Ram them Gnesin official. Concert Hall named after the Gnessins

1. Optical phenomena in the atmosphere were the first optical effects observed by humans. With the understanding of the nature of these phenomena and the nature of human vision, the formation of the problem of light began.

The total number of optical phenomena in the atmosphere is very large. Only the most well-known phenomena will be considered here - mirages, rainbows, halos, crowns, twinkling stars, blue sky and scarlet color dawn. The formation of these effects is associated with such properties of light as refraction at interfaces, interference and diffraction.

2. Atmospheric refraction – this is the bending of light rays as they pass through the planet's atmosphere. Depending on the sources of rays, they are distinguished astronomical and terrestrial refraction. In the first case, the rays come from celestial bodies(stars, planets), in the second case - from terrestrial objects. As a result of atmospheric refraction, the observer sees an object not where it is, or not of the shape it has.

3. Astronomical refraction was known already in the time of Ptolemy (2nd century AD). In 1604, J. Kepler suggested that the earth's atmosphere has a density independent of altitude and a certain thickness h(Fig. 199). Ray 1 coming from the star S straight to the observer A in a straight line, will not hit his eye. Having refracted at the boundary of vacuum and atmosphere, it will hit the point IN.

Ray 2 will hit the observer's eye, which, in the absence of refraction in the atmosphere, would have to pass by. As a result of refraction (refraction), the observer will see the star in a direction other than S, and on the continuation of the beam refracted in the atmosphere, that is, in the direction S 1 .

Corner γ , by which it deviates towards the zenith Z apparent position of the star S 1 compared to true position S, called refractive angle. In Kepler's time, refraction angles were already known from the results of astronomical observations of some stars. Therefore, Kepler used this scheme to estimate the thickness of the atmosphere h. According to his calculations it turned out h» 4 km. If we calculate by the mass of the atmosphere, then this is approximately two times less than the true one.

In reality, the density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases with altitude. Therefore, the lower layers of air are optically denser than the upper layers. Light rays going obliquely towards the Earth are not refracted at one point on the boundary of the vacuum and the atmosphere, as in Kepler’s scheme, but are gradually bent along the entire path. This is similar to how a ray of light passes through a stack of transparent plates, the refractive index of which is higher, the lower the plate is located. However, the overall effect of refraction manifests itself in the same way as in Kepler's scheme. Let us note two phenomena caused by astronomical refraction.

A. The apparent positions of celestial objects shift towards the zenith by refraction angle γ . The lower a star is to the horizon, the more noticeably its apparent position in the sky rises compared to its true one (Fig. 200). Therefore the picture starry sky, observed from Earth, is somewhat deformed towards the center. Only the point does not move S, located at the zenith. Thanks to atmospheric refraction, stars located slightly below the line can be observed geometric horizon.

Refractive angle values γ quickly decrease with increasing angle β the height of the luminary above the horizon. At β = 0 γ = 35" . This is the maximum angle of refraction. At β = 5º γ = 10" , at β = 15º γ = 3" , at β = 30º γ = 1" . For luminaries whose height β > 30º, refractive shift γ < 1" .

b. The sun illuminates more than half the surface of the globe. Rays 1 - 1, which should, in the absence of an atmosphere, touch the Earth at the points of the diametrical section DD, thanks to the atmosphere they touch it a little earlier (Fig. 201).

The surface of the Earth is touched by rays 2 - 2, which without the atmosphere would pass by. As a result, the terminator line BB, separating light from shadow, shifts to the region of the night hemisphere. Therefore, the daytime surface area on Earth is greater than the nighttime surface area.

4. Terrestrial refraction. If the phenomena of astronomical refraction are due to global refractive effect of the atmosphere, then the phenomena of terrestrial refraction are due to local atmospheric changes, usually associated with temperature anomalies. The most remarkable manifestations of terrestrial refraction are mirages.

A. Superior Mirage(from fr. mirage). It is usually observed in Arctic regions with clear air and low surface temperatures of the Earth. The strong cooling of the surface here is due not only to the low position of the sun above the horizon, but also to the fact that the surface covered with snow or ice reflects most of the radiation into space. As a result, in the ground layer, as we approach the Earth’s surface, the temperature very quickly decreases and the optical density of the air increases.

The curvature of rays towards the Earth is sometimes so significant that objects located far beyond the line of the geometric horizon are observed. Ray 2 in Fig. 202, which in a normal atmosphere would go into its upper layers, in this case is bent towards the Earth and enters the eye of the observer.

Apparently, this is exactly the kind of mirage that represents the legendary “Flying Dutchmen” - ghosts of ships that are actually located hundreds and even thousands of kilometers away. What is surprising about the superior mirages is that there is no noticeable decrease in the apparent size of the bodies.

For example, in 1898, the crew of the Bremen ship Matador observed a ghost ship, the apparent dimensions of which corresponded to a distance of 3-5 miles. In fact, as it later turned out, this ship was at that time about a thousand miles away. (1 nautical mile equal to 1852 m). Surface air not only bends light rays, but also focuses them as a complex optical system.

Under normal conditions, the air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The reverse course of temperature, when the temperature rises with increasing altitude, is called temperature inversion. Temperature inversions can occur not only in Arctic zones, but also in other, lower latitude places. Therefore, superior mirages can occur wherever the air is sufficiently clean and where temperature inversions occur. For example, distant vision mirages are sometimes observed on the coast Mediterranean Sea. The temperature inversion is created here by hot air from the Sahara.

b. Inferior Mirage occurs when the temperature reverses and is usually observed in deserts during hot times. By noon, when the sun is high, the sandy soil of the desert, consisting of particles of solid minerals, heats up to 50 degrees or more. At the same time, at an altitude of several tens of meters the air remains relatively cold. Therefore, the refractive index of the air layers located above is noticeably greater compared to the air near the ground. This also leads to bending of the rays, but in the opposite direction (Fig. 203).

Rays of light coming from parts of the sky low above the horizon, located opposite the observer, are constantly bent upward and enter the observer's eye in the direction from bottom to top. As a result, on their continuation on the surface of the earth, the observer sees a reflection of the sky, reminiscent of a water surface. This is the so-called “lake” mirage.

The effect is even more enhanced when there are rocks, hills, trees, and buildings in the direction of observation. In this case, they are visible as islands in the middle of a vast lake. Moreover, not only the object is visible, but also its reflection. By the nature of the curvature of the rays, the surface layer of air acts as a mirror of the water surface.

5. Rainbow. It's colorful an optical phenomenon observed during rain, illuminated by the sun and representing a system of concentric colored arcs.

The first theory of the rainbow was developed by Descartes in 1637. By this time, the following experimental facts related to the rainbow were known:

A. The center of the rainbow O is on the straight line connecting the Sun to the observer's eye(Fig. 204).

b. Around the Eye-Sun symmetry line there is a colored arc with an angular radius of about 42° . The colors are arranged, counting from the center, in the order: blue (d), green (h), red (j)(line group 1). This main rainbow. Inside the main rainbow there are faint multi-colored arcs of reddish and greenish hues.

V. The second system of arcs with a corner radius of about 51° called a secondary rainbow. Its colors are much paler and go in reverse order, counting from the center, red, green, blue (group of lines 2) .

G. The main rainbow appears only when the sun is above the horizon at an angle of no more than 42°.

As Descartes established, the main reason for the formation of the main and secondary rainbow is the refraction and reflection of light rays in raindrops. Let us consider the main provisions of his theory.

6. Refraction and reflection of a monochromatic ray in a drop. Let a monochromatic beam of intensity I 0 falls on a spherical drop of radius R on distance y from the axis in the plane of the diametrical section (Fig. 205). At the point of impact A part of the beam is reflected, and the main part is reflected by the intensity I 1 goes inside the drop. At the point B most of the beam passes into the air (in Fig. 205 it exited into IN the ray is not shown), and a smaller part is reflected and falls at the point WITH. Out at the point WITH beam intensity I 3 is involved in the formation of the main rainbow and weak secondary bands within the main rainbow.

Let's find the angle θ , under which the beam emerges I 3 relative to the incident beam I 0 . Note that all angles between the ray and the normal inside the drop are the same and equal to the angle of refraction β . (Triangles OAV And OBC isosceles). No matter how much the beam “spins” inside the drop, all angles of incidence and reflection are the same and equal to the angle of refraction β . For this reason, any ray emerging from a drop at points IN, WITH etc., comes out at the same angle equal to the angle of incidence α .

To find the angle θ beam deflection I 3 from the original, you need to sum up the angles of deviation at the points A, IN And WITH: q = (α – β) + (π – 2β) + (α - β) = π + 2α – 4β . (25.1)

It is more convenient to measure an acute angle φ = π – q = 4β – 2α . (25.2)

Having carried out calculations for several hundred rays, Descartes found that the angle φ with growth y, that is, as the beam moves away I 0 from the drop axis, first increases in absolute value, at y/R≈ 0.85 takes on a maximum value and then begins to decrease.

Now this is the limit value of the angle φ can be found by examining the function φ to the extremum by at. Since sin α = yçR, and sin β = yçR· n, That α = arcsin( yçR), β = arcsin( yçRn). Then

, . (25.3)

By spreading the terms into different parts of the equation and squaring them, we get:

, Þ (25.4)

For yellow D-sodium lines λ = 589.3 nm refractive index of water n= 1.333. Point distance A occurrence of this ray from the axis y= 0,861R. The limiting angle for this ray is

I wonder what the point is IN the first reflection of the beam in the drop is also maximally distant from the axis of the drop. Having explored the extreme angle d= p– α – ε = p– α – (p– 2β ) = 2β – α in size at, we get the same condition, at= 0,861R And d= 42.08°/2 = 21.04°.

Figure 206 shows the dependence of the angle φ , under which the ray emerges from the drop after the first reflection (formula 25.2), from the position of the point A entry of the beam into the drop. All rays are reflected inside a cone with an apex angle of ≈ 42º.

It is very important for the formation of a rainbow that the rays entering the drop in a cylindrical layer of thickness уçR from 0.81 to 0.90, come out after reflection in the thin wall of the cone in the angular range from 41.48º to 42.08º. The outside wall of the cone is smooth (there is an extremum of the angle φ ), the inside is loose. Angular wall thickness ≈ 20 arc minutes. For transmitted rays, the drop behaves like a lens with a focal length f= 1,5R. Rays enter the drop along the entire surface of the first hemisphere, are reflected back by a diverging beam in the space of a cone with an axial angle of ≈ 42º, and pass through a window with an angular radius of ≈ 21º (Fig. 207).

7. The intensity of the rays emerging from the drop. Here we will talk only about the rays that emerged from the drop after the 1st reflection (Fig. 205). If a ray incident on a drop at an angle α , has intensity I 0, then the beam passing into the drop has an intensity I 1 = I 0 (1 – ρ ), Where ρ – intensity reflection coefficient.

For unpolarized light, reflectance ρ can be calculated using the Fresnel formula (17.20). Since the formula includes the squares of functions of the difference and the sum of angles α And β , then the reflection coefficient does not depend on whether the beam enters the drop or from the drop. Because the angles α And β at points A, IN, WITH are the same, then the coefficient ρ at all points A, IN, WITH the same. Hence, the intensity of the rays I 1 = I 0 (1 – ρ ), I 2 = I 1 ρ = I 0 ρ (1 – ρ ), I 3 = I 2 (1 – ρ ) = I 0 ρ (1 – ρ ) 2 .

Table 25.1 shows the angle values φ , coefficient ρ and intensity ratios I 3 çI 0 calculated at different distances уçR beam entry for yellow sodium line λ = 589.3 nm. As can be seen from the table, when at≤ 0,8R into the beam I 3, less than 4% of the energy from the beam incident on the drop falls. And only starting from at= 0,8R and more up to at= R intensity of the released beam I 3 increases several times.

So, the rays emerging from the drop at the maximum angle φ , have significantly greater intensity compared to other rays for two reasons. Firstly, due to the strong angular compression of the beam of rays in the thin wall of the cone, and secondly, due to lower losses in the drop. Only the intensity of these rays is sufficient to cause the sensation of the glitter of a drop in the eye.

8. Formation of the main rainbow. When light falls on a drop due to dispersion, the beam splits. As a result, the wall of the cone of bright reflection is stratified by color (Fig. 208). Violet rays ( l= 396.8 nm) come out at an angle j= 40°36", red ( l= 656.3 nm) – at an angle j= 42°22". In this angular interval D φ = 1°46" contains the entire spectrum of rays emanating from a drop. Violet rays form the inner cone, red ones form the outer one. If raindrops illuminated by the sun are seen by an observer, then those whose rays from the cone enter the eye are seen as the brightest. As a result, all drops located in relation to the sun's ray passing through the observer's eye, at an angle of a red cone, are seen as red, and at an angle of a green cone, green (Fig. 209).

9. Formation of a secondary rainbow occurs due to the rays emerging from the drop after the second reflection (Fig. 210). The intensity of the rays after the second reflection is approximately an order of magnitude lower compared to the rays after the first reflection and has approximately the same course with change уçR.

The rays emerging from the drop after the second reflection form a cone with an apex angle of ≈ 51º. If the primary cone has a smooth side on the outside, then the secondary cone has a smooth side on the inside. There are practically no rays between these cones. The larger the raindrops, the brighter the rainbow. As the droplet size decreases, the rainbow fades. When rain turns to drizzle R≈ 20 – 30 µm, the rainbow degenerates into a whitish arc with almost indistinguishable colors.

10. Halo(from Greek halōs- ring) is an optical phenomenon that usually represents rainbow circles around the disk of the Sun or Moon with angular radius 22º And 46º. These circles are formed as a result of the refraction of light by ice crystals located in cirrus clouds, shaped like hexagonal regular prisms.

Snowflakes falling to the ground are very diverse in shape. However, the crystals formed as a result of condensation of vapors in the upper layers of the atmosphere are mainly in the form of hexagonal prisms. Of all the possible options for passing a beam through a hexagonal prism, three are the most important (Fig. 211).

In case (a), the beam passes through the opposite parallel faces of the prism without splitting or deflecting.

In case (b), the ray passes through the faces of the prism, forming an angle of 60º between themselves, and is refracted as in a spectral prism. The intensity of the beam emerging at the angle of least deviation of 22º is maximum. In the third case (c), the beam passes through the side face and base of the prism. The refracting angle is 90º, the angle of least deviation is 46º. In both of the latter cases, the white rays are split, the blue rays are deflected more, and the red ones less. Cases (b) and (c) cause the appearance of rings observed in transmitted rays and having angular dimensions of 22º and 46º (Fig. 212).

Typically the outer ring (46º) is brighter than the inner ring and both have a reddish tint. This is explained not only by the intense scattering of blue rays in the cloud, but also by the fact that the dispersion of blue rays in the prism is greater than that of red ones. Therefore, blue rays emerge from the crystals in a highly divergent beam, which is why their intensity decreases. And the red rays come out in a narrow beam with significantly greater intensity. At favorable conditions, when it is possible to distinguish colors, the inner part of the rings is red, the outer part is blue.

10. Crowns– light foggy rings around the disk of the luminary. Their angular radius is much smaller than the halo radius and does not exceed 5º. Crowns arise due to diffraction scattering of rays on water droplets forming a cloud or fog.

If the radius of the drop R, then the first diffraction minimum in parallel rays is observed at an angle j = 0,61∙lçR(see formula 15.3). Here l- wavelength of light. The diffraction patterns of individual drops in parallel beams coincide, as a result, the intensity of the light rings increases.

The diameter of the crowns can be used to determine the size of the droplets in the cloud. The larger the drops (more R), the smaller the angular size of the ring. The largest rings are observed from the smallest drops. At distances of several kilometers, diffraction rings are still noticeable when the droplet size is at least 5 microns. In this case j max = 0.61 lçR≈ 5 ¸ 6°.

The color of the light rings of the crowns is very faint. When it is noticeable, the outer edge of the rings has a reddish color. That is, the distribution of colors in the crowns is inverse to the distribution of colors in the halo rings. In addition to the angular dimensions, this also makes it possible to distinguish between crowns and halos. If there are droplets of a wide range of sizes in the atmosphere, then the rings of the crowns, overlapping each other, form a general bright glow around the disk of the luminary. This radiance is called halo.

11. Blue color of the sky and scarlet color of dawn. When the Sun is above the horizon, a cloudless sky appears blue. The fact is that from the rays of the solar spectrum, in accordance with Rayleigh's law I diss ~ 1 /l 4 short blue, cyan and violet rays are most intensely scattered.

If the Sun is low above the horizon, then its disk is perceived as crimson-red for the same reason. Due to the intense scattering of short-wave light, mainly weakly scattered red rays reach the observer. The scattering of rays from the rising or setting Sun is especially great because the rays travel a long distance near the surface of the Earth, where the concentration of scattering particles is especially high.

The morning or evening dawn - the coloring of the part of the sky close to the Sun pink - is explained by the diffraction scattering of light on ice crystals in the upper layers of the atmosphere and the geometric reflection of light from the crystals.

12. Twinkling stars- These are rapid changes in the brightness and color of stars, especially noticeable near the horizon. The twinkling of stars is caused by the refraction of rays in rapidly passing air streams, which, due to different densities, have different refractive indexes. As a result, the layer of atmosphere through which the beam passes behaves like a lens with a variable focal length. It can be either collecting or scattering. In the first case, the light is concentrated, the brightness of the star increases, in the second, the light is scattered. Such a change in sign is recorded up to hundreds of times per second.

Due to dispersion, the beam is decomposed into rays different colors that go along in different ways and can diverge the more, the lower the star is to the horizon. The distance between the violet and red rays from one star can reach 10 meters at the surface of the Earth. As a result, the observer sees a continuous change in the brightness and color of the star.

Introduction.

Within the framework of traditional approaches, a number of anomalous optical phenomena in cislunar space have not yet been explained. We will note a couple of the most odious of them - links to evidence about which are given below. Firstly, this is the phenomenon of loss of color: objects are observed not in natural colors, but, practically, in shades of gray. Secondly, this is the phenomenon of backscattering of light: no matter what angle the light hits the scattering surface, most of the reflected light goes in the opposite direction - back to where the light came from.

We believe that the reason for these amazing phenomena is the special organization of lunar gravity - on a different principle than the gravity of the planets. Planetary gravity is caused, in our terminology, by a planetary frequency funnel. In the volume of a free test body, a local section of the frequency slope directly sets the gradient of the own energies of the particles of matter, which generates an unsupported force effect on the body. There are no signs of the presence of a lunar frequency funnel. We have outlined a model for the organization of lunar gravity - through the imposition, on the local region of the earth's frequency slope, of specific vibrations of “inertial space” in the cislunar region. Being in the resulting “unsteady space”, the test body has, in its volume, a gradient of local-absolute velocities - and, therefore, through quadratic-Doppler shifts of quantum energy levels, it also has an energy gradient, i.e., again, it experiences unsupported force impact.

Vibrations of “inertial space” have a dual effect on optical phenomena. Firstly, these vibrations affect molecules, i.e. on emitters and absorbers of light - which is why their emission and absorption spectra change. Secondly, the phase speed of light, as we believe, is tied, in a local-absolute sense, to a local section of “inertial space”, therefore its vibrations affect the process of light propagation.

In this article we will give a refined model of the cislunar “unsteady space” and explain the origin of these anomalous optical phenomena.

Refined model of the cislunar “unsteady space”.

An early model of cislunar "unsteady space" is outlined in. It is appropriate to note: the very first flights of Soviet and American spacecraft to the Moon showed that its gravity acts only in a small circumlunar region, up to approximately 10,000 km from the surface of the Moon - and, thus, does not reach the Earth. Therefore, the Earth does not have a dynamic response to the Moon: contrary to popular belief, the Earth does not apply, in antiphase with the Moon, near their common “center of mass” - and, contrary to another common misconception, lunar gravity has nothing to do with the tides in the oceans.

According to the model, in the region of lunar gravity are given, purely software, harmonic vibrations of “inertial space” in directions along the local lunar verticals. For these radial vibrations, the amplitude values ​​of the velocities and equivalent linear displacements decrease as the distance from the center increases, and at the border of the lunar gravity region they become practically zero. If spherically symmetric gravity is simulated, obeying the inverse square law, then the dependence of the velocity amplitude V vibrations from the length of the radius vector r There is

Where K=4.9× 10 12 m 3 /s 2 - gravitational parameter of the Moon, r max – radius of the boundary of the lunar gravity region. If we substitute in (1) the values ​​of the average radius of the Moon r L = 1738 km, and also r max =11738 km, then for the amplitude of the vibration speed of the “unsteady space” on the surface of the Moon we get V(r L)" 3.10 km/s. If we assume that on the surface of the Moon the amplitude of equivalent linear displacements is d(r A) = 5 µm, then for the vibration frequency, which we assume to be the same throughout the entire region of lunar gravity, we obtain V(r L)/2p d(r L) » 100 MHz. These figures are, of course, approximate.

The key clarification of the cislunar “unsteady space” model is related to the question of the phases of radial vibrations of the “inertial background”. Previously, we believed that the region of lunar gravity is divided into radial sections, in which the phases of radial vibrations are organized “in a checkerboard pattern.” Now, such an organization of the phases of radial vibrations seems to us to be unjustifiably complicated and completely unnecessary. Radial movements of the “inertial space” can occur synchronously throughout the entire region of lunar gravity: “all together from the center - all together towards the center.” With such globally synchronous vibrations, the “unsteady space” will impart centripetal acceleration to a free body no worse than according to the model, and it is incomparably simpler to programmatically organize globally synchronous vibrations.

The propagation of light in a vibrating “unsteady space” has fundamental features, since the conditions in which the Quantum Energy Transfer Navigator operates are unusual here. This is a program that individually for each excited atom searches for the recipient atom to which the excitation energy will be transferred. Effects during the propagation of light, including wave phenomena, are determined by the calculation algorithms that the Navigator performs - identifying the recipient atom to which the probability of quantum energy transfer is maximum. These Navigator algorithms are described in. Now it is important for us that the speed of the search waves with which the Navigator information scans space is equal to the speed of light and is tied, in a local-absolute sense, to a local section of “inertial space”. Therefore, vibrations of “inertial space” affect the movement of the Navigator’s search waves. When these vibrations are oriented along the local lunar verticals, the local horizontal light beam will move not in a straight line, but along a sinusoid - with a period determined by the frequency of vibrations. At their frequency of 100 MHz (see above), the period of the sinusoid will be about 3 m. In this case, the vertical angular spread of the directions of beam motion can be estimated through the ratio of the amplitude of the vibration speed to the speed of light - near the surface of the Moon this spread will be approximately one arc second.

Taking into account this vertical scatter in the directions of movement of a light beam passing near the surface of the Moon easily explains, in our opinion, the following optical effects. Firstly, it is impossible " predict the occurrence and duration of lunar occultations of stars with such accuracy as many other celestial phenomena are calculated". Secondly, this is a decrease in the quality of the image of the lunar surface near the edges of the disk (see, for example, photographs in). The “blurring” of the image at the edges of the lunar disk would not be surprising if the Moon had an atmosphere - but it does not. Both of these effects have not found a reasonable explanation within the framework of traditional approaches.

The phenomenon of loss of color in the cislunar “unsteady space”.

As we stated earlier, the process of light propagation is a chain of quantum transfers of excitation energy from atom to atom. Consecutive links in this chain, i.e. pairs of atom-sender and atom-receiver are established, according to certain algorithms, by the Navigator. The distance between the peaks of the Navigator’s search waves is what in optics is called the “radiation” wavelength (we put this word in quotes because the Navigator’s search waves are not of a physical nature, but of a software nature). Under the conditions of ordinary, non-vibrating space, the wavelength is completely determined by the excitation energy of an atom, if this atom is at rest - in a local-absolute sense. If the vector of its local-absolute velocity is not zero, then the lengths of search waves coming from it in different directions have corresponding linear Doppler shifts. We emphasize that during the movement of an excited atom, only search waves are subject to the linear Doppler effect - the energy of the transferred quantum remains unchanged. Thus, a search wave having a certain linear Doppler shift can successfully overcome a narrow-band filter, and an energy quantum can be transferred to an atom located behind this filter, but the energy of this transferred quantum will still be the same excitation energy as in the case of a resting excited atom - when the search wave would not pass through the filter.

Now let's return to the case of “unsteady space”. Its radial vibrations can give linear Doppler shifts in the lengths of the Navigator search waves, having an order of up to V(r L)/ c~ 10 -5. Effects of this order - given that the visible range occupies an octave - could not lead to radical changes in color. But note that the overwhelming majority color palette, including on the Moon, is provided by a substance that forms molecular compounds. Could it turn out that “unsteady space” affects the molecular emission-absorption spectra?

As we stated earlier, a chemical bond is a process of cyclic switching of the compositions of proton-electron valence bonds in the atoms being bonded, in which each of the two electrons involved alternately becomes part of one or the other atom. This cyclic process is stabilized by transfers of excitation energy quantum from one atom to another, and back. At thermal equilibrium, the most probable energy of this quantum corresponds to the maximum of the equilibrium spectrum, i.e. equals 5 kT, Where k– Boltzmann constant, T– absolute temperature. As we tried to show in the so-called. vibrational and rotational molecular lines do not correspond to different binding energies of atoms in a molecule: they correspond to one or another resonance in the cyclic process of chemical bonding - with a suitable quantum energy, which bound atoms cyclically transfer to each other. A typical feature of molecular absorption spectra are bands of a continuous spectrum - dissociation bands. For most molecules, the lower edge of the first dissociation band is 4-5 eV from the ground state level, i.e. the energies of excitation quanta corresponding to the entire visible range fall in the interval between the ground state and the first dissociation band. Under “normal” conditions, this gap is more or less densely filled with discrete energy levels. A little-known fact is that the corresponding molecular lines, unlike atomic lines, are not characteristic - their positions “float” depending on temperature and pressure. Vibrations of “unsteady space,” in our opinion, should lead to a strong broadening of molecular lines; Let's explain this.

Let us recall that, under conditions of “ordinary” gravity, a change in the local-absolute speed of a free body uniquely corresponds to a change in the gravitational potential. In the cislunar “unsteady space” the situation is different: free bodies there they experience harmonic changes in local-absolute speed (measured in the geocentric coordinate system), being practically in the same gravitational potential (the earth's gravitational region). We believe that this anomalous, from the point of view of energy transformations, situation is resolved as follows. Buffer for periodic component kinetic energy molecule is the energy of its excitation - i.e. the same quantum that bonded atoms transmit to each other. Then, for molecules of light elements with single bonds, the amplitude value of kinetic energy on the surface of the Moon ( V(r L)" 3 km/s) should correspond to an amplitude value of the excitation energy of ~ 1 eV per bond. Because of this periodic component of the excitation energy, the "vibrational" and "rotational" molecular lines should experience such significant broadenings that the interval from the ground state to the first dissociation band should be occupied by a continuous spectrum . This is true: " The lunar spectrum is almost devoid of bands that could provide information about the composition of the Moon» .

Let us clarify why, with continuous molecular spectra, the phenomenon of color loss should occur. It is known that in the retina of the human eye there are three types of light-sensitive cells responsible for color perception - which differ in the positions of the absorption band maxima: in the red-orange, green and blue-violet regions. The color sensation is not determined by the energy of monochromatic light quanta - it is determined by the ratio of the numbers of “triggerings” of the three types of cells within a certain “color reaction time.” If, under the conditions of “unsteady space,” the molecular absorption lines spread over the entire visible range, then for each of the three types of cells the probability of “working” on a quantum from any region of the visible range becomes equal.

It immediately follows that all objects on the Moon should be seen with a loss of color - practically, in shades of the gray scale. Loss of color should occur not only during live visual observation on the Moon, but also when photographing there on color film, and even through light filters. Really, " color filters on board...["Surveyers"] were used to produce color photographs of the lunar landscape... The lack of color in any part of these images is surprising, especially when compared with the variety of colors of typical terrestrial desert or mountain landscapes ". Maybe the author is confusing something? Not at all, the official NASA report on Surveyor 1 states the same thing. The transmission curves of the three filters were close to the standard ones - we reproduce the corresponding diagram from Fig.1. What are

were there any results? In the section “Photometry and colorimetry”, only three phrases are devoted to colorimetry itself. Namely: " Pre-processing of colorimetric measurements based on photographic film data shows that only minor color differences may exist among lunar surface materials. The lack of rich colors in surface lunar materials is striking given the observed differences in albedo. Everywhere the color of the lunar surface is dark gray"(our translation). However, the amazement of NASA specialists did not last long. The author already writes: “ The surveyor had a sharper and clearer gaze. And, for the first time, he saw in color. Three separate photographs taken through orange, green and blue filters, when combined, gave a completely natural color reproduction. As the scientists expected, this color turned out to be nothing other than gray - a uniform, neutral gray"(our translation). We are reproducing one of these gray photo mosaics from Surveyor-1 on Fig.2.

It may be suspected that only lunar materials have a natural gray color, and terrestrial objects delivered to the Moon appear there in the same colors as on Earth. Not at all, we are reproducing a fragment of another photograph with “natural color reproduction” - see. Fig.3. This is a very remarkable document. Against the background of the “pancake” of the support “foot” of the device, a section of the disk with sector markings is visible on the right side of the image. This is just a disk for calibrating color rendition: on Earth, its four sectors were white,

Fig.3.

red, green and blue colors. But, instead of them, we see only shades of the gray scale.

Let us add that the loss of color occurs even when observing the Moon from outside its gravitational region. True, in this case a shade of brown is mixed into the gray colors: “ In a telescope, the Moon has a uniform brownish-gray hue and is almost devoid of color differences.". Attempts were made to obtain color photographs of the Moon by photographing from outside its gravitational region through light filters, followed by combining the images. This technique actually produces magnificent color pictures - but, taking into account the above, it is naive to believe that the colors on them demonstrate the real color scheme of the Moon.

It should be clarified that the phenomenon of color loss in cislunar space is in no way refuted by photo and video shooting with digital equipment - which allows you to “make” any desired colors “out of nothing.” With traditional photography, i.e. With natural color rendering, the phenomenon of loss of color in the lunar space is an indisputable fact. Moreover, according to NASA officials, experts even expected the absence of a rich range of colors on the Moon in advance. Let's remember this!

The phenomenon of backscattering of light in the cislunar “unsteady space”.

Albedo of the lunar surface, i.e. her ability to reflect sunlight, is small: it averages 7%. And for this small amount of reflected light, the phenomenon of backscattering occurs. Namely: at whatever angle the light falls on the scattering surface - up to an almost grazing incidence! – most of the reflected light goes to where the light came from.

Evidence of this amazing phenomenon for the earthly observer is the well-known fact that “ The brightness of all areas of the lunar disk reaches a sharp maximum during the full moon, when the light source is exactly behind the observer". The integral curve of the Moon's brightness as a function of the phase angle is shown in Fig.4(zero phase corresponds to the full moon).

Fig.4

The phenomenon of backscattering cannot be explained by ordinary scattering from rough surfaces of the Moon. A rough surface would scatter light according to Lambert's law, and then on a full moon there would be darkening towards the edges of the lunar disk - which is not the case. The brightness during the full moon increases anomalously for each region of the lunar disk, " regardless of its position on the lunar sphere, surface inclination and morphological type". Due to the lack of darkening towards the edges, the Moon appears “flat as a pancake” during a full moon. The phenomenon of backscattering of light occurs not only for the side of the Moon visible from the Earth, but also for the opposite side, as evidenced by photographs of the latter taken using spacecraft. The indicatrices of backscattering of light by the Moon are given, for example, in.

Sometimes the phenomenon of backscattering is confused with the so-called. oppositional effect, which is simply that “ the rate of increase in brightness is especially high at small phase angles" - as this well illustrates Fig.4. The opposition effect characterizes the rate of change in brightness - and not the change in brightness itself - as the phase angle changes. The oppositional effect only emphasizes the highly targeted effect of the backscattering effect - due to which, under abnormally bright moonlight on a full moon, you can read a book.

It was believed that the phenomenon of backscattering is due to some unusual properties of the lunar soil - and this despite the fact that the phenomenon manifests itself equally for all areas of the lunar disk, although the morphology lunar seas and continents differ. Many attempts have been made to find the mineral or material that gives the lunar scattering law. A variety of samples of terrestrial and cosmic origin were studied " in various forms: solid, sprayed, molten and re-solidified, irradiated with ultraviolet light, x-rays and protons...» None scattered light back as strongly as the Moon. Finally, it was discovered that a scattering law similar to the lunar one is produced by finely dispersed structures with extremely developed porosity. But one could hardly expect that the existence of such “fluff” would be supported under real conditions on the lunar surface. Not to mention frequent weak “moonquakes”, electrostatic erosion and “sliding” of surface material play a significant role there. Studies of lunar soil - both “on the ground”, with the help of “Surveyers”, and in terrestrial laboratories - have shown that there are no “fluffy structures” in it. Soil of the Moon " fine-grained, weakly cohesive with an admixture of gravel and small stones". Lunar " Regolith easily sticks together into separate loose lumps and is easily shaped. Despite noticeable adhesiveness, it has an unstable, easily broken structure". To top off these disconcerting discoveries, lunar samples in laboratories on Earth did not at all demonstrate the lunar law of scattering. Research into the phenomenon has reached a dead end.

Meanwhile, this phenomenon finds a simple natural explanation - as a result of vibrations of “unsteady space”. Let us remember that, under “normal” conditions, specular reflection is explained as follows. A section of a flat wave front falls on a flat surface - whose points, to which this front has reached, immediately become sources of secondary spherical waves, according to the Huygens-Fresnel principle. The envelope of secondary spherical wave fronts is a section of a flat front - which is specularly reflected. Note that this classical explanation implies interference of secondary wavefronts - and for this it is necessary that the coherence area be Furthermore the section of the reflecting surface on which the initial section of the front falls. But in the “unsteady space”, taking into account the above, the concept of “coherence” loses all meaning. For each Navigator channel that calculates the address of transfer of one quantum, even with the characteristic size of the “coherence area” being smaller than the wavelength, there will be no set of secondary spherical waves emanating from various points of the scattering surface - secondary spherical waves will emanate from one points of this surface. According to the logic of the Navigator's algorithms, calculations continue only for the most probable search directions for the destination atom - and these are those on which there are overlaps of different peaks of search waves (of the same Navigator channel). In the case under consideration, secondary spherical waves emanating from one point will be able to superimpose only on the peaks of the incident wave - giving bursts of probabilities on the line along which this incident wave travels. Thus, if the quantum of light is not absorbed by the surface, and the Navigator is forced to continue searching for the recipient to transfer it, then the “reflection” from the surface will most likely be the opposite - regardless of the angle of incidence.

What are the physical consequences of the backscattering phenomenon? If the Moon reflects only about 7% of the incident sunlight, and if almost all of that reflected light goes in the direction from which it came, then there is no way an observer on the Moon will see sunlit landscapes. For the observer, even on the side of the Moon illuminated by the Sun, twilight reigns - as is demonstrated, for example, by the very first photographic panoramas taken on the surface of the Moon by Soviet spacecraft, starting with Luna-9 (see, for example,), as well as large archive television images transmitted by Lunokhod 1. An observer on the Moon will be able to see brightly illuminated either those objects that are located near an imaginary straight line drawn from the Sun through his head, or those that he illuminates himself, holding the light source close to his eyes. In addition to the twilight that reigns even on the sunlit side of the Moon, due to the phenomenon of backscattering, completely black shadows are observed there - and not gray, as on Earth, since on the Moon the shadow areas are not illuminated by scattered light either from the illuminated areas or from the atmosphere, which not on the moon. Fig.5 reproduces one of the panoramas taken by Lunokhod-1 - immediately rushes into

Fig.5

the eyes are characteristically black on the anti-solar side - on the platform from which Lunokhod-1 slid down, as well as on the unevenness of the lunar surface. Fig.5 conveys well the typical signs of real lunar illumination.

A little discussion.

Above, we tried to explain the phenomena of color loss and backscattering of light that take place in cislunar space. Perhaps someone will be able to explain these phenomena better than we did, but the very presence of these phenomena is indisputable scientific fact– which is confirmed even by the first NASA reports on lunar program.

Taking into account the fact of the presence of these phenomena provides new, damning arguments in support of those who consider film and photographic materials that allegedly indicate the presence of American astronauts on the surface of the Moon to be fakes. After all, we provide the keys for conducting the simplest and merciless independent examination. If we are shown, against the backdrop of lunar landscapes flooded with sunlight (!), astronauts whose spacesuits do not have black shadows on the anti-solar side, or a well-lit figure of an astronaut in the shadow “lunar module”, or color (!) footage with a colorful rendering of the colors of the American flag - then this is all irrefutable evidence screaming about falsification. In fact, we are not aware of a single film or photo document depicting astronauts on the Moon under real lunar lighting and with a real lunar color “palette”.

The physical conditions on the Moon are too abnormal - and it cannot be ruled out that the cislunar space is destructive for terrestrial organisms. Today we know the only model that explains the short-term effect of lunar gravity, and at the same time the origin of accompanying anomalous optical phenomena - this is our “unsteady space” model. And if this model is correct, then the vibrations of “unsteady space”, below a certain height above the surface of the Moon, are quite capable of breaking weak bonds in protein molecules - with the destruction of their tertiary and, possibly, secondary structures. As far as we know, turtles returned alive from cislunar space on board the Soviet Zond-5 spacecraft, which flew around the Moon with a minimum distance from its surface of about 2000 km. It is possible that, with the passage of the device closer to the Moon, the animals would have died as a result of the denaturation of proteins in their bodies. If it is very difficult to protect yourself from cosmic radiation, but still possible, then there is no physical protection from vibrations of “unsteady space”.

The author thanks Ivan, the author of the sitehttp://ivanik3.narod.ru, for kind assistance in accessing primary sources, as well as O.Yu. Pivovar for useful discussion.

1. A.A.Grishaev. Interplanetary flights and the concept of local-absolute velocities. – Available on this website.

2. A.A.Grishaev. “Unsteady space” generating the Moon’s own gravity. – Available on this website.

3. A.A.Grishaev. Michelson-Morley experiment: local-absolute velocity detection? – Available on this website.P.G.Kulikovsky. Amateur Astronomer's Handbook. “Mr. Publishing house of technical and theoretical literature", M., 1953.

9. Z. Kopal. Moon. Our closest celestial neighbor. "Publishing House of Foreign Literature", M., 1963.

10. A.A.Grishaev. A New Look on chemical bonding and the paradoxes of molecular spectra. – Available on this website.

11. T. Cottrell. Strength of chemical bonds. "Publishing House of Foreign Literature", M., 1956.

12. O. W. Richardson. Molecular Hydrogen and its Spectrum. 1934.

13. R. Pearce, A. Gaydon. Identification of molecular spectra. "Publishing House of Foreign Literature", M., 1949.

14. B. Hapke. Optical properties of the lunar surface. In: “Physics and Astronomy of the Moon”, Z. Kopal, ed. "Mir", M., 1973.

15. L. D. Jaffe, E. M. Shoemaker, S. E. Dwornik et al. NASA Technical Report No. 32-1023. Surveyor I Mission Report, Part II. Scientific Data and Results. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, September 10, 1966.

16. H. E. Newell. Surveyor: Candid Camera on the Moon. Natl. Geograph. Mag., 130 (1966) 578.

17. V.N. Zharkov, V.A. Pankov and others. Introduction to the physics of the Moon. "Science", M., 1969.

18. M.U.Sagitov. Lunar gravimetry. "Science", M., 1979.

19. T. Gold. Erosion, transport of surface material and the nature of the seas. In: “Moon”, S. Runcorn and G. Urey, eds. "Mir", M., 1975.

20. I.I.Cherkasov, V.V.Shvarev. Moon soil. "Science", M., 1975.

21. Web resource

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Presentation on the topic: Optical phenomena

Slide no. 1

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Slide no. 2

Slide description:

Optical phenomena this is optical atmospheric phenomena - phenomena caused by the scattering, absorption, refraction and diffraction of light. Light sources can be the Sun, the Moon, or ionized air from the upper layers of the atmosphere. Optical phenomena include: rainbow, halo, mirage, twilight, dawn, aurora. Optical phenomena are closely related to the weather and in some cases can be used to predict it.

Slide no. 3

Slide description:

Mirage This optical phenomenon is often observed in the desert - along with distant objects, their imaginary, “apparent” images are visible. Sometimes reflections of objects hidden behind the horizon are visible. The reflection of the sky from the surface layers of air often creates the impression of a water surface. Mirages are explained by the bending of light rays in unequally heated layers of air that have different densities. They occur both when ground air is strongly heated (in deserts, sometimes over highway asphalt) and when it is supercooled.

Slide no. 4

Slide description:

Halo Light rings, pillars or spots around the Sun and Moon, “false Suns”. Sometimes these rings are rainbow colored. A halo appears when light is reflected or refracted by ice crystals, forming light cirrus clouds or fog. Most often this happens in the mountains. Like rainbows, halos arise as a result of the refraction of rays in the atmosphere, only halos arise due to ice crystals. Sometimes the reflections of the sun become as bright as the sun itself, this phenomenon is called “sun dogs”.

Slide no. 5

Slide description:

Star shower In fact, it is not stars that fall from the sky, but meteorites, which, upon entering the earth's atmosphere, heat up and burn. In this case, a flash of light appears, which can be seen quite long distance from the surface of the Earth. Most often, a meteor shower of high intensity (up to a thousand meteors per hour) is called a star or meteor shower. A meteor shower consists of meteors that burn up in the atmosphere and does not reach the ground, while a meteor shower consists of meteorites that fall to the ground.

Slide no. 6

Slide description:

Gloria If you light a fire in the mountains at night under low clouds, your shadow will appear on the clouds and you will have a luminous halo around your head. This phenomenon is called Gloria. Gloria is an optical phenomenon that is observed on clouds located directly in front of or below the observer, at a point directly opposite the light source. In China, Gloria is called "Buddha's light." A colored halo always surrounds the observer's shadow.

Slide no. 7

Slide description:

Belt of Venus At dusk, shortly before sunrise or just after sunset, the sky above the horizon is partly colorless and partly pinkish. This phenomenon is called the belt of Venus. The colorless stripe between the already darkened sky and the blue sky can be seen everywhere, even to the side opposite the Sun. The phenomenon of the belt of Venus is explained by the reflection in the atmosphere of the light of the setting (or rising) Sun, which appears reddened.

Slide description:

Green ray Green ray is a flash of emerald green sunlight at the moment when the last ray of the Sun disappears behind the horizon. The red component of sunlight disappears first, all the others follow in order, and the last one remains is emerald green. This phenomenon occurs only when only the very edge of the solar disk remains above the horizon, otherwise a mixture of colors occurs. A green ray appears for some moments before the sun disappears below the horizon, or just before dawn. It appears as a small flash of green color and is caused by the refraction of light in the atmosphere.

In ancient times, mirages, auroras, mysterious glowing lights and ball lightning frightened superstitious people. Today, scientists have managed to uncover the secrets of these mysterious phenomena and understand the nature of their occurrence.

Phenomena associated with the reflection of sunlight

Everyone has seen many times how, after rain or near a stormy water stream, a colored bridge appears in the sky - a rainbow. The rainbow owes its colors to the sun's rays and droplets of moisture suspended in the air. When light hits a drop of water, it appears to split into different colors. In most cases, the drop reflects light only once, but sometimes light reflects off the drop twice. Then two rainbows flash in the sky.

Many desert travelers have witnessed another atmospheric phenomenon, the mirage. In the middle of the desert, an oasis with palm trees appeared, a caravan or ship moving across the sky. This happens when hot air above the surface rises. Its density begins to increase with height. Then the image of a distant object can be seen above its actual position.

In frosty weather, pronounced halo rings appear around the Sun and Lupus. They form when light is reflected by ice crystals that are quite high in the atmosphere, such as cirrus clouds. On the inside, the halo may have a bright color and a reddish tint. Ice crystals sometimes reflect sunlight so bizarrely that other illusions appear in the sky: two suns, vertical pillars of light or solar arcs. Around the Sun and Moon, halos sometimes form - crowns. The crowns look like several rings nested inside each other. They occur in altocumulus and altostratus clouds. A crown of color may appear around a shadow cast, for example, by an airplane on the underlying clouds.

Phenomena related to electricity

Tiny particles from space often fall into the upper layers. Due to their collision with particles of gases and dust, the aurora appears - a glow of the sky with flashes in the polar latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The shapes and colors of the aurora are varied. Its duration can range from tens of minutes to several days.

Drops and ice crystals moving in cumulonimbus clouds accumulate electrical charges. This causes a giant spark to appear between the clouds or between the cloud and the ground - lightning, which is accompanied by thunder. The accumulation of electricity in the atmosphere sometimes forms a luminous ball with a diameter of tens of centimeters - this is ball lightning. It moves with the movement of air and can explode upon contact with individual objects, especially metal ones. Having penetrated the house, ball lightning quickly moves through the room, leaving behind scorched areas. Ball lightning can cause serious burns and death. An exact explanation of the nature of this phenomenon does not yet exist.

Another phenomenon associated with the electric glow of the atmosphere is St. Elmo's fire. This glow can be observed in thunderstorms on high tower spiers, as well as around ship masts. It frightened superstitious sailors, who considered it a bad sign.

“Optical phenomena in nature”

1. Introduction

a) The concept of optics

b) Classification of optics

c) Optics in the development of modern physics

2. Phenomena associated with the reflection of light

4. Auroras

Introduction

Optics concept

The first ideas of ancient scientists about light were very naive. They thought that visual impressions arise when objects are felt with special thin tentacles that come out of the eyes. Optics was the science of vision, this is how this word can most accurately be translated.

Gradually in the Middle Ages, optics turned from the science of vision into the science of light, facilitated by the invention of lenses and the camera obscura. On currently time, optics is a branch of physics that studies the emission of light and its propagation in various media, as well as its interaction with matter. Issues related to vision, the structure and functioning of the eye have become a separate scientific direction- physiological optics.

Optics classification

Light rays are geometric lines along which light energy propagates; when considering many optical phenomena, you can use the idea of ​​them. In this case, we talk about geometric (ray) optics. Geometric optics has become widespread in lighting engineering, as well as when considering the actions of numerous instruments and devices - from magnifying glasses and glasses to the most complex optical telescopes and microscopes.

Intensive research into the previously discovered phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization of light began at the beginning of the 19th century. These processes were not explained within the framework of geometric optics, so it was necessary to consider light in the form of transverse waves. As a result, wave optics appeared. Initially, it was believed that light is elastic waves in a certain medium (world ether) filling the world space.

But the English physicist James Maxwell in 1864 created the electromagnetic theory of light, according to which light waves are electromagnetic waves with a corresponding range of lengths.

And already at the beginning of the 20th century, new studies showed that in order to explain some phenomena, for example the photoelectric effect, there is a need to represent a light beam in the form of a stream of peculiar particles - light quanta. Isaac Newton had a similar view on the nature of light 200 years ago in his “theory of the effusion of light.” Now quantum optics is doing this.

The role of optics in the development of modern physics.

Optics also played a significant role in the development of modern physics. The emergence of two of the most important and revolutionary theories of the twentieth century (quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity) is connected in principle with optical research. Optical methods for analyzing matter at the molecular level have given rise to a special scientific field - molecular optics, which also includes optical spectroscopy, used in modern materials science, plasma research, and astrophysics. There are also electron and neutron optics.

On modern stage development, an electron microscope and a neutron mirror were created, optical models of atomic nuclei were developed.

Optics influencing development different directions modern physics, and itself today is in a period of rapid development. The main impetus for this development was the invention of lasers - intense sources of coherent light. As a result, wave optics rose to a higher level, the level of coherent optics.

Thanks to the advent of lasers, many scientific and technical developing areas have emerged. Among which are nonlinear optics, holography, radio optics, picosecond optics, adaptive optics, etc.

Radio optics originated at the intersection of radio engineering and optics and deals with the study of optical methods for transmitting and processing information. These methods are combined with traditional electronic methods; The result was a scientific and technical direction called optoelectronics.

The subject of fiber optics is the transmission of light signals through dielectric fibers. Using the achievements of nonlinear optics, it is possible to change the wavefront of a light beam, which is modified as light propagates in a particular medium, for example, in the atmosphere or in water. Consequently, adaptive optics has emerged and is being intensively developed. Closely related to this is photoenergetics, which is emerging before our eyes and deals, in particular, with the issues of efficient transmission of light energy along a beam of light. Modern laser technology makes it possible to produce light pulses with a duration of only picoseconds. Such pulses turn out to be a unique “tool” for studying a number of fast processes in matter, and in particular in biological structures. A special direction has emerged and is being developed – picosecond optics; Photobiology is closely related to it. It can be said without exaggeration that the widespread practical use of the achievements of modern optics is required condition scientific and technological progress. Optics opened the way to the microworld for the human mind, and it also allowed it to penetrate the secrets star worlds. Optics covers all aspects of our practice.

Phenomena associated with the reflection of light.

The object and its reflection

The fact that the landscape reflected in still water does not differ from the real one, but is only turned upside down, is far from true.

If a person looks late in the evening at how lamps are reflected in the water or how the shore descending to the water is reflected, then the reflection will seem shortened to him and will completely “disappear” if the observer is high above the surface of the water. Also, you can never see the reflection of the top of a stone, part of which is immersed in water.

The landscape appears to the observer as if it were viewed from a point located as much below the surface of the water as the observer's eye is above the surface. The difference between the landscape and its image decreases as the eye approaches the surface of the water, and also as the object moves away.

People often think that the reflection of bushes and trees in a pond has brighter colors and richer tones. This feature can also be noticed by observing the reflection of objects in a mirror. Here psychological perception plays a greater role than the physical side of the phenomenon. The frame of the mirror and the banks of the pond limit a small area of ​​the landscape, protecting a person’s lateral vision from excess scattered light coming from the entire sky and blinding the observer, that is, he looks at a small area of ​​the landscape as if through a dark narrow pipe. Reducing the brightness of reflected light compared to direct light makes it easier for people to observe the sky, clouds and other brightly lit objects that, when directly observed, are too bright for the eye.

Dependence of reflection coefficient on the angle of incidence of light.

At the boundary of two transparent media, light is partially reflected, partially passes into another medium and is refracted, and partially absorbed by the medium. The ratio of reflected energy to incident energy is called the reflection coefficient. The ratio of the energy of light transmitted through a substance to the energy of incident light is called transmittance.

Reflection and transmittance coefficients depend on the optical properties, the adjacent media and the angle of incidence of light. So, if light falls on a glass plate perpendicularly (angle of incidence α = 0), then only 5% of the light energy is reflected, and 95% passes through the interface. As the angle of incidence increases, the fraction of reflected energy increases. At the angle of incidence α=90˚ it is equal to unity.

The dependence of the intensity of light reflected and transmitted through a glass plate can be traced by placing the plate at different angles to the light rays and assessing the intensity by eye.

It is also interesting to evaluate by eye the intensity of light reflected from the surface of a reservoir, depending on the angle of incidence, to observe the reflection sun rays from the windows of the house at different angles of incidence during the day, at sunset, at sunrise.

Safety glasses

Conventional window glass partially transmits heat rays. This is good for use in northern areas, as well as for greenhouses. In the south, the rooms become so overheated that it is difficult to work in them. Protection from the Sun comes down to either shading the building with trees, or choosing a favorable orientation of the building during reconstruction. Both are sometimes difficult and not always feasible.

To prevent glass from transmitting heat rays, it is coated with thin transparent films of metal oxides. Thus, a tin-antimony film does not transmit more than half of thermal rays, and coatings containing iron oxide completely reflect ultraviolet rays and 35-55% of thermal rays.

Solutions of film-forming salts are applied from a spray bottle to the hot surface of the glass during its heat treatment or molding. At high temperatures, salts transform into oxides, tightly bound to the surface of the glass.

Glasses for sunglasses are made in a similar way.

Total internal reflection of light

A beautiful sight is the fountain, whose ejected jets are illuminated from within. This can be depicted under normal conditions by performing the following experiment (Fig. 1). In a tall tin can, drill a round hole at a height of 5 cm from the bottom ( A) with a diameter of 5-6 mm. The light bulb with the socket must be carefully wrapped in cellophane paper and placed opposite the hole. You need to pour water into the jar. Opening the hole A, we get a jet that will be illuminated from within. In a dark room it glows brightly and looks very impressive. The stream can be given any color by placing colored glass in the path of the light rays b. If you put your finger in the path of the stream, the water splashes and these droplets glow brightly.

The explanation for this phenomenon is quite simple. A ray of light passes along a stream of water and hits a curved surface at an angle greater than the limiting one, experiences total internal reflection, and then again hits the opposite side of the stream at an angle again greater than the limiting one. So the beam passes along the jet, bending along with it.

But if the light were completely reflected inside the jet, then it would not be visible from the outside. Part of the light is scattered by water, air bubbles and various impurities present in it, as well as due to the uneven surface of the jet, so it is visible from the outside.

Cylindrical light guide

If you direct a light beam at one end of a solid glass curved cylinder, you will notice that light will come out of its other end (Fig. 2); Almost no light comes out through the side surface of the cylinder. The passage of light through a glass cylinder is explained by the fact that, falling on the inner surface of the cylinder at an angle greater than the limiting one, the light undergoes complete reflection many times and reaches the end.

The thinner the cylinder, the more often the beam will be reflected and the larger part of the light will fall on the inner surface of the cylinder at angles greater than the limiting one.

Diamonds and gems

There is an exhibition of the Russian diamond fund in the Kremlin.

The light in the hall is slightly dimmed. The jewelers' creations sparkle in the windows. Here you can see such diamonds as “Orlov”, “Shah”, “Maria”, “Valentina Tereshkova”.

The secret of the wonderful play of light in diamonds is that this stone has a high refractive index (n=2.4173) and, as a result, a small angle of total internal reflection (α=24˚30′) and has greater dispersion, causing the decomposition of white light to simple colors.

In addition, the play of light in a diamond depends on the correctness of its cut. The facets of a diamond reflect light multiple times within the crystal. Due to the high transparency of diamonds high class the light inside them almost does not lose its energy, but only decomposes into simple colors, the rays of which then burst out in various, most unexpected directions. When you turn the stone, the colors emanating from the stone change, and it seems that it itself is the source of many bright multi-colored rays.

There are diamonds colored red, bluish and lilac. The shine of a diamond depends on its cut. If you look through a well-cut water-transparent diamond into the light, the stone appears completely opaque, and some of its facets appear simply black. This happens because the light, undergoing total internal reflection, comes out in the opposite direction or to the sides.

When viewed from the side of the light, the top cut shines with many colors and is shiny in places. The bright sparkle of the upper edges of a diamond is called diamond luster. The underside of the diamond appears to be silver-plated from the outside and has a metallic sheen.

The most transparent and large diamonds serve as decoration. Small diamonds are widely used in technology as a cutting or grinding tool for metalworking machines. Diamonds are used to reinforce the heads of drilling tools for drilling wells in hard rocks. This use of diamond is possible due to its great hardness. Other precious stones in most cases are crystals of aluminum oxide with an admixture of oxides of coloring elements - chromium (ruby), copper (emerald), manganese (amethyst). They are also distinguished by hardness, durability and have beautiful colors and “play of light”. Currently, they are able to artificially obtain large crystals of aluminum oxide and paint them in the desired color.

The phenomena of light dispersion are explained by the variety of colors of nature. A whole set of optical experiments with prisms was carried out by the English scientist Isaac Newton in the 17th century. These experiments showed that white light is not fundamental, it should be considered as composite (“inhomogeneous”); the main ones are different colors (“uniform” rays, or “monochromatic” rays). The decomposition of white light into different colors occurs because each color has its own degree of refraction. These conclusions made by Newton are consistent with modern scientific ideas.

Along with the dispersion of the refractive index, dispersion of the absorption, transmission and reflection coefficients of light is observed. This explains the various effects when illuminating bodies. For example, if there is some body transparent to light, for which the transmittance coefficient is large for red light and the reflection coefficient is small, but for green light it is the opposite: the transmittance coefficient is small and the reflection coefficient is large, then in transmitted light the body will appear red, and in reflected light it is green. Such properties are possessed, for example, by chlorophyll, a green substance contained in plant leaves that causes green color. A solution of chlorophyll in alcohol appears red when viewed against light. In reflected light, the same solution appears green.

If a body has a high absorption coefficient and low transmittance and reflection coefficients, then such a body will appear black and opaque (for example, soot). A very white, opaque body (eg magnesium oxide) has a reflectance close to unity for all wavelengths, and very low transmittance and absorption coefficients. A body (glass) that is completely transparent to light has low reflection and absorption coefficients and a transmittance close to unity for all wavelengths. In colored glass, for some wavelengths the transmittance and reflection coefficients are practically equal to zero and, accordingly, the absorption coefficient for the same wavelengths is close to unity.

Phenomena associated with the refraction of light

Some types of mirages. From the larger variety of mirages, we will single out several types: “lake” mirages, also called lower mirages, upper mirages, double and triple mirages, ultra-distant vision mirages.

Lower (“lake”) mirages appear above a very heated surface. Superior mirages, on the contrary, appear over a very cool surface, for example over cold water. If the lower mirages are observed, as a rule, in deserts and steppes, then the upper ones are observed in northern latitudes.

The upper mirages are diverse. In some cases they give a direct image, in other cases an inverted image appears in the air. Mirages can be double, when two images are observed, one simple and one inverted. These images may be separated by a strip of air (one may be above the horizon line, the other below it), but may directly merge with each other. Sometimes another one appears - a third image.

Ultra-long-range vision mirages are especially amazing. K. Flammarion in his book “Atmosphere” describes an example of such a mirage: “Based on the testimony of several trustworthy persons, I can report on a mirage that was seen in the city of Verviers (Belgium) in June 1815. One morning, residents of the city saw in the sky army, and it was so clear that one could distinguish the suits of the artillerymen and even, for example, a cannon with a broken wheel that was about to fall off... It was the morning of the Battle of Waterloo!” The described mirage is depicted in the form of a colored watercolor by one of the eyewitnesses. The distance from Waterloo to Verviers in a straight line is more than 100 km. There are known cases when similar mirages were observed at large distances - up to 1000 km. “The Flying Dutchman” should be attributed precisely to such mirages.

Explanation of the lower (“lake”) mirage. If the air near the surface of the earth is very hot and, therefore, its density is relatively low, then the refractive index at the surface will be less than in higher air layers. Changing the refractive index of air n with height h near the earth's surface for the case under consideration is shown in Figure 3, a.

In accordance with the established rule, light rays near the surface of the earth will in this case be bent so that their trajectory is convex downward. Let there be an observer at point A. A light ray from a certain area of ​​​​the blue sky will enter the observer's eye, experiencing the specified curvature. This means that the observer will see the corresponding section of the sky not above the horizon line, but below it. It will seem to him that he sees water, although in fact there is an image of blue sky in front of him. If we imagine that there are hills, palm trees or other objects near the horizon line, then the observer will see them upside down, thanks to the noted curvature of the rays, and will perceive them as reflections of the corresponding objects in non-existent water. This is how an illusion arises, which is a “lake” mirage.

Simple superior mirages. It can be assumed that the air at the very surface of the earth or water is not heated, but, on the contrary, is noticeably cooled compared to higher air layers; the change in n with height h is shown in Figure 4, a. Light rays in the case under consideration, they bend so that their trajectory is convex upward. Therefore, now the observer can see objects hidden from him behind the horizon, and he will see them at the top, as if hanging above the horizon line. Therefore, such mirages are called upper.

The superior mirage can produce both an upright and an inverted image. The direct image shown in the figure occurs when the refractive index of air decreases relatively slowly with height. When the refractive index decreases rapidly, an inverted image is formed. This can be verified by considering a hypothetical case - the refractive index at a certain height h decreases abruptly (Fig. 5). The rays of the object, before reaching observer A, experience total internal reflection from the boundary BC, below which in this case there is denser air. It can be seen that the superior mirage gives an inverted image of the object. In reality, there is no abrupt boundary between the layers of air; the transition occurs gradually. But if it occurs sharply enough, then the superior mirage will give an inverted image (Fig. 5).

Double and triple mirages. If the refractive index of air changes first quickly and then slowly, then in this case the rays in region I will bend faster than in region II. As a result, two images appear (Fig. 6, 7). Light rays 1 propagating within the air region I form an inverted image of the object. Rays 2, which propagate mainly within region II, are bent to a lesser extent and form a straight image.

To understand how a triple mirage appears, you need to imagine three successive air regions: the first (near the surface), where the refractive index decreases slowly with height, the next, where the refractive index decreases quickly, and the third region, where the refractive index decreases again slowly. The figure shows the considered change in the refractive index with height. The figure shows how a triple mirage occurs. Rays 1 form the lower image of the object, they extend within the air region I. Rays 2 form an inverted image; I fall into air region II, these rays experience strong curvature. Rays 3 form the upper direct image of the object.

Ultra-long-range vision mirage. The nature of these mirages is least studied. It is clear that the atmosphere must be transparent, free of water vapor and pollution. But this is not enough. A stable layer of cooled air should form at a certain height above the earth's surface. Below and above this layer the air should be warmer. A light beam that gets inside a dense cold layer of air is, as it were, “locked” inside it and spreads through it as if through a kind of light guide. The beam path in Figure 8 is always convex towards less dense areas of air.

The occurrence of ultra-long-range mirages can be explained by the propagation of rays inside similar “light guides”, which nature sometimes creates.

Rainbow is a beautiful celestial phenomenon that has always attracted human attention. In former times, when people still knew little about the world around them, the rainbow was considered a “heavenly sign.” So, the ancient Greeks thought that the rainbow was the smile of the goddess Iris.

A rainbow is observed in the direction opposite to the Sun, against the background of rain clouds or rain. The multi-colored arc is usually located at a distance of 1-2 km from the observer, and sometimes it can be observed at a distance of 2-3 m against the background of water drops formed by fountains or water sprays.

The center of the rainbow is located on the continuation of the straight line connecting the Sun and the observer's eye - on the antisolar line. The angle between the direction towards the main rainbow and the anti-solar line is 41-42º (Fig. 9).

At the moment of sunrise, the antisolar point (point M) is on the horizon line and the rainbow has the appearance of a semicircle. As the Sun rises, the antisolar point moves below the horizon and the size of the rainbow decreases. It represents only part of a circle.

A secondary rainbow is often observed, concentric with the first, with an angular radius of about 52º and the colors in reverse.

When the Sun's altitude is 41º, the main rainbow ceases to be visible and only part of the side rainbow protrudes above the horizon, and when the Sun's altitude is more than 52º, the side rainbow is not visible either. Therefore, in mid-equatorial latitudes this natural phenomenon is never observed during the midday hours.

The rainbow has seven primary colors, smoothly transitioning from one to another.

The type of arc, the brightness of the colors, and the width of the stripes depend on the size of the water droplets and their number. Large drops create a narrower rainbow, with sharply prominent colors, small drops create a blurry, faded and even white arc. That is why a bright narrow rainbow is visible in the summer after a thunderstorm, during which large drops fall.

The rainbow theory was first proposed in 1637 by Rene Descartes. He explained rainbows as a phenomenon related to the reflection and refraction of light in raindrops.

The formation of colors and their sequence were explained later, after unraveling the complex nature of white light and its dispersion in the medium. The diffraction theory of rainbows was developed by Erie and Partner.

We can consider the simplest case: let a beam of parallel solar rays fall on drops shaped like a ball (Fig. 10). A ray incident on the surface of a drop at point A is refracted inside it according to the law of refraction:

n sin α=n sin β, where n=1, n≈1.33 –

respectively, the refractive indices of air and water, α is the angle of incidence, and β is the angle of refraction of light.

Inside the drop, the ray AB travels in a straight line. At point B, the beam is partially refracted and partially reflected. It should be noted that the smaller the angle of incidence at point B, and therefore at point A, the lower the intensity of the reflected beam and the greater the intensity of the refracted beam.

Beam AB, after reflection at point B, occurs at an angle β` = β b and hits point C, where partial reflection and partial refraction of light also occurs. The refracted ray leaves the drop at an angle γ, and the reflected ray can travel further, to point D, etc. Thus, the light ray in the drop undergoes multiple reflection and refraction. With each reflection, some of the light rays come out and their intensity inside the drop decreases. The most intense of the rays emerging into the air is the ray emerging from the drop at point B. But it is difficult to observe it, since it is lost against the background of bright direct sunlight. The rays refracted at point C together create a primary rainbow against the background of a dark cloud, and the rays refracted at point D produce a secondary rainbow, which is less intense than the primary one.

When considering the formation of a rainbow, one more phenomenon must be taken into account - the unequal refraction of light waves of different lengths, that is, light rays of different colors. This phenomenon is called dispersion. Due to dispersion, the angles of refraction γ and the angle of deflection Θ of rays in a drop are different for rays of different colors.

Most often we see one rainbow. It is not uncommon for two rainbow stripes to appear in the sky at the same time, located one after the other; still watching larger number celestial arcs - three, four and even five at the same time. This interesting phenomenon was observed by Leningraders on September 24, 1948, when in the afternoon four rainbows appeared among the clouds over the Neva. It turns out that rainbows can arise not only from direct rays; It often appears in the reflected rays of the Sun. This can be seen on the shores of sea bays, large rivers and lakes. Three or four rainbows - ordinary and reflected - sometimes create a beautiful picture. Since the rays of the Sun reflected from the water surface go from bottom to top, the rainbow formed in the rays can sometimes look completely unusual.

You should not think that rainbows can only be seen during the day. It also happens at night, although it is always weak. You can see such a rainbow after a night rain, when the Moon appears from behind the clouds.

Some semblance of a rainbow can be obtained through the following experiment: You need to illuminate a flask filled with water solar light or a lamp through a hole in a white board. Then a rainbow will become clearly visible on the board, and the angle of divergence of the rays compared to the initial direction will be about 41-42°. Under natural conditions, there is no screen; the image appears on the retina of the eye, and the eye projects this image onto the clouds.

If a rainbow appears in the evening before sunset, then a red rainbow is observed. In the last five or ten minutes before sunset, all the colors of the rainbow except red disappear, and it becomes very bright and visible even ten minutes after sunset.

A rainbow on the dew is a beautiful sight. It can be observed at sunrise on the grass covered with dew. This rainbow is shaped like a hyperbola.

Auroras

One of the most beautiful optical phenomena of nature is the aurora.

In most cases, auroras have a green or blue-green hue with occasional spots or a border of pink or red.

Auroras are observed in two main forms - in the form of ribbons and in the form of cloud-like spots. When the radiance is intense, it takes the form of ribbons. Losing intensity, it turns into spots. However, many tapes disappear before they have time to break into spots. The ribbons seem to hang in the dark space of the sky, resembling a giant curtain or drapery, usually stretching from east to west for thousands of kilometers. The height of this curtain is several hundred kilometers, the thickness does not exceed several hundred meters, and it is so delicate and transparent that the stars are visible through it. The lower edge of the curtain is quite sharply and clearly outlined and is often tinted in a red or pinkish color, reminiscent of a curtain border; the upper edge is gradually lost in height and this creates a particularly spectacular impression depth of space.

There are four types of auroras:

A homogeneous arc - a luminous stripe has the simplest, calmest shape. It is brighter from below and gradually disappears upward against the background of the sky glow;

Radiant arc - the tape becomes somewhat more active and mobile, it forms small folds and streams;

Radial stripe - with increasing activity, larger folds overlap small ones;

As activity increases, the folds or loops expand to enormous sizes, and the bottom edge of the ribbon glows brightly with a pink glow. When activity subsides, the folds disappear and the tape returns to a uniform shape. This suggests that a homogeneous structure is the main form of the aurora, and folds are associated with increasing activity.

Radiances of a different type often appear. They cover the entire polar region and are very intense. They occur during an increase in solar activity. These auroras appear as a whitish-green cap. Such auroras are called squalls.

Based on the brightness of the aurora, they are divided into four classes, differing from each other by one order of magnitude (that is, 10 times). The first class includes auroras that are barely noticeable and approximately equal in brightness to the Milky Way, while the fourth class auroras illuminate the Earth as brightly as the full Moon.

It should be noted that the resulting aurora spreads to the west at a speed of 1 km/sec. The upper layers of the atmosphere in the area of ​​auroral flashes heat up and rush upward, which affected the increased braking of artificial Earth satellites passing through these zones.

During auroras, eddy electric currents arise in the Earth's atmosphere, covering large areas. They excite magnetic storms, the so-called additional unstable magnetic fields. When the atmosphere shines, it emits X-rays, which are most likely the result of the deceleration of electrons in the atmosphere.

Frequent flashes of radiance are almost always accompanied by sounds reminiscent of noise and crackling. Auroras have a great influence on strong changes in the ionosphere, which in turn affect radio communication conditions, i.e. radio communication is greatly deteriorated, resulting in severe interference, or even complete loss of reception.

The emergence of auroras.

The Earth is a huge magnet, the north pole of which is located near the south geographic pole, and the south pole is located near the north. And the lines of force magnetic field Earths are geomagnetic lines extending from the region adjacent to the Earth's north magnetic pole. They cover everything Earth and enter it in the region of the south magnetic pole, forming a toroidal lattice around the Earth.

It was believed for a long period of time that the location of magnetic field lines was symmetrical relative to the earth's axis. But in fact, it turned out that the so-called “solar wind,” i.e., a stream of protons and electrons emitted by the Sun, attacks the geomagnetic shell of the Earth from a height of about 20,000 km. It pulls it away from the Sun, thereby forming a kind of magnetic “tail” on the Earth.

Once in the Earth's magnetic field, an electron or proton moves in a spiral, winding around the geomagnetic line. These particles, falling from the solar wind into the Earth's magnetic field, are divided into two parts: one part along the magnetic field lines immediately flows into the polar regions of the Earth, and the other gets inside the teroid and moves inside it, as can be done according to the left-hand rule, along closed curve ABC. Ultimately, these protons and electrons also flow along geomagnetic lines to the region of the poles, where their increased concentration appears. Protons and electrons produce ionization and excitation of atoms and molecules of gases. They have enough energy for this. Since protons arrive on Earth with energies of 10,000-20,000 eV (1 eV = 1.6 10 J), and electrons with energies of 10-20 eV. But for the ionization of atoms it is necessary: ​​for hydrogen - 13.56 eV, for oxygen - 13.56 eV, for nitrogen - 124.47 eV, and even less for excitation.

Based on the principle that occurs in tubes with rarefied gas when currents are passed through them, excited gas atoms give back the received energy in the form of light.

The green and red glow, according to the results of a spectral study, belongs to excited oxygen atoms, and the infrared and violet glow belongs to ionized nitrogen molecules. Some oxygen and nitrogen emission lines form at an altitude of 110 km, and the red glow of oxygen occurs at an altitude of 200-400 km. The next weak source of red light is hydrogen atoms, formed in the upper layers of the atmosphere from protons arriving from the Sun. Such a proton, after capturing an electron, turns into an excited hydrogen atom and emits red light.

After solar flares, auroral flares usually occur within a day or two. This indicates a connection between these phenomena. Research using rockets has shown that in places of greater intensity of auroras, a higher level of ionization of gases by electrons remains. According to scientists, the maximum intensity of auroras is achieved off the coast of oceans and seas.

There are a number of difficulties for the scientific explanation of all phenomena associated with auroras. That is, the mechanism for accelerating particles to certain energies is not completely known, their trajectories of motion in near-Earth space are not clear, the mechanism for the formation of various types of luminescence is not entirely clear, the origin of sounds is unclear, and not everything agrees quantitatively in the energy balance of ionization and excitation of particles.

Used Books:

1. “Physics in Nature”, author - L. V. Tarasov, Prosveshchenie Publishing House, Moscow, 1988.
2. “Optical phenomena in nature”, author - V. L. Bulat, publishing house “Prosveshchenie”, Moscow, 1974.
3. “Conversations on Physics, Part II”, author - M.I. Bludov, Prosveshchenie Publishing House, Moscow, 1985.
4. “Physics 10”, authors - G. Ya. Myakishev B. B. Bukhovtsev, Prosveshchenie publishing house, Moscow, 1987.
5. “Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Physicist”, compiled by V. A. Chuyanov, Pedagogika Publishing House, Moscow, 1984.
6. “Schoolchildren's Handbook on Physics”, compiled by, philological society “Slovo”, Moscow, 1995.
7. “Physics 11”, N. M. Shakhmaev, S. N. Shakhmaev, D. Sh. Shodiev, Prosveshchenie publishing house, Moscow, 1991.
8. “Solving problems in physics”, V. A. Shevtsov, Nizhne-Volzhskoe book publishing house, Volgograd, 1999.