Images of Byzantine mosaics of frescoes and icons. Byzantium

On the high slopes of the right bank of the Dnieper lies the Assumption Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, majestically crowned with golden domes - the inheritance Holy Mother of God, the cradle of monasticism in Rus' and the stronghold of the Orthodox faith. The ancient Tradition of the Church says that the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called, during his journey with Christian preaching to the lands of the Scythians, blessed the slopes of the Dnieper. He turned to his disciples with the words: “Do you see these mountains? The grace of God will shine on these mountains, and a great city should be here, and God will build many churches.” Thus, together with the first churches of Kievan Rus, the Lavra monastery became the realization of the prophetic words of the Apostle.

In the Orthodox world it is defined after Jerusalem and Mount Athos in Greece. Everything here is shrouded in mystery: caves, churches, bell towers, and most of all – people’s lives. It is hardly known to a wide circle, for example, that the Russian hero Ilya Muromets and the founder of Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky, are buried on the territory of the Lavra. The number of saints, incomparable to any other monastery, and the amazing myrrh of their incorruptible relics continue to attract millions of pilgrims here.

Over the thousand years of its existence, the Holy Dormition Kiev-Pechersk Lavra has acquired many incredible stories. Truth mixed with fiction, the miraculous with the real. But before we get to the legends, let's look at history. The land here is truly holy and prayed for.

The lands on which the huge territory of the Lavra later spread were known back in the 11th century as a wooded area where monks retired to pray. One of these monks was priest Hilarion, from the nearby village of Berestovo. He dug himself a cave for prayer, which he soon abandoned.
Centuries have passed. In the 11th century, monk Anthony returned to the Kyiv land. He was originally from the Chernigov region, took monastic vows on Mount Athos, where he intended to stay. But Anthony had a sign - to return to his homeland and serve the Lord there. In 1051, he settled on Berestovaya Mountain in a cave, which the priest Hilarion dug for his prayers and solitude. Anthony's ascetic life attracted monks: some came to him for a blessing, others wanted to live the same way as him.
A few years later he had students - Nikon and Theodosius. Gradually the brethren grew, expanding their underground cells.
When the brethren gathered 12 people, Anthony appointed Varlaam abbot over them, and he himself moved to another mountain, where he again retired to an underground cell. Later, an underground labyrinth arose on this mountain - the current Antoniev or Near Caves. The brethren, led by Varlaam, first erected a “small church” over the original cave, and in 1062 they built a church in honor of the Mother of God. At the same time, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich, at the request of the Monk Anthony, gave the monks a mountain above the caves, which they fenced and built up, creating the so-called Old Monastery. From that time on, the monastery became above ground, the caves began to serve as a cemetery, and only ascetic ascetics remained to live in them.
It is from the caves that the name of the monastery – Pecherskaya – comes from. The year of its foundation is considered to be 1051, when the Monk Anthony settled here.

Assumption Cathedral in a painting by Vereshchagin, 1905

Soon the Monk Varlaam was transferred by Izyaslav Yaroslavich to the princely Dmitrievsky Monastery, and the Monk Anthony “installed” another abbot - Theodosius of Pechersk, under whom the number of monks increased from twenty to one hundred and the first (Studio) monastery charter was adopted. Under Theodosius, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich donated the land on which the Assumption Cathedral was founded (1073). Around the stone church, under the next abbot Stephen, the first wooden structures of the New Monastery arose - a fence, cells and utility rooms. At the beginning of the 12th century. stone Trinity Gate Church and refectory formed the original architectural ensemble Upper Lavra. The fenced space between the New and Old monasteries was partly occupied by vegetable gardens and orchards, and partly by the dwellings of the monastery artisans and servants; here is St. Theodosius of Pechersk organized a courtyard for the poor and sick with the Church of St. Stephen.

The independence of the monastery from the princely authority (unlike other monasteries) contributed to the fact that already at the end of the 11th century. it became not only the most authoritative, largest and richest monastic community in Rus', but also an outstanding cultural center.
The monastery played a significant role in the development of Ukrainian culture - the construction of churches improved the skills of architects and artists, and the first printing house in Rus' was founded here. Famous chroniclers, writers, scientists, artists, doctors, and book publishers lived and worked in the Lavra. It was here, around 1113, that the chronicler Nestor compiled the “Tale of Bygone Years” - the main source of modern knowledge about Kievan Rus.
Chronicles and lives, icons and works of sacred music were created here. The illustrious names of St. were well known. Alipia, St. Agapita, St. Nestor and other monks. Since 1171, the Pechersk abbots were called archimandrites (at that time this was the rank of the eldest among the abbots of the city). Before Mongol invasion approximately 50 Pechersk monks became bishops in different cities of Rus'.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, the then monastery gradually turned into a center for the spread and establishment of the Christian religion in the territory of Kievan Rus. In connection with the defeat of Kyiv by the hordes of Khan Batu, the monastery fell into decay for several centuries, like the whole life of Kyiv, and only in the 14th century did the revival of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery begin.

In 1619, the monastery received the very influential and serious status of “Lavra” - the most important and largest monastery at that time.
The Greek word “lavra” means “street”, “built-up city block”, from the VI century. “Laurels” were the name given to the populous monasteries of the East. In Ukraine and Russia, the largest monasteries also called themselves laurels, but this status was given only to the richest and most influential monasteries.
Already by that time, two cities were in the possession of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra - Radomysl and Vasilkov. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Kiev-Pechersaya Lavra became the largest church feudal lord on the territory of what was then Ukraine: the Lavra’s possessions included seven small towns, more than two hundred villages and hamlets, three cities, and, in addition, at least seventy thousand serfs, two paper factories , about twenty brick and glass factories, distilleries and mills, as well as taverns and even stud farms. In 1745, the Lavra Bell Tower was built, which for a long time was the tallest building on the territory Russian Empire and still remains one of the symbols of the monastery. At the end of the 17th century, the Lavra was subordinated to the Moscow Patriarch and, as a result, the archimandrite of the Lavra received the so-called primacy over all other Russian metropolitans. In 1786, the Lavra came under the Kyiv Metropolis. As a result, by the end of the 19th century, the Lavra, in addition to the property listed above, had 6 monasteries at its disposal, which was a very impressive and, practically, record figure.

In the XIX - early XX centuries. The architectural ensemble of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra acquired completeness. Covered galleries to the Near and Far caves were arranged, and the territory of the caves was surrounded by a fortress wall. Several residential buildings for pilgrims were built on the territory Gostiny Dvor, hospital, new refectory, library. The Lavra printing house remained one of the most powerful Kyiv publishing houses, and the icon-painting workshop occupied a prominent place in art.
At the beginning of the 20th century. The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra consisted of about 500 monks and 600 novices who lived in four united monasteries - the Pechersk monastery itself, St. Nicholas or Trinity Hospital, in the Near and Far caves. In addition, the Lavra owned three deserts - Goloseevskaya, Kitaevskaya and Preobrazhenskaya.

None of the Russian sovereigns ignored the Kiev Pechersk Lavra: Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great, Catherine II, Anna Ioannovna, Nicholas I and Nicholas II, Alexander I, Alexander II, Alexander III, Pavel, Elizabeth...
In 1911, the land of the monastery received the remains of Pyotr Arkadievich Stolypin, an outstanding statesman of the Russian Empire.

After the October Revolution of 1917 The most difficult times in its history began for the Lavra.
After the Bolshevik victory, the monks tried to adapt to new conditions. In April 1919, the Kiev Lavra agricultural and craft labor community was organized, consisting of approximately 1,000 clergy, novices and monastic workers. Part of the Lavra's agricultural property was transferred to the community. Other property, both movable and immovable, was seized during several nationalizations during 1919-22. The huge monastery library and printing house were transferred to the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. In 1922, under pressure from the new government, the Lavra Spiritual Cathedral ceased its activities, but the monastic community continued to function.
In 1923, the Museum of Cults and Life began to operate on the territory of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. At the same time, a disabled town was organized here, the leadership and residents of which actually robbed the monks. In 1926, the territory of the Lavra was declared a nature reserve, and the creation of a huge Museum town began here. The monks were finally expelled from the ancient Orthodox shrine in 1929.
Enormous damage to architectural and historical values ​​was also caused during the Great Patriotic War. The main religious building of the country, which survived the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Lithuanian and Polish rule, and the endless wars of the Russian Empire, failed to escape Bolshevik barbarism. In 1941, the Assumption Cathedral was blown up by Soviet underground workers. Only part of the church wall has survived. This is a huge loss for the Ukrainian people.

During the occupation of Kyiv, the German command allowed the monastery to resume its activities. The initiator of the renewal was Archbishop Anthony of Kherson and Tauride, known in the world as the Georgian prince David Abashidze. It was he who at one time was the rector of the seminary from which young Joseph Dzhugashvilli (Stalin) was expelled. The “Leader of Nations,” however, respected the elder and did not interfere in the affairs of the revived Lavra. Therefore, the Soviets returned their “government” after Stalin’s death - during the era of Nikita Khrushchev, who distinguished himself by the oppression of religion.
In June 1988, in connection with the celebration of the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus and, accordingly, to the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the URSR, the newly created Pechersk community was transferred to the territory of the Far Caves, the so-called. “Lower” Lavra, with all above-ground buildings and caves; and in 1990 The territory of the Near Caves was also transferred. The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nature Reserve cooperates with the monastery, which was awarded National status in 1996. In 1990, the complex of Lavra buildings was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Already during the times of independent Ukraine, using ancient construction techniques, specialists managed to recreate the main Lavra temple. In 2000, the Assumption Cathedral was consecrated.

...We are standing near the Holy Gates. Now it's main entrance to the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. In the old days there was a sign: after passing through the gate, a person received remission of half of his sins. But if suddenly a parishioner stumbled, it was believed that he had too many sins, and they were dragging him down. Adjacent to the gate is the Church of the Holy Trinity, built in the 12th century at the expense of Prince Nikolai Svyatoshi. By the way, he became one of the first Kyiv princes to take monastic vows at the Lavra. He also founded a hospital here for infirm brothers...

Trinity Gate Church is one of 6 monuments from princely times that have survived to this day. She, too, has undergone changes and now has features of Ukrainian Baroque, like Sophia of Kiev. It contains a wonderful iconostasis from the 18th century, looking like amazing golden lace, shining with reflections of the sun. It's hard to believe that this beauty was carved from a simple tree.
The entrance to the monastery passes through the gates of this church. They say that once upon a time priests-goalkeepers stood here and from a distance they sensed a man who was walking with evil thoughts. They brought them back, asking them to think about it and come next time. Before passing through the church arch, you must bow low to the holy monastery, and only after that, go inside and dissolve in the architectural grandeur.

We pass through the Holy Gates and find ourselves on the territory of the Upper Lavra. Opposite the Trinity Church, the recreated Assumption Cathedral is bathed in the golden shine of the sun's rays.
It seemed to people that such a beautiful temple could not be built by ordinary human hands, so the people composed many poetic legends about it.

Architects from Constantinople appeared to the Monks Anthony and Theodosius. They said that they had a vision of the Mother of God and an order to go to Kyiv to build a temple.
“Where will the church be located?” - they asked the Monks Anthony and Theodosius. “Where the Lord will indicate,” they heard the answer. And for three days, dew and heavenly fire fell in the same place. There, in 1073, the Assumption Church was founded. At the same time, the Varangian governor Shimon came to the elders and donated a golden crown and belt for the construction of the cathedral. He also talked about miraculous phenomenon Our Lady and the order to give away valuables for the construction of the temple. Subsequently, the Varangian converted to Orthodoxy, becoming Simon at baptism, and was buried in the Lavra (his great-great-granddaughter, Sofya Aksakova, also found her final refuge here). A few years after those miraculous events, the temple was built, and the Byzantine architects, like the icon painters who painted it, took monasticism here.
The Assumption Cathedral was known as the heart of the Lavra. Many famous people were buried here, for example the Monk Theodosius. Initially, the elder was buried in his cave, but three years later the monks decided that it was not right for one of the founders of the monastery to lie there. The relics of the saint turned out to be incorrupt - they were transferred and buried in the Assumption Cathedral.

The cathedral was decorated with ancient Russian frescoes and fragments of mosaics, complex modeling, wall paintings executed outstanding masters S. Kovnir, Z. Golubovsky, G. Pastukhov; images of historical persons - kings, princes, hetmans, metropolitans. The floor of the temple was covered with mosaic patterns, and the icons were contained only in silver vestments covered with gold. The unique structure served as a tomb for the Kyiv princes, high clergy, educators, philanthropists and other outstanding compatriots. Therefore, the significance of the Assumption Cathedral can hardly be overestimated: it was a real stone treasury, keeping within its walls the history of our people.

Next to the recreated cathedral are the St. Nicholas Church with a dome studded with stars, and the Great Lavra Bell Tower, erected in 1731-44. It was erected German architect Johann Gottfried Schedel. I planned to complete it in three years - but it took me 13 years! I was very proud of this work of mine - and for good reason. The large bell tower (96 m high) is popularly called the “Kyiv Leaning Tower of Pisa” due to its slight slope. However, thanks to the 20-meter massive 8-meter-thick foundation buried in the ground, the Lavra Tower, unlike the Italian one, is not in danger of falling. Before the appearance Eiffel Tower The Great Lavra Bell Tower was considered the tallest building in Europe.

To the right of the Assumption Cathedral is the Refectory Church with a refectory chamber, thanks to which a huge number of believers can attend the service. In the center of the room, like a huge gray cloud, hangs a “chandelier” donated by Nicholas II - a chandelier weighing 1200 kg.

And we follow further - to the Lower Lavra, to the very mysterious places– Near and Far caves.
In the old days, even serious historians claimed that the caves from the Kiev Pechersk Lavra stretch all the way to Chernigov! Others said that the Kiev Lavra is connected with the Pochaev Lavra by caves.
All this is from the realm of idle speculation. But, of course, there were some secrets! In the first years of Soviet power, archaeologists persistently searched for treasures here. They didn’t find it, but the atheists themselves admitted that in some corners of the caves, water suddenly poured on their heads, or a pillar of fire rose.

The monks prayed in the cramped earthen shelters of the first caves, and many were buried here. By the way, the relics of St. Anthony were never found. It is believed that they are “under the radar.” According to legend, Anthony was giving parting words to his brothers when an unexpected collapse occurred. The brothers tried to eliminate him and take the monk out - but flames burst out...
Many monks became hermits: they closed the entrance to their cell, receiving only food and water through a small window. And if the bread remained untouched for several days, the brothers understood that the recluse had died.

The hermit monks who lived here in ancient times were buried in underground cells, and gradually the caves turned into a monastery cemetery. The deceased was washed with exposed parts of the body, folded his arms over his chest and covered his face. After this, it was forbidden to look at the face of the deceased (that is why even today the faces of saints resting in caves are not opened). Then the body was placed on a board and placed in a specially dug niche - a locula. The entrance to it was closed with a wooden barrier or walled up. According to the Studite Charter, the burial ritual continued three years later, when the locula was opened and the bones, cleared of flesh, were transferred to the kimetiria ossuary. Then the body was placed in crypts dug in caves and walled up, and the burial place was covered with an icon or a wooden tablet with an inscription about the deceased. The relics of canonized ascetics, preserved incorrupt, were dressed in brocade vestments, placed in special, mostly cypress tombs, and placed in the corridors for worship. Of the 122 relics resting in both caves, 49 date back to the pre-Mongol period.

Relics of St. Elijah of Murom of Pechersk

By the grace of God, there are many monasteries and places on Christian land where the incorruptible relics of ascetics and martyrs glorified by the church are preserved as the greatest shrine. But there is no other place on the planet where such a number of holy relics are kept as in the Lavra.
When visiting the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, pilgrims, pilgrims and tourists first of all try to visit the caves. The place is very unusual. The caves have many passages, some of them are as tall as a person, and in some places they are so low that you have to bend down. Even now, when the walls are reinforced and illuminated, it is a little creepy to walk there alone. And it is simply impossible for us today to imagine the life of monks, living for years in darkness and silence, alone with themselves and God...
Now the labyrinths of the Near and Far caves are a complex system of underground corridors 2-2.5 m high. The depth of the Near caves is 10-15 m, the Far ones - 15-20 m. Monks have been digging them for centuries. The total length of the dungeons existing under the Lavra is enormous. But those that served as the dwelling of ascetics, a monastic cemetery and a place of worship are open to visit.

In the 16th-17th centuries, the Near Caves were a complex system of corridors, consisting of three main streets. Inside this settlement, under the thickness of the earth, there were two churches: the Presentation of the Virgin Mary into the Temple, considered the most ancient, and St. Anthony of Pechersk. Somewhat later, a third one was built - St. Varlaam of Pechersk. The monastic brethren have always been tirelessly building, and after the earthquake in 1620, when part of the labyrinths collapsed, underground architects made repairs to them, and strengthened the cave street with bricks. In the 18th century, the floors in the caves were made of cast iron slabs, which still serve well today. In the 19th century, the brethren added new iconostases to the existing ones, and dressed the holy relics in the tombs in expensive brocade and silk outfits, embroidered with gold and silver threads, river mother-of-pearl and beads.

It must be said that scientists have more than once conducted research into the Lavra dungeons and relics. Archaeologists, historians, doctors, and biologists worked in the caves. Mostly people with an atheistic upbringing and far from the church. But the results of experiments and observations so amazed the researchers themselves that many of them believed in God. After all, they themselves proved that the relics of saints have unique properties inexplicable by science.
After a series of experiments, Kyiv scientists realized that the power of the Holy Spirit is real! That grace and healing come from icons, that the pectoral cross protects from evil forces, and the relics of saints heal people and speed up the growth of plants.
Specific and striking examples have repeatedly convinced that saints hear, help, heal, admonish, perform miracles and console. Reverends hear those of us who address them as if they were alive, who are familiar with their lives and firmly believe in their help. And to strengthen faith, the saints of Pechersk can generously reward and surprise the petitioner with a miracle.

There are many wonderful things in the laurel! Downstairs, in the Life-Giving Spring Church, a prayer service is held every morning. After it, parishioners can put on a hat consecrated on the relics of St. Mark the Grave Digger (XI-XII centuries). Blessed Mark dug both cells and graves for his deceased brothers. The Lord granted him unprecedented power: one day he fell ill and was unable to dig a grave for the deceased monk.
And then Mark, through another monk, conveyed a request to the deceased: they say, brother, wait until you depart for the Kingdom of the Lord, the grave is not yet ready for you. Many witnessed the miracle; some ran away in fear when the dead man came to his senses and opened his eyes. The next day, Mark said that the monastery for the newly deceased was ready - at the same moment the monk closed his eyes and died again.
Another time, Mark asked the deceased monk to lie down in the cave and pour oil on himself, which he did. The monastery still houses an artifact - the cross of Mark the Grave Digger: it was hollow inside and the monk drank water from it. Even in the last century, parishioners could kiss it; now it has been transferred to the funds of the Lavra Nature Reserve.

Our path is to the Far Caves. If you go down from the Annozachatyevskaya Church, you can follow the route to the Far Caves. Some of its branches are closed to the public. But here the relics of 49 saints are exhibited, and some of them have uncovered hands, and you can see the incorruptible relics. The oldest underground churches are located here: the Church of the Nativity of Christ, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. Theodosius of Pechersk.
It was believed that the soul would certainly receive forgiveness of sins and go to heaven if a person was buried in the Lavra. Whether this is true or not is unknown. But the miraculous myrrh-streaming of the relics of the righteous placed in tombs made of cypress wood is known far beyond the borders of Ukraine. The phenomenon is truly mysterious: a world-healing substance containing up to 80% living protein is released from dry flesh. Without seeing it, it's hard to believe it. So pilgrims go to the caves to venerate the holy relics and see the amazing myrrh.
In 1988, when the Kiev Pechersk Lavra restored its prayer activities, the monks noticed that from that day on, the heads and relics of the saints in it had been myrrh-filled! Then the myrrh was collected in bowls - there was so much of it! Apparently, the Higher Powers reacted this way to the return of the church’s shrines.
IN Russian history When the Bolsheviks destroyed hundreds of churches and killed tens of thousands of priests, the heads and relics of saints in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra did not show myrrh.

The names of the 24 saints resting here are unknown, but it is known that here are the relics of Ilya of Murom, St. Nestor the Chronicler, author of the Tale of Bygone Years, the relics of St. Longinus and Theodosius of Pechersk, and the head of Pope Clement. It was presented to Prince Vladimir on the occasion of his adoption of Christianity.
The bodies of the dead monks buried in the caves did not decompose, but were mummified. Even today, after 1000 years, the preservation of some of them is impressive.
Scientists at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra have not found an answer why even a dried corpse an ordinary person- this is not a fragrance at all, and near the relics of the holy righteous there is neither the smell of decay nor decomposition, next to them there is a fragrance. Science can never comprehend this mystery; you just have to believe in it.

One of the unclear points is the Varangian caves. The entrance there is now closed, although they are connected to the Far Caves. The place is considered dangerous due to landslides and landslides - and maybe for another reason! After all, even in Good times The Varangian caves were not held in high esteem by the monks... There is a legend that long before the arrival of Anthony, these passages were dug by thieves and other dark personalities.
They robbed ships passing along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and hid the goods in these dungeons.
There is a dark reputation about the Varangian caves. In the 12th century. Blessed Feodor settled here, distributing his wealth to the laity, and then regretting what he had done. The demon began to seduce him and pointed out the place in the Varangian nooks and crannies where the treasure was hidden. Feodor was about to flee with gold and silver, but the Monk Vasily kept him from sin. Fyodor repented, dug a huge hole and hid the treasures.
But the Kiev prince Mstislav found out about this and tried to find out from the elder the location of the treasure. Fedor died under torture, but did not reveal himself. Then the prince set to work on Vasily. The angry feudal lord shot an arrow at blessed Vasily, and he, dying, replied: “You yourself will die from the same arrow.” The elders were then buried in the Varangian cave. And Mstislav really died, pierced by an arrow. Later, many people searched for the “Varangian treasure” - some lost their minds, some even lost their lives. But the enchanted gold was never found.
...Over the thousand-year history of its existence, the Kiev Pechersk Lavra has acquired many myths and legends. How many spiritual exploits have the cells and walls of monasteries seen! How many people have witnessed the miracles of the Lord!

There are many museums and exhibitions on the territory of the Lavra. For example, in the jewelry museum you can see a priceless collection historical values from the times of Kievan Rus.
A significant part of the Museum’s collections are products of decorative and applied art of the 16th-20th centuries: works of Ukrainian, Russian, Central Asian, Transcaucasian and Western European jewelers. There is also a unique collection of Jewish cult silver from the early 18th - 20s. XX centuries, as well as the works of modern Ukrainian jewelers.
Very interesting and State Museum books and printing in Ukraine. The museum contains rich treasures of the book culture of the Ukrainian people, about 56 thousand items. The exhibition covers the history of Russian books and bookmaking from the times of Kievan Rus to the present day; talks about the creation of writing Eastern Slavs, O handwritten book X-XVI centuries, about the origin of book printing in Europe, the beginning and development of Cyrillic book printing, about the publishing activities of Ivan Fedorov and about other outstanding creators of Ukrainian books of the XVI-XVIII centuries.
Of great interest is the “Apostle,” published in Lvov in 1574 by the printing house of Ivan Fedorov, whose name is associated with the beginning of book printing in Ukraine.
Don't forget to check out the microminiature museum. Here you will see that very few people have the talent to shoe a flea....
The museum displays such exhibits as the world's smallest working electric motor, the size of which is less than 1/20 cubic millimeters and, it is difficult to imagine that this device is almost 20 times smaller than a poppy seed. Among other microminiatures presented in the Museum in the Kiev-Pechersk Reserve, there are no less interesting, unique and inimitable. Which? Come, watch, learn and be surprised!

It is difficult to imagine Kyiv without its unique beauty and grandeur architectural complex Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. If you were in Kyiv and did not see the Lavra, then you have not seen Kyiv.
And I really want to believe that the great shrine of Kievan Rus will be protected and preserved, so that our descendants can enjoy the unique monument of all Orthodox humanity. However, everything depends only on ourselves - on those who live today and now.

Photos taken from the Internet

The fresco painting of Byzantium has hardly survived. Mosaics turned out to be more durable and typical of the Byzantine desire for color and splendor. Antique mosaics were made from cubes of marble and colored stone and were used in the decoration of the vault.

Also known is the Florentine mosaic, made from tightly fitted pieces of marble and stone using the inlay technique. Byzantine mosaics were made from smalt (pieces of glass painted with enamels) and served to decorate walls and vaults.

Palace mosaic compositions (Constantinople, Palermo) represent hunting or pastoral scenes. But mostly Byzantine mosaics are found in churches.

Decorative and applied arts of Byzantium

Book miniature

Book miniatures of Byzantium are multicolored: there are examples of the solemn style and more realistic, more colorful and more austere ones, belonging to the imperial and monastic schools.

Ceramics and glass

Byzantine ceramics are still little studied. At first, single-color glazed dishes were made, from the 9th century. it had a molded relief. Of greatest interest are the facing tiles, convex and concave, decorated with decorative motifs. The flat tiles depicted the Virgin and Child or saints. Often the composition was made up of many tiles. Later the dishes became polychrome. From the 9th century The sgraffito technique is used, that is, scratching along the glaze or removing wide areas of glaze.

If we talk about glass, the most remarkable are the stained glass windows made of real glass, covered with colored enamels and set in lead, which were found in the windows of the apse of the Chora Monastery (Kahrie Jami in Constantinople), created no later than 1120. They depict the Virgin Mary, Christ, in human size , saints in rich Byzantine clothes, the background is decorated with medallions, rosettes, and curls. Colors - blue, green, crimson.

Jewelry and metalworking

Niello, pearls, gems and especially enamel. Greatest glory Byzantine jewelers took advantage of the splendor of the palette of their enamels. These are cloisonné enamels: crosses, frames of holy books, crowns. Sometimes the enamels are solid, but more often they are on a gold background: the Byzantines believed that the sky was covered with this metal, and they highly valued gold. The most interesting are the items from the Limburg reliquary and the Hungarian crown. They were made in the royal workshops, but silver products are inferior to gold ones.

Bronze was used to make the doors (the doors of the Hagia Sophia - with a subtle ornamental pattern and engraving). The Byzantines received many orders for temple doors from European countries In addition, they made openwork bronze lamps, crosses, censers, plaques (plates), and royal doors (altar doors).

Stone

In the field of stone-cutting art, the Byzantines left only examples of architectural decoration, for example, the capitals of Hagia Sophia. The carving is very fine, sometimes resembling ivory carving. Sculptural relief flat, openwork, with abundant floral patterns.

Fabrics

The authenticity of the Byzantine origin of fabrics can be determined mainly by the ornament: a favorite motif is a circle with the figure of an animal (lion, elephant, eagle - a symbol of power). Silks embroidered with gold thread have been preserved. Dalmatica, the spacious long robe of Charlemagne, is made from this silk.

17 most important monuments of architecture, painting and decorative arts, by getting acquainted with which you can get an idea of ​​how the development of art culture in the Eastern Roman Empire

Prepared by Maria Grinberg

1. Sophia of Constantinople

532-537 years. Istanbul

Hagia Sophia is the main architectural creation of Byzantium, created by the Asia Minor mathematician Anthimius of Thrall and the architect Isidore of Miletus. Not just the first temple of the empire, but the center of its ecclesiastical and political life, an integral part of a scrupulous, carefully thought-out court ceremony, described, in particular, in the treatise “On Ceremonies” by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

Hagia Sophia became the highest achievement of Byzantine architecture, being the heir ancient architecture. Its idea was formulated by the architect Donato Bramante in the 15th century. Donato Bramante(1444-1514) - Italian architect who built St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.: "Dome of the Pantheon Pantheon- a temple in Rome, built in 126 AD. It is a rotunda covered with a hemispherical dome., raised in the Basilica of Maxentius Basilica of Maxentius- a temple in Rome, built in 308-312 AD in the form of a basilica: a rectangular structure consisting of three longitudinal naves covered with a stone vault." Indeed, the brilliant guess of the authors of Hagia Sophia was the idea of ​​merging two architectural ideas of Antiquity: the longitudinal ship of the central nave Nave(from Latin navis - “ship”) - an elongated rectangular part of the interior, limited by one or two rows of columns and/or a wall. The space of medieval western and eastern temples is often divided into naves, where they came from ancient Greek and Roman architecture.(80 meters long) and the sphere crowning it (a flat, low drum and incredibly wide dome with a diameter of 31 meters) became a single whole: the thrust of the giant dome is “damped” by half-domes resting on powerful, complexly shaped pillars, from which the stone mass falls onto the sails and arches. Thanks to this, the side walls of the building became fragile, completely cut by windows, and the entire interior of Sofia was flooded with light, transforming the stone mass, making it weightless and intangible.

Thin shell of the walls, neutral on the outside (monotonous plinth Plintha- wide and flat baked brick.), and precious inside (gold, natural stones, abundance of natural and artificial light), turned out to be the most important discovery of Byzantine architectural aesthetics and was embodied in a huge variety of forms. And the dome of Sophia became an idea fix of Byzantine and then Ottoman architecture, never repeated by anyone: the project of the architects of Justinian turned out to be too complex and ambitious.

Immediately after the completion of Hagia Sophia, its dome cracked and then underwent several repairs (the first of which occurred after the earthquake in 557), during which it was strengthened by building buttresses and blocking part of the drum windows. It's no wonder that over time appearance Sophia was greatly mutated: its logical structural frame was hidden by powerful stone risalits Rizalit- part of the facade, protruding beyond its main line at full height., small turrets and all kinds of service premises.

2. Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) in Constantinople

VI century. Istanbul

The rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire were characterized by bold ambitions. They are eloquently evidenced by the first Christian building of Constantinople - the so-called Apostoleion, erected by Emperor Constantine I the Great (306-337) in the very high point city, at the Adrianople Gate (where the Fatih Mosque now stands). Dedicated to the twelve apostles, the church became the storage place for their relics, as well as the relics of the emperor-builder, whose sarcophagus was erected in the center of the interior - literally illustrating the idea of ​​Constantine's equal-to-the-apostles.

Here is what the historian Eusebius of Caesarea writes about this:

“In this temple he prepared a place for himself in the event of his death, foreseeing with the extraordinary power of faith that after his death his relics would be honored with the names of apostles, and desiring, even after his death, to take part in the prayers that would be offered in this temple in honor of the apostles. So, having built twelve arks there, like twelve sacred monuments, in honor and glory of the face of the apostles, in the middle of them he placed a coffin for himself so that on both sides of this coffin stood six apostles.”

"The Life of Blessed Basileus Constantine"

Two centuries later, under Emperor Justinian, the Church of Constantine was rebuilt, but in general terms retained the original plan. The Apostoleion of the 6th century, a grandiose cruciform temple with five domes, appeared for Byzantium almost the same emblematic image of the temple as Hagia Sophia: for centuries throughout the empire, from Kalat Semana in Syria to San Marco in Venice, his architectural idea inspired Byzantine builders. Apparently, it is he who is depicted on the sheet with the Ascension scene in the manuscript of the homilies of Jacob Kokkinovathsky Around 1125-1150, Vatican..

In the mid-15th century, the Church of the Holy Apostles was demolished by order of Sultan Mehmet II Fatih. We nevertheless know it from many descriptions: Procopius of Caesarea (mid-6th century), Constantine Porphyrogenitus (mid-10th century), Constantine of Rhodes (mid-10th century) and Nicholas Mesarites (about 1200).

3. Church of Simeon the Stylite (Kalat-Seman)

475 Aleppo

In the 5th century in Eastern Syria, near Aleppo, lived Saint Simeon, who discovered special kind asceticism - standing on a pillar. Renouncing the worldly in every possible way and caring about the mortification of the flesh, the monk was subjected to countless temptations, partially described in Luis Buñuel’s film “Simeon the Hermit.” Having spent several decades at an altitude of 16 meters, Simeon was honored by Christians from all over the world, including Persians, Armenians and the British.

Around that same pillar, which exists to this day (Byzantine miniaturists loved to depict Simeon’s pillar as a column with a capital, completed with an elegant balustrade, inside which the saint himself was located; sometimes a ladder was attached to the column), in the 80-90s of the 5th century there was a monastery complex was erected, grand vision which found its equal only among the imperial ensembles of late Rome.

The octagonal core of Kalat Semana (translated from Arabic as “Simeon’s fortress”) is surrounded by three arms. Together they form a spatial cross, almost the same as in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Now the temple is in ruins, and what it exactly looked like immediately after construction is unknown, but thanks to the testimony of Evagrius Scholasticus, we know that the central core, which contained the pillar of Simeon, remained open.

Following Kalat-Seman, a whole architectural direction V-VI centuries, represented by the churches of Simeon the Stylite the Younger on the Wondrous Mountain, John in Ephesus and the Prophets, Apostles and Martyrs in Gerasa.

4. Barberini diptych

VI century. Louvre, Paris

The late antique imperial diptych originally consisted of two ivory tablets, on one side polished and covered with wax (on them with a steel stick, style, notes were applied), and on the other, decorated with ivory relief inlaid with pearls.

Only one panel of the Barberini diptych (named after its 17th-century owner) has survived. It represents the triumph of an emperor (which one is unknown: possible contenders are the emperors Justinian, Anastasius I or Zeno), whose head is crowned with a palm branch by an allegorical figurine of Nike, the goddess of victory. The Emperor sits on a horse and raises his spear, and at his feet lies the generous, fruitful Earth (in the figure of art historian Andre Grabar Andre Grabar(1896-1990) - Byzantineist, one of the founders of the French school of Byzantine art criticism. saw a hint of the universal role of the Byzantine emperors).

According to imperial iconographers and panegyrists, the enemies of the basileus were like wild animals. Therefore, in the Barberini diptych, trampled barbarians, dressed in exotic clothes, march in the same column with elephants, lions and tigers to present their gifts to the triumphant. Absolutely ancient iconography, adopting a single sign new era- the image of Christ crowning the scene of the imperial triumph.

The Barberini diptych is one of the most brilliant and technically advanced works of art of the 6th century. After Emperor Justinian, such diptychs ceased to be in use, but even among the surviving objects there is hardly a copy as luxurious, intricate and finely executed.

5. Viennese Genesis

First half of the 6th century. Austrian National Library, Vienna

In addition, the oldest well-preserved illustrated manuscript of the Bible dates back to the 6th century. It contains a fragment of the text of the Book of Genesis written on purple with silver ink - an expensive rarity, clearly indicating the royal origin of its owner.

Each page of Genesis is decorated with miniatures. Some of them have the form of friezes (the plots on them are not chronologically connected), while others are built like a picture and are framed: if there was no need for compositionally independent miniatures in the scroll, it arose during the transition to the codex book.

Like the Barberini diptych, the painting of the Viennese Genesis is full of ancient allusions and is reminiscent of the paintings of Pompeii: this is served by graceful columns, porticoes and airy velums Velum(from Latin velum - sail) - curtain, bedspread, usually depicted as arched. Images of velums are common in icon painting, but date back to Antiquity., allegorical figures of sources and bucolic motifs. Early Christian painting was in no hurry to part with its Roman past.

6. Icon of the Mother of God with saints

VI-VII centuries. Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Antique ideas about the image also dominate early icons, for example, the icon with images of the Mother of God and Child and holy martyrs from the collection of the Sinai monastery. The images of Mary seated on the throne, Christ and two angels are still sensual and spatially reliable in the ancient way, and their faces (or rather, faces) are emotionally neutral and filled with calm.

On the contrary, the martyrs (possibly the holy warriors Theodore and George - based on the typical similarity to their later codified portraits) with golden crosses in their hands (as a sign of their martyrdom and posthumous glory) are painted in a way that very soon, when the iconoclastic disputes are over, will be decided in the East -Christian icon painters and theologians. Hidden by luxurious mantles, their figures resemble appliqués; small symbolic legs are placed as if the bodies were suspended in the air, and the faces (already faces, not faces) are stern, motionless and numbly looking forward: what for life-loving Antiquity is sheer boredom, for Byzantium is a spiritual ideal based on self-renunciation.

The icon was painted with wax paints (like the few other surviving contemporaries from the collection of the Sinai monastery and the National Museum of Art named after Varvara and Bogdan Khanenko in Kyiv). Painting with wax paints, which had disappeared from the practice of icon painters by the 8th century, made it possible to paint “hot” (when the next layer of paint was applied to the already dried lower one). Thanks to this, the paint surface kept the strokes visible, essentially conveying the movement of the brush, the handwriting and manner of the artist. Such spontaneity subsequently turned out to be inappropriate for developed theological ideas about the iconographic image.

7. Khludov Psalter

Mid-9th century. State Historical Museum, Moscow

The Khludov psalter, named after Alexei Ivanovich Khludov, who owned the manuscript in the 19th century, is one of three surviving psalters created in the Studite monastery of Constantinople shortly after the restoration of icon veneration (after two centuries of literal oblivion of fine art, during the years 726-843, anthropomorphic images of Christ and the saints remained outside the law). This manuscript (the so-called monastic edition of the psalter with illustrations in the margins) is the most complete of the three and the most abundantly illustrated.

The most telling feature of her miniatures is the artistic response to recent events. The illustration for Psalm 68:22, “And they gave me gall for food, and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink,” depicts two iconoclasts dipping the sponges at the ends of their spears into lime to smear the face of Christ with them. Their long, standing hair brings to mind medieval depictions of the devil, who traditionally wore a similar hairstyle. On the same page there is an explicit comparison of the iconoclasts with those who crucified Christ (the same movements and objects in their hands), which leaves no chance for rehabilitation for the former - their faces, so hated by the medieval reader of the manuscript, were scraped out.

8. Minology of Vasily II

Beginning of the 11th century. Vatican Library

The 10th-11th centuries in Byzantium became a time of great hagiographic Hagiography- a set of lives of saints and other genres, dedicated to life and the activities of saints, such as miracles, martyrdoms, etc. projects like minology Minologius - a collection of the lives of saints arranged in the order of their commemoration during the liturgical year (September to August). Symeon Metaphrastus, stylistic unification of hagiographic texts and compilation of collections free from pre-iconoclastic marginal subjects.

The manuscript, now kept in the Vatican, was intended as a luxurious illustrated collection of the lives of saints, presented to Emperor Basil II the Bulgarian Slayer (976-1025). Each life takes up only 16 lines per page, while the rest of the page is devoted to miniatures. This is a unique case for Byzantine book writing of the subordination of text to image: the miniatures were written first (on several pages the text area remained empty). The code preserved the names of eight artists who worked on the creation of 430 illustrations - unprecedented material for analyzing not only the handwriting of the masters, but also the question of their cooperation within the artel.

The minology of Vasily II is a brilliant example of a mature Byzantine art: in the miniatures with portraits of saints and scenes of their martyrdom, a delicate balance was found between the imitation of reality, characteristic of Antiquity, and medieval convention and asceticism. Natural forms characteristic of nature turn into geometric ones; soft halftones - in golden assist Assist- lines applied in gold over the paint layer. Symbolizes divine light.; faces with individually specific features - into frozen symmetrical faces.

9. Mosaics and frescoes of the monastery of Hosios Loukas in Phokis

Around 1040. Greece

Its apogee artistic direction reached in the ensemble of the monastery of Hosios Loukas (St. Luke) in Phokis. Its katholikon (main temple) and crypt (underground room) have preserved amazing mosaics and frescoes from the 40s of the 11th century - the time of the so-called ascetic style, popular not only in monasteries, but also among provincial princes (the mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia of Kiev were made in that same manner). It can be assumed that this aesthetics was formed in the artistic circles of Constantinople: this is indirectly indicated by the exceptional quality of performance of the Greek ensemble.

On the shining golden background of the dome of the Hosios Loukas katholikon, the descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles is represented - quite rare iconography in Byzantium, glorified in the descriptions of the Apostoleion of Constantinople.

Not following nature, mosaicists Hosios-Lukas reduce the figures of saints almost to symbols, emphasizing only the most significant details - the characters’ gestures and their huge identical frozen eyes. The skillful marble cladding of the walls demonstrates the Byzantine understanding of the hierarchy of architecture: evangelical scenes and images of saints on a golden background hover at the level of the vaults, while the lower planes of the walls are occupied by an abstract pattern of natural stone.

Among the rarities of Hosios Loukas is the crypt under the katholikon, the burial place of St. Luke, painted simultaneously with the katholikon itself with frescoes depicting the feasts and passion of Christ. A significant place in the paintings of the entire ensemble is occupied by images of saints, many of whom are monks, including locally revered ones (Luke Gurnikiot, Nikon Metanoit, Luke Styriot). The monastic and local character of the temple's decoration program is combined with a high-born capital order: the founder of the monastery was Emperor Romanus II (died 963).

Grandiose for its time, the Hosios-Lukas project is an example of the Middle Byzantine synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture, creating the ideal iconographic scheme of a cross-domed temple.

10. Chalice of Emperor Roman

10th century Treasury of the Cathedral of San Marco, Venice

The chalice (a liturgical vessel used to consecrate wine and receive the sacrament) was one of the treasures brought from Constantinople to Venice by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Made of sardonyx, gilded silver, pearls and cloisonné enamel, this chalice was the contribution of a certain Byzantine emperor to one of the capital's churches: on the base of its stem is engraved an inscription asking for God's help to the emperor, described in the epithets “faithful” and “orthodox”. It is believed that this emperor was Romanus I Lecapinus (920-944), who ascended the throne after Leo VI (886-912).

In the upper part of the vessel there are fifteen enamel plates framed with pearl threads. They feature half-figures of Christ, John the Baptist, the Mother of God, the Evangelists and the Fathers of the Church - in essence, a painting of the church in miniature - preserving its central images, and their hierarchical structure.

11. Holy Crown of Hungary

1074-1077. Parliament Palace, Budapest

© Wikimedia Commons

© Wikimedia Commons

© Wikimedia Commons

The compositional center of the crown is decorated with enamel plates with images of Christ and Emperor Michael VII Duca (probably intended for another, unknown object presented by the Byzantine basileus to the ruler of Hungary and later incorporated into the crown). On one side of the crown sits Christ, surrounded by the archangels Michael and Gabriel and several saints (George and Dmitry, Kozma and Damian), with their faces turned to the King of Heaven. On the other side of the crown, as if reflecting its frontal part, on either side of the Byzantine autocrat sit his son Constantine and King Geza I of Hungary. They look at the basileus with the same kind of humility and submission as the saints look at the Supreme Judge.

What is a fresco? Translated from Italian, the word fresco means “fresh”, “not dried out”. Essentially, this concept is related to unique art temple wall painting, special technique which requires the highest skill. The “fresco on the wall” technique is painting on raw affresco plaster. It is the opposite of asecco, painting on a dry surface. When plaster painted with frescoes dries, a thin film based on calcareous calcium is formed, which serves as a natural protection for the design. Thus, the image becomes literally eternal.

Variety of ways

Today, the “wall fresco” method is used to create images of a sacred nature inside the church, regardless of the technique or material with which the artist works. There are several methods that the master adheres to in his work. “The fresco on the ceiling” is the most difficult; it can only be painted while lying down.

There are technologies when a secondary additional painting is done on a finished, dried fresco with tempera, oil or acrylic paints. The most common fresco painting technique is the so-called buon fresco, which means "pure fresco". The first mention of this method contains a treatise by the Italian painter Cennino Cennini, who lived in the 15th century.

History of wall paintings

It is unknown when the first frescoes appeared; one can only assume that in the era of the Aegean culture, in the second millennium BC, similar images already existed in abundance. The paints were applied to a primitive base reminiscent of casein glue, and the drawing technique defies any classification, it is only clear that it was closer to “asekko”. Fresco painting flourished in ancient period. Later, Christianity adopted this art, since it was the frescoes of the cathedral or church that most fully reflected biblical scenes.

Materials

What is a fresco from the point of view of the artist himself? It is, first of all, thin, jewelry work brushes Church frescoes are distinguished by the elaboration of the smallest details. An artist can paint one subject for weeks, sometimes it seems that the work stands still, so meticulous is the painter’s work. But when the fresco is finished, it is impossible to take your eyes off it.

In ancient times, mixed wall painting was in use in Rus'; the main material was water-based paints, which were applied to wet plaster and then supplemented with tempera on animal or vegetable glue, sometimes egg.

In Europe, people began to understand what fresco was with the beginning of the Renaissance. It was the church walls that became the main measure of the artist’s skill. The art of fresco painting reached its greatest flowering in Italy during the Renaissance. Great masters such as Michelangelo and Raphael worked in this field.

Antique frescoes

The treatises of Vitruvius describe the technology of plastering interior walls, on which fresco paintings were later applied. These were lime-based mixtures, applied in seven layers and smoothed to a shine. Sand was added to the first two layers, clay composite was added to the next three, and marble chips were added to the top two. To avoid cracks, the plaster was slightly diluted with water, and all layers were compacted.

For strength, reinforcing components, crushed brick, pumice, straw and hemp were added to the mixture. Multi-layer application of plaster contributed to slow drying, which gave the artist the opportunity to paint for a long time. Then, upon completion of the work, it was recommended to cover the frescoes with a mixture of olive oil and beeswax.

Byzantine frescoes

The most labor-intensive painting process is described in “Erminia Dionysius” in the 17th century. Frescoes in Byzantium were distinguished by their variety and size. The plaster dried before the work was done. The number of layers was gradually reduced, and eventually only two layers were used instead of seven. Instead of marble powder, flax and tow began to be introduced, which retained moisture well. The cracks were eliminated by adding quicklime. The earliest Byzantine fresco painting is in the Church of St. Mary in Rome. The surface of the drawings was polished, and later Byzantine artists abandoned this labor-intensive process.

Old Russian frescoes

Early Russian fresco painting was done in the Byzantine manner. Wet plaster was used for four days. The artists used this time to paint murals throughout the area. However, just in four days, the primer for the frescoes, gesso, acquired undesirable properties, and when paints were applied to it, it irreversibly spoiled them due to its reaction with turpentine fillers.

The painting time had to be sharply reduced. In the instructions of Bishop Nektary, it is recommended not to leave the gesso “without writing” for two hours and not to take breaks for lunch. And still, the completion of the work often coincided with the complete drying of the base. The last strokes were made with egg tempera, and already in the 18th century frescoes began to be painted with oil paints. It is characteristic that the frescoes of Rublev, a famous icon painter, as well as Theophan the Greek, his contemporary, were painted only with tempera paints.

Frescoes of Italian origin

What is a "buon" fresco? Literally it means "pure". In other words, this is a multi-layer application of paint layers with intermediate drying. This technique is advantageous in terms of speed, but it loses in the nuances of color solutions.

After some time, fresco painting became gradual. Dried works were painted over with tempera paints “dry”, and this technique was fully justified, since artists had the opportunity to divide their work into separate segments and slowly complete the work, knowing that the factor of quickly drying plaster no longer mattered.

"Clean" technique

Using the “buon” method, a whole system was developed, a kind of guide, according to which the artist achieved the optimal result. The entire fresco, if its size was at least two square meters, was divided into separate sections, the norms of one day, the so-called jornata. In addition, the work was planned according to height, so that when painting the upper areas it would not splash the lower areas. Some frescoes were created using other technologies. Since the 15th century, there was a so-called mosaic fresco, which was not painted, but laid out with small pieces of smalt or semi-precious stones.

Upon completion of painting, the fresco must be polished, often with the application of a wax layer. The paintings of Perugino and Giotto were always polished to a shine, which gave them a unique image. Tintoretto and Tiepolo worked in the same manner of fresco painting.

Periodization

The Early Middle Ages in Europe is the period from the end of the 5th century. (counting from 476, when the Western Roman Empire collapsed) to the middle of the 11th century.

It was a time of deep decline in European civilization compared to ancient times. It was expressed in the dominance of subsistence farming, in the decline of handicraft production and, accordingly, urban life, in the destruction of ancient culture under the onslaught of the unliterate pagan world.

The political map of Europe during this period was dominated by barbarian and early feudal kingdoms, and in ideology there was complete dominance of the Christian religion, which had a decisive impact on all aspects of public and personal life.

Early period.

From the end of the 4th century. The “great migration of peoples” began. Vandals, Goths, Huns and other nationalities invaded the Western Roman Empire, receiving the support of the oppressed local population. When the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, a number of short-lived states were formed on its territory. In Gaul and Western Germany - the Franks, in the north of Spain - the Visigoths, in Northern Italy- Ostrogoths, in Britain - Anglo-Saxons, mixing with the indigenous population, which consisted mainly of Celts and the so-called Romans, they formed a conglomerate of various nationalities, united by the concept of “Roman citizen”. Wherever the rule of Rome took deeper roots, “Romanization” captured all areas of culture: the dominant language was Latin, the dominant law was Roman law, the dominant religion is Christianity. The barbarian peoples who created their states on the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment.

Late period.

At the first stage Late feudalism (XI-XII centuries) crafts, trade, and city life were poorly developed. Feudal landowners reigned supreme. The king was rather a decorative figure that completed the hierarchical pyramid, first among equals, but not the personification state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially in France) royal power begins to strengthen, Second phase in the history of the mature European Middle Ages (11th century) is associated with the further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A division between city and countryside took shape, and crafts and trade developed intensively. Feudal anarchy is eliminated, royalty becomes a conscious exponent of ideas state development countries. The support of this power is the knighthood and rich townspeople. The economy and culture of feudal cities are achieving powerful development. Some of them are seeking self-government. City-states emerged in Italy and other countries (Venice, Florence).

Peculiarities of worldview

Feudal society gave birth to new culture, different from the culture of ancient slave society. Its main bearer was the church, guardian and protector of the feudal class. Medieval culture borrowed from the lost ancient world only Christianity and a few dilapidated cities. All culture early Middle Ages received religious overtones. Ancient philosophy changed theology, mathematical and natural science disciplines declined, literature was reduced to the lives of saints, history - to monastic Chronicles . In the early Middle Ages, wooden architecture sharply predominated in Europe, whose monuments could not survive to this day.

For the southeastern part of Europe, which was part of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) or was influenced by it, the most common form of buildings were basilicas (translated from Greek as “royal house”). Elongated buildings With a semicircular or faceted protrusion in the eastern part - an altar (apse). Ex in Ancient Rome predominantly public buildings, they have now become basilica churches . Then they started buying everything higher value buildings with centric plan - cross-domed churches. In such churches, the dome, supported by four pillars, was located on the ceiling of the naves.

In the Middle Ages, the so-called knightly tournaments became especially widespread - public competitions of a knight in the ability to wield weapons, reflecting the military profession of the feudal lord. Among the knights, war songs were created that glorified the exploits of knights. Later, cycles of war songs turned into entire poems.

The most famous of them was " Song of Roland”, which arose in Northern France in the 11th century and was finally perfected in the 12th century. Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain, presented in an idealized form.

The same heroic poem with features of glorification folk hero There was the “Poem of Cid”, which appeared in the 12th century in Spain, which reflected the centuries-old struggle of the Spanish peoples against the Arabs.

The third largest poem created in Germany at the beginning of the 13th century was the “Song of the Nibelungs”, in which fairy-tale elements were intertwined with early medieval historical legends (Brunegilda, Attila, etc.) and the knightly life of a later time (XII-XIII centuries).

In the 12th century, novels of chivalry appeared and quickly became widespread.

The most famous series of novels about the ancient British King Arthur, which was read in the castles of England and France, and the novels of Amadis of Gaul , read in Spain, France and Italy.

Occupied a large place in knightly literature love lyrics. Minnesingers in Germany, troubadours in Southern France and Trouvères in Northern France, glorifying the love of knights for their ladies were an indispensable part of the royal courts and castles of the largest feudal lords.

The Middle Ages period occupies a fairly long period of time - from V to XIV centuries., those. approximately a millennium. within medieval aesthetics and medieval consciousness it is customary to single out three large regions: Byzantium, Western European Middle Ages, Eastern European region (Ancient Rus').

The formation of Byzantine aesthetic ideas occurs at the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. In the 4th century. The Roman Empire splits into two independent parts - western and eastern. Constantine became emperor of the eastern part , it withstood subsequent storms and survived after the fall of Rome as the Roman Empire.

Initial stages of development Byzantine culture are marked by the confrontation between two approaches to understanding the role artistic images in Christian culture. This is about supporters of iconoclasm and supporters of icon veneration .

The positions of the iconoclasts were based primarily on the biblical postulates that God is Spirit and no one has seen him, and also on the instruction: “You shall not make for yourself an idol, or any image of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth below, or that is in the waters under the earth.” This kind of pathos inspired, in particular, Emperor Constantine V, who belonged to the devout iconoclasts who proclaimed the only image of Christ Eucharistic bread and wine.

Among the active supporters of icon veneration was John of Damascus (675-749). The iconoclast positions remained influential for just over a hundred years. The Ecumenical Council of 787, dedicated to the veneration of icons, came to the conclusion: “...what storytelling expresses in writing, painting expresses the same thing in paint.” And if books are available to few, then “Picturesque images in the evening, and in the morning, and at noon - constantly narrate and preach to us about true events.”

By the 8th century. in the Byzantine Empire There were already many picturesque images of Christ. In general, discussing artistic features Byzantine icons, one cannot fail to note them strict canonicity , which is discovered Not only in a strict color hierarchy , established at that time, but also in compositional image techniques .

So, image of Christ was strictly regulated could only be frontal , while the image of the Mother of God and the apostles could be given in three quarters ; only depicted in profile negative images- images of Satan, hell.

Symbolism of color

Each color, along with the word, acted as an important exponent of spiritual entities and expressed a deep religious meaning.

The highest place was occupied purple is the color of divine and imperial dignity .

The next most important color is red, the color of fiery, fire (both punishing and cleansing), is the color of life-giving warmth and, therefore, a symbol of life.

White was often opposed to red as a symbol of the divine color. Christ's robes in Byzantine painting are usually white. Since antiquity, white color has had the meaning of purity and holiness, detachment from everything worldly, i.e. colored.

Then - green color , which symbolized youth, flowering.

And finally , blue and cyan were perceived in Byzantium as symbols of the transcendental world.

Frescoes and mosaics of Byzantium.