of comprehensive cooperation between peoples and states. Name any three such organizations and indicate the scope of activity of each of them.

Test work on styles of the 19th and early 20th centuries

Find a match

Works

1. Antonio Vivaldi

1. Seasons

A. Impressionism

2. Claude Monet

2. Fugues, “Toccata and fugue in D-minor”,

"Organ Prelude"

B. Baroque music

3. Paul Klee

3. “Impression. Sunrise"

"Lilac in the Sun"

"Haystacks (end of summer)"

"Boulevard des Capucines in Paris"

V. Venskaya

Classical school

4. P.I. Chaikovsky

4. "Olympia", "Breakfast on the Grass"

G. Expressionism

5. John Constable

5. “The Hermitage in Pontoisier”

"Orchard at Pontoisier"

D. Romanticism

6. Christoph Gluck

6. “Portrait of the actress Jeanne Samari”

"On the Terrace", "Swing"

7. Sebastian Bach

7. "Miss Lala at Fernando's Circus"

8. Edouard Manet

8. “To Parnassus”, “Open Book”

9. Francesco Hayes

9. "Two Women on the Mountain"

"Cow", "Blue Horse"

"Roe deer in the reeds"

10. Edgar Degas

10. "Orpheus and Eurydice"

11. Ivan Aivazovsky

11. “Moonlight Sonata”, “Fur Elise”

Ninth Symphony and No. 5 - “Eroic”

12. M.I. Glinka

12. “The Marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni”

"Requiem", "The Magic Flute"

13. Camille Pissarro

13"The Ninth Wave"

"Storm on the Arctic Ocean"

"Ice Mountains"

14. Eugene Delacroix

14. "Seashore in Brighton"

15. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

15. “Venetian”, “Bather”

"Kiss"

16. Ludwig van Beethoven

16. “Greece on the ruins of Missolunga”

"Orphan in the Cemetery"

"Freedom Leading the People"

17. Pierre Auguste Renoir

17. “Life for the Tsar”

18. Mark Franz

18. "The Nutcracker"

Swan Lake"

Determine the style you are talking about

1... refers to the period in the development of European classical music approximately between 1600 and 1750... appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of the Classical era.

2... (impression) is an art movement that originated in France (1860), the beginning of which is considered to be the second half of the 19th century. Usually the term ... refers to a direction in painting, although its ideas have found their embodiment in other forms of art, for example, in music.

3... (expression, expressiveness) - a direction in art and literature of the first decades of the 20th century, especially clearly manifested in Germany and Austria; as well as a trend that periodically appears in fine arts, literature and cinema, characterized by the desire for deformation or stylization of forms, dynamism, exaltation and grotesqueness in order to create powerful expressiveness artistic image and reflections of the author’s worldview.

4... a direction in musical art that developed in the 2nd half. XVIII - beginning XIX centuries The creativity of the representatives was preceded by the experience of German music of Handel, Bach, and the Mannheim school. During this period, the genres of classical symphony, chamber ensemble, sonata and concerto were created, based on the form of the sonata-symphonic cycle and sonata form.

5...ideological and art movement in European and American culture of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. Originated as a reaction to the rationalism and mechanism of the aesthetics of classicism and the philosophy of the Enlightenment, established in the era of the revolutionary breakdown of the old world order.

6... (“modern, recent”) - a direction in art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the previous one historical experience artistic creativity, the desire to establish new unconventional principles in art, continuous renewal artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of the style.

7... (wild, predatory) - an avant-garde aesthetic movement that arose in France in 1905, the features of which were intense colors, coloristic contrasts, generalized forms, flat compositional structure (representatives: A. Matisse, C. van Dongen, M. Vlaminck , A. Deren).

8… (removal, distraction) - artistic direction, whose representatives depicted the world as a combination of abstract forms, color improvisations, geometric shapes. The founder and theoretician of this art was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky.

9... a movement that originated in France at the beginning of the twentieth century. and preceding abstractionism. Its founders were P. Picasso and J. Braque. Characteristic Features This style involved formal experimentation - the creation of geometric forms, the construction of volumetric structures on a plane, the decomposition of complex figures into simple elements. One of the important artistic means... was collage (representatives: H. Gris, F. Léger).

Man and society have gone through a long development path, according to the latest data, about 3 million years. The period of formation and development of human society to civilizations is called the Stone Age. There are 3 eras in the history of the Stone Age:

1) Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

2) Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

3) Neolithic (New Stone Age).

The era following the Neolithic is called the Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age). It opens the era of metal and civilizations. The Paleolithic is divided into a number of stages: the Early (Lower) Paleolithic, including the Olduvai period (3 - 1.5 million years ago), Acheulian (1.5 million - 100 thousand years ago), Mousterian, or Middle Paleolithic (100 - 40 thousand years ago) and late (Upper) Paleolithic (40-10 thousand years BC) The Mesolithic lasted from 10 to 8-7 thousand years BC, the Neolithic from 8-7 thousand years up to 5-4 thousand years BC, Chalcolithic – 4–3 thousand years BC.

In the Olduvai period, Paranthropus (Zinjanthropus), Australopithecus (Prezinjanthropus), which poleoanthropologists do not attribute to the direct ancestors of humans, coexisted, and Homo habilis - Homo habilis, recognized as such by most scientists. About 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus appeared - Homo erectus, who existed for almost 1.5 million years. He is also called the archanthropus and the oldest hominid (the oldest man). Archanthropus includes Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus. In the Late Acheulian, paleoanthropes, or ancient hominids, appeared and continued to develop ( ancient people), which includes Neanderthals, Heidelberg man and other species. A man of modern appearance and intelligence, homo sapiens (reasonable man), completes anthropogenesis in the late Paleolithic, 40 thousand years ago.

In the history of primitive society, 3 eras have recently been distinguished: 1. the era of the primitive herd, or ancestral community, as well as anthroposociogenesis; it occupies a huge period from Olduvai to Moustiers and is associated with archanthropes and paleoanthropes; 2. the era of the primitive tribal community, begins in the Upper Paleolithic and ends in the early metal era; 3. the era of the primitive neighboring (proto-peasant) community.

In the era of the primitive herd, man stands out from the animal world, and society is formed. The ancestral community consisted of one or more harem families. Potestary functions in such a community could be carried out by the most intellectually powerful individuals. The death, natural or tragic, of such a leader could lead to disintegration or his incorporation into some other association.

In the context of the establishment of production and sexual taboos, it was necessary to regulate economic relations, sexual relations, and the movement of ancestral communities. A significant role in this was played by the emerging leaders who had strength, the ability to persuade and organize. If there was the slightest mistake, he could be replaced by another.

In the era of the primitive tribal community, groups of related families appeared. The clan was a group of people who realized their kinship along the same line and were bound by the custom of exogamy. In the primitive clan community the principle of democracy operated. The collective will of relatives was of decisive importance in resolving any issues. In this case, mature, experienced people, usually the older generation, had special authority. It was this environment that produced the leaders who led the daily economic, social and ideological life of the collective. The leader could be the oldest of those able to work, or the wisest, and they could choose. The election of the leader was based on experience, intellectual superiority, and ability to persuade. The power of the elder was exercised in the form of orders, advice, orders, which reflected the interests of the entire group, and therefore were almost always executed. Those who disobeyed were condemned by all members of the team.

At the end of this era, the tribe, which appeared almost simultaneously with the clan, acquires a clear structure, a tribal council, and a leader. The clan itself is segmented, the organization of society becomes more complicated. These processes also lead to the hierarchization of collective power.

In the era of the primitive neighboring (proto-peasant) community, class formation began. During this period, the common property of the clan and community is replaced by the property of individual households, egalitarian distribution gives way to labor distribution, communal-tribal ties are replaced by communal-neighboring ones, initial forms of exploitation appear, surplus product turns into surplus, private property emerges and, finally, social classes and statehood.

Social relations.

Social life in primitive society was regulated by norms of behavior, the totality of which in modern science is usually called mononormatics. In functional terms, these norms combined legal, moral, and etiquette, which were not yet differentiated in the primary, undivided social consciousness, which is why they were defined as mononorms. They appear in the form of food and sexual prohibitions in the primitive human herd, i.e. early Acheulean.

Mononormatics is characterized by collectivism in content and scope of application. All regulations and prohibitions were addressed not to individuals, but to social groups: age classes, men and women, fellow tribesmen and foreigners. At the same time, the criterion of moral behavior was kinship relations, and the form of regulation of these relations was custom.

Ethnographic data indicate that all mythology contains such justification for customs regulating human relationships. Customs, laws, rituals were established by ancestors or heroes, and later by other gods, therefore they are sacred, and for violating them there should be punishment from these spirits, gods.

Another form of awareness of norms was the traditional one, expressed in the formulas: “everyone does this; that’s how it’s done,” or “nobody does that; That’s not the way.” Both forms of awareness of morality most often acted together: customs were followed both because everyone else does it and because spirits or gods established them.

The transmission of norms of behavior in full was carried out by senior members of communities during initiations - initiations, where young men and women are told the sacred traditions and beliefs of the clan, tribe, and are instilled with obedience to customs and moral precepts, especially in the field of sexual life and in relation to elders. The neophytes were explained that if these norms were violated, they would be punished by the deities, the spirits who established these rules.

The crimes committed were considered and dealt with by the team. The degree of guilt was jointly determined - both depending on the significance of violations of the norm, and with the help of magical tests (fire, water, etc.) - punishment was assigned, the implementation of which was carried out by the interested party, or appointed persons, or the closest relatives of the perpetrator or victim. The sanctions were varied - death, physical punishment, admonition, etc. Their measure depended on the severity of the crime.

The basis of social relations was kinship, and since the most stable part of the groups were women, then, given the uncertainty of paternity, kinship had to be understood as kinship between the descendants of the same mother, i.e. on the maternal, female side. There was also a custom of exogamy, i.e. the prohibition of marital communication within the clan group and the prescription of this communication outside it.

Age and gender groups were distinguished, differing in the duties and rights assigned to them, social status, etc. Most often, these groups are formalized, and the transition from one age group to another was accompanied by trials and solemn secret rites - initiations. The essence of the initiations was to introduce teenagers to the economic, social, ideological, and marital life of full members of the community. The boys were tested by hunger, wounds, cauterization with fire, etc., taught to wield weapons, cultivated courage, endurance, discipline, and were initiated into the secret customs, rites and beliefs of the tribe. Women's initiations were simpler and consisted of teaching songs and myths, stories about marriage life.

Relations between the sexes in the clan organization were regulated by marriage. Simultaneously with marriage, the institution of the family arose, regulating both the relationship between spouses and between parents and children.

Marriage regulated relations between intermarital groups and between actual spouses, so it can be called pair-group.

The common interests of the family were the socialization of children. True, as soon as they grew up, they were raised not only by their parents, but by all their close relatives.

The development of labor distribution, in which the father could financially take care of his children, strengthened the couple family. It contains common property. Fathers try to pass on their property to their children. But not only their children, but also their relatives claimed the inheritance of men. Both husband and wife still did not break off economic ties with their relatives.

Given the relative diseconomy and dislocality of marriage, the most important socio-economic units were the community and the clan, which in the early stages of the clan system, apparently, coincided. The community consisted of a group or groups of related families.

The expanding genera were divided into intrageneric groups, which in turn were divided into even smaller groups of relatives, etc. Such groups are called lines. The clans were grouped into phratries, which could be the original, original clans, or could arise as a result of the artificial unification of several clans. The phratries united into tribes. Clans were exogamous groups of matrilineal relatives, united by relations of common property, mutual inheritance, mutual assistance and mutual protection. They had their own totemic names. The clan had the right of adoption, its own cemetery separate from other clans. A phratry was an association of “fraternal” clans, for which the clans of another phratry were cousins. The clans of the same phratry acted in solidarity, supporting each other, especially in extreme situations - in cases of murder in the tribe, elections of a leader, etc. The phratries had their own religious brotherhoods, special initiation rites, and ceremonies. The tribe was endogamous, was the supreme owner of the territory, the bearer of a certain culture - a household community, had ethnocultural characteristics and social - potestary functions.

Evolution of economic activity.

Since ancient times, the basis of the economy has been gathering, hunting and fishing. With climate change due to warming and melting of glaciers (10-12 thousand years ago), i.e. With the advent of a new geological era - the Holocene - flora and fauna change. Large “cold-loving” animals – the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros – are dying out. To hunt small animals and birds, bows and arrows, snares, traps, harpoons, and spears are used. Along with driven hunting, individual hunting with ambushes and stealth developed, and the dog was tamed. Fishing using hooks, nets, tops, and dams began to be practiced more widely.

The simple appropriative economy of lower hunters, gatherers and fishermen made it possible to obtain only life-sustaining and only as an exception a surplus product. Therefore, for the ancestral community and the early primitive community, collective property and egalitarian, or equal distribution, were necessary.

Obviously, the collective property was, first of all, the fishing territory with all the objects of hunting, fishing and gathering within its boundaries, raw materials for the production of tools, utensils, etc., as noted by the Australians. Ownership of hunting grounds, fishing dams, boats, dwellings, and fire could also be collective. Individual tools of labor - axes, spears, bows and arrows, household utensils, clothing, jewelry were personal property.

Ownership of food or other spoils was also collective. Its distribution was equalizing or equal.

At the stage of the primitive tribal community, in the Neolithic, a transition to a productive economy took place, cattle breeding and agriculture developed. G. Child called this transition the Neolithic revolution.

With an early producing and highly specialized appropriating economy, close cooperation of labor skills was still necessary, and therefore the preservation of collective property and equal distribution. Ownership of cultivated land, pastures, hunting, fishing and gathering grounds was collective, predominantly tribal. Within the clan, the cultivated land was transferred into the ownership of groups of closest relatives and for the use of individual members of the collective. Livestock, tools, utensils, etc. were personal property and could be alienated. Equal distribution was gradually replaced by labor distribution, in which a person who received a good harvest, livestock offspring, or booty could keep it for himself or share it with those with whom he wanted. This transfer of product gave prestige to both the person who did it and the social organism of which he was a member. Gift exchange between groups is developing. The gift exchange system was essentially a system of prestige economics. The gift had to be compensated with an equivalent gift. The prestigious gift exchange took a ceremonial form. The donation was made during celebrations to which one community invited members of others. Such are the feasts of the “dead” among the Eskimos of Alaska, the pork festivals of the Marind-Anim Papuans, and the potlatches of the Indians of the Northwest Coast. North America. Donation led to a kind of accumulation of property that a person could dispose of outside the control of the community. This showed the destruction of egalitarianism: important (big men) and ordinary people emerged, and then the poor appeared. Potlatches, feasts, ceremonial exchanges, and other manifestations of the prestige economy were powerful incentives to production. Exchange equivalents began to appear: rare shells, jewelry, stone, bird feathers.

The tools of the first people - homo habilis, who lived during the Olduvai period, were made from various volcanic lava rocks: basalts, andesites, slate, quartz, etc. The most famous are choppers and choppers - tools made of pebbles, one edge of which is chipped with several blows on one side (chopper ) or from two (chopping). For domestic needs, flakes and disc-shaped and spheroidal pieces of rocks were used, which were used to scrape, grind, split and cut.

The technical achievements of homo erectus, who lived during the Acheulian period, are expressed in the bifacial industry, widespread in Africa, Europe, Southeast Asia, and the Caucasus. Bifaces are bilaterally processed tools of triangular, almond-shaped and disc-shaped shapes. At the same time, smaller tools were also used: rough points, scrapers, points.

The Moustier era was a time of formation of various technologies. Scrapers, cutters, piercings, drills, knives of various shapes appear - with notches, serrated, double-sided processed and slightly corrected with small chips. Increasingly, retouching is used to decorate the blades and back parts of tools - secondary processing, which consists of leveling or notching, sharpening or blunting the edges of the workpiece with small removals. In Moustier, counter-impact retouching was used. There are also tools processed by squeezing retouch, which was produced by pressing a bone or horn squeezer. Neanderthals invent and compound guns- spears, darts, the tips of which were stone and the shafts were wooden, knives with a stone base and a wooden handle.

The technological innovations of Homo Sapiens surpass previous periods. The range of tools, varied and very specialized, is expanding sharply. There are 92 types of tools: scrapers, cutters, points, piercings, screws, scrapers, knives, tips, spears and darts. To increase the destructive power of throwing weapons, spear throwers are used. Composite tools appeared, the base of which was made of bone or wood, and the blades were small plates inserted into grooves - slits in the base.

Bone and horn are widely used to make tools. They are used to make bone tips, harpoons, massive percussion tools such as picks, needles with an eye, piercings, awls, spears from mammoth tusks.

The next stage in the development of technology was the Mesolithic era. Woodworking tools, especially widespread in forest areas, are not only chipped, but also ground on the working part. They are varied and highly functional - axes, chisels, adzes. To obtain small tools, the technique of squeezing small cores is used. This method of splitting made it possible to obtain a mass of small, very thin, regularly cut plates with a width of 0.4 to 1.0 cm, from which, using retouching, they were made into knives, burins, piercings, scrapers, screws, drills, inserts for knives, daggers, and tips. spears, darts for harpoons. A striking marker of the Mesolithic era is the onion. The arrows were composite, with stone tips, wooden, and bone. Harpoons, spears, fishhooks, knives, awls, needles, and muffs were also made from bone. As for fishing gear, in addition to the mentioned hooks and harpoons, nets with stone weights were already used.

During the period of the late tribal community, archaeologically corresponding to the Neolithic, the technique of working stone and bone reaches perfection. Inset tools dominate, especially in agricultural areas, where they are widely represented by sickles and reaping knives, the bases of which are made of bone or wood. The grinding technique, which originated in the Mesolithic, flourished in the Neolithic. Axes, adzes, chisels, chisels, and knives are made from diorite, jade, tuff stone, and slate.

In the Neolithic, underground workings of stone raw materials developed. All the basic techniques of mining were mastered - shafts, trenches, drifts, fastening posts, ventilation windows. Flint was mined with horn hoes, picks, and picks.

Mining workings and a high level of stone processing were prepared in the 6th-5th thousand. BC. the emergence of metallurgy. In the Chalcolithic, several centers of copper metalworking appeared: Middle Eastern, Balkan, African, Caucasian, Altai, Ural. Copper ore was mined using fire. Initially, copper products were made by forging. These were small things - awls, needles, bracelets, monistos, pendants. Towards the end of the Chalcolithic, massive copper products began to be produced, first by forging, later by casting. When casting, less metal is spent on the product, and the shapes of the tools become more elegant. Axes, hammers, adzes, needles, awls, chisels, punches, and jewelry are cast.

House-building has gone through a long, almost two-million-year development path. The oldest dwelling can be considered a structure at a site in the Olduvai Gorge. In the Acheulian era, homo erectus advanced to Europe, the Caucasus, the Crimea, Central Asia, Southern Siberia, Southeast Asia. The settlements have the character of hunting camps, more or less permanent. The remains of fire pits indicate familiarity with fire; it is possible that methods had already been invented artificial extraction fire. The dwellings were cave shelters and grottoes and open-air huts.

Mesolithic dwellings were round or square buildings with a floor made of pieces of birch and pine bark, the walls of which consisted of thin poles stuck into the ground, tied together (Maglemose).

In the Neolithic, two lines can be traced in house-building: in the forest zone, wooden houses were built, above ground and deep into the ground; adobe architecture appears in the agricultural zone. Pile buildings appear, built on swampy coastal meadows. Furniture was also found in the pile buildings: benches, tables, chests.

The houses of the Anatolian settlement of Catal Guyuk, studied by J. Mellart, were built entirely of molded raw bricks, on brick foundations. Communication between the houses was carried out along the roof, which was located on different heights, because houses rose in terraces along the hillside.

European farmers left unique structures made of stone - megaliths - religious buildings made from one or many blocks of wild or rough stone.

The megaliths of Western Europe include menhirs - large oblong stones 4-5 or more meters high, placed vertically. Famous are the alleys of menhirs near Karnak in Breton, where there are about 3 thousand stones. Another type of megaliths are cromlechs - groups of menhirs forming one or more concentric circles. The most famous of them are Stonehenge and Avebury in England. Megaliths include dolmens - collective, less often individual tombs, made of large stone slabs and blocks, placed on edges vertically or slightly obliquely and covered with one or more slabs on top. The entrance to the dolmen was closed with a round slab.

Transport of the pre-civilization period is represented by skis, sleighs, and boats, which appeared in the Mesolithic. The skis and runners of the sled were wide and short. The boats were made by hollowing out the core of wood and firing it. The boats were equipped with oars. In the Eneolithic, wheeled transport appeared - carts, carts harnessed to oxen.

For hundreds of thousands of years, people have used dishes made of bark, wood, stone, shells, baskets made of twigs, and leather bags. In the Neolithic, pottery appears. Farmers sculpted dishes of various shapes - pots, jugs, goblets, dishes, ritual anthropomorphic and zoomorphic vessels, miniature cups and huge, up to 1 m or more in height, vessels for storing grain with lids. In the 4th millennium BC. The pottery wheel was invented, which made it possible to produce dishes with thin walls, more uniform, in large quantities.

Already in the 6th millennium BC. there was a loom, parts of which were found during excavations of pile buildings in the alpine zone. Products made of flax, wool, threads, laces, rope, braid, nets, fabrics, knitted items, textile production tools - flax combs, wooden spindles, crochet hooks, weaving shuttles - were also found there.

The emergence of thinking, speech and knowledge.

In area primitive culture the emergence of thinking and speech became a powerful stimulus. Speech arises as a response to the need to transfer information from one member of a team to another: when learning to master new technical skills, interaction during hunting and during long movements, when choosing routes and hunting places, and joint defense.

The development of language paralleled the increase in the volume of information and contributed to its accumulation and transmission. Experience was accumulated, the causes and consequences of phenomena were compared, observations were generalized and systematized. First of all, it was knowledge about the surrounding nature. The rudiments of physical knowledge were accumulated empirically.

Mineralogy has also been mastered since the Paleolithic. Already the Neanderthal knew many types of stone, and by the Chalcolithic, man had mastered the methods of processing almost all minerals known today, including copper ores and meteorite iron. Since the Mousterian era, paints - ocher, manganese dioxide - have been mastered, methods of diluting them and applying them to various materials have been introduced.

Such branches of knowledge as medicine, pharmacology, and toxicology have received development. Mesolithic doctors performed craniotomy and amputation of limbs; in the Neolithic they used both psychotherapy and herbal medicine.

Biological knowledge emerged from the earliest stages of human history. From the Mesolithic, this knowledge led to the domestication of animals, selective breeding - the artificial selection of the most useful breeds of domestic animals. Knowledge of the properties of different plants - edible, inedible, capable of cultivation and not capable of cultivation - leads the Meso-Neolithic population to an agricultural culture.

Mathematics also begins in the Paleolithic. Evidence of counting operations in the Paleolithic was found in small sculptures and jewelry with signs and paintings in caves.

The origins of astronomical knowledge also go back to the Paleolithic era. Studies of small sculptures, ornaments, and picturesque images in caves have demonstrated the familiarity of Paleolithic people with starry sky, with the patterns of movement of the Moon, Sun, Jupiter. Calendars were created based on this knowledge.

The development of astronomical knowledge in subsequent eras led to the emergence of more complex calendars marking the phases of the rotation of the luminaries of the Moon and the Sun. The “observatories” are the henges of Britain and the rondels of Central Europe. The most famous is Stonehenge. Meta-stones and pits of the henge served to determine lunar and solar rises, to measure seasons, half-years, and years, and to calculate solar eclipses.

In the era of the primitive tribal community, the beginnings of “pre-writing” appeared - pictography, or drawing.

Spiritual aspects of primitive society.

The spiritual development of primitive people is most clearly expressed in art. Works of art of small forms were made using a chisel and scraper. Engravings and bas-reliefs on the walls of caves were made with rough chisels. Natural paints were used to paint the walls of the caves. Most often, ferrous ocher was used, which was calcined over a fire and then ground. Black paint was extracted from magnesia dioxide. The binding material was most likely animal fat. The paint was applied with a finger or a stick, perhaps with a brush, which could be a tuft of wool. Sometimes natural reliefs in caves were used, when the ledges and depressions on the walls of the caves were transformed into figures of animals or people by slight adjustments.

The bulk of the subjects are images of animals, mainly large herbivores: horses, bison, mammoths, goats, red deer, fallow deer, and less often predators - lion, bear, wolf, lynx. Among anthropomorphic images, female ones predominate. The brightest examples of Paleolithic painting are the paintings in the caves of Lascaux, Altamira, (Spain) La Madeleine, Combarelles, (France) Kapova (Russia) and many others. On the walls of the caves there are compositions that are characterized by dynamism and polychrome in the depiction of animals. Even earlier, sculpture arose, the “Paleolithic Venuses” appeared, symbolizing the forces of fertility. The agricultural population left rich stone and clay sculptures and paintings on the walls of houses and sanctuaries. Fine art developed simultaneously with dance and music. Numerous flutes - bone tubes with holes - were discovered at Paleolithic sites. Apparently, there were all kinds of pipes, buzzers, whistles, trumpets, plucked instruments, the prototype of which was probably the bow string. Music, dance, and visual arts served as the basis for theatrical performances and myth productions.

In the Paleolithic, a mythological picture of the world was already emerging - a holistic vision of the world, formalized in preferences, cults, rituals, beliefs and knowledge.

In the Neolithic, the structure of the world is manifested in the image of the world tree. This is really an image of a tree or a pillar, and a conventional vertical composition, divided into 3 parts. Myths appear that explain the cycle of day and night (horse and bull), life and death (complex funeral rituals were created). Myths about the creation of the world are developing: from an egg (Finland, Scandinavia, Karelia), from land taken by a duck (Ural, Siberia). Mythology is woven into the worldview of people, which was once religious.

Religious ideas appear, according to archaeological data, at least in the Mousterian era. This is evidenced by Neanderthal burials and the so-called “bear caves”. The commonality of the members of the collective was realized in the form of totemism - the belief in the deep identity of all members of one or another primitive collective (most often a genus) with individuals of one specific species of animals, later plants.

Magic also appeared in the Paleolithic - belief in a person’s ability to influence other people, animals, plants, natural phenomena in a special way, as well as these actions themselves. Tiles, pebbles with notches, ornaments, and ocher confirm that magic was the oldest form of religion.

A cult of nature began to take shape, personified in the images of spirits of the animal and related worlds, earthly and heavenly powers. On the basis of age-related initiations, early tribal cults developed with the main object of this cult - the image of the spirit - the patron of initiations, and later - the tribal god. With the development of agriculture, the commercial cult became more complex, special gods of the sky and elemental deities appeared, and the cult of the dying and resurrected god of fertility was formed. The former mother-ancestor becomes the Great Goddess. A characteristic feature of various views of the early agricultural era was the anthropomorphic appearance of spirits and deities.

Cult practice is becoming more complex. Developed hunters and fishermen have huge sanctuaries near rock carvings. Sanctuaries are built on the plains, similar to British henges, alleys of menhirs, and rondels in Central Europe. Among the farmers, temples such as Chatal Guyuk, Pessedjik Depe, the sanctuary with bull horns in Tel Aswad, and the temples of Eridu and Tepe Gavra of the Ubeid period stand out. Rituals were performed in them, sacred images and masks were buried, and sometimes people of high status were buried in them. The appearance of such sanctuaries is evidence of the emergence of the priestly caste.

Architecture, painting, sculpture, accumulating the achievements of past times and meeting the new needs of society, created the conditions for the future flourishing of art. Humanity has approached civilization.