History worksheet high renaissance. Renaissance

Drowning is a type of mechanical asphyxia (suffocation) resulting from water entering the respiratory tract.

The changes that occur in the body during drowning, in particular, the timing of death under water, depend on a number of factors: on the nature of the water (fresh, salty, chlorinated fresh water in swimming pools), on its temperature (ice, cold, warm), on the presence of impurities (silt, mud, etc.), on the state of the victim’s body at the time of drowning (overwork, excitement, alcohol intoxication, etc.).

There are three types of drowning: primary (true, or “wet”), asphyxial (“dry”) and syncope. In addition, in case of accidents, death in water may occur that is not caused by drowning (trauma, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accident, etc.).

Primary drowning occurs most often (75-95% of all accidents in water). It involves aspiration of fluid into the respiratory tract and lungs, and then its entry into the blood. When drowning in fresh water, pronounced hemodilution and hypervolemia quickly occur, hemolysis, hypokalemia, hypoproteinemia, hyponatremia, and a decrease in the concentration of calcium and chlorine ions in the plasma develop. Severe arterial hypoxemia is characteristic. After removing the victim from the water and providing him with first aid, pulmonary edema often develops with the release of bloody foam from the respiratory tract. When drowning in sea water, which is hypertonic in relation to blood plasma, hypovolemia, hypernatremia, hypercalcemia, hyperchloremia develops, and blood thickening occurs. True drowning in sea water is characterized by fast development edema with discharge of white or pink, persistent, “fluffy” foam from the respiratory tract.

Asphyxial drowning occurs in 5-20% of all cases. With it, reflex laryngospasm develops and aspiration of water does not occur, but asphyxia occurs. Asphyxial drowning occurs more often in children and women, as well as when the victim gets into contaminated, chlorinated water. At the same time, water enters the stomach in large quantities. Pulmonary edema may develop, but not hemorrhagic.

Syncopal drowning develops as a result of cardiac arrest due to the victim getting into cold water (“ice shock”, “immersion syndrome”), a reflex reaction to water entering the respiratory tract or the middle ear cavity with a damaged eardrum. Syncopal drowning is characterized by pronounced spasm of peripheral vessels. Pulmonary edema, as a rule, does not occur.

The condition of victims removed from the water is largely determined by the duration of their stay under water and the type of drowning, the presence of mental trauma and cooling. In mild cases, consciousness may be preserved, but patients are agitated, trembling and frequent vomiting are noted. With a relatively long period of true or asphyxial drowning, consciousness is confused or absent, sudden motor agitation, convulsions. The skin is cyanotic. Syncopal drowning is characterized by severe pallor of the skin. The pupils are usually dilated. Breathing is bubbling, rapid, or during a long stay under water, infrequent with the participation of auxiliary muscles. When drowning in sea water, pulmonary edema quickly increases. Severe tachycardia, sometimes extrasystole. In case of prolonged and secondary drowning, the victim can be removed from the water without signs of breathing or cardiac activity.

Complications. In case of true drowning in fresh water, hematuria develops already at the end of the first hour, sometimes later. Pneumonia and pulmonary atelectasis can develop very quickly, at the end of the first day after drowning. With severe hemolysis, hemoglobinuric nephrosis and acute renal failure can occur.

First aid the victim should be started immediately after the face of the drowned person is raised above the water, and continued during towing to the boat or to the shore. In this case, the rescuer tilts the victim’s head back, from time to time blowing air into the lungs from the mouth to the nose. After delivering the victim ashore, it is necessary to assess his condition. If consciousness and breathing are preserved, he must be warmed and calmed (sedatives and tranquilizers are indicated). If there is no consciousness, but the pulse is rhythmic, satisfactorily filled and spontaneous breathing is preserved, it is necessary to free the chest from constricting clothing, allow the ammonia vapor to breathe, and tug on the tongue to activate breathing. Victims who are unconscious, with signs of respiratory and circulatory disorders (frequent or rare pulse, rapid or rare breathing, motor agitation, cyanosis) or in the absence of spontaneous breathing, must urgently begin artificial ventilation of the lungs, without wasting time trying to remove all the fluid from the respiratory tract, as this is not feasible. The victim is placed on his back, they try to overcome trismus of the masticatory muscles by opening the mouth slightly, clean the oral cavity with a finger wrapped in gauze or a handkerchief, and begin artificial respiration. If water is released from the respiratory tract, you need to turn your head to the side and raise the opposite shoulder, press on the epigastric region with your palm or fist. Artificial respiration is carried out until consciousness is fully restored. In the presence of trained medical staff and the necessary instruments, already at the prehospital stage, it is recommended to intubate the trachea as early as possible and use a portable valve of the AMBU type, which allows you to create an adjustable expiratory resistance (up to 10 - 20 cm H2O), which helps straighten the alveoli and reduce the intake of unoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery system into the pulmonary veins. The timeliness of artificial respiration and the usefulness of its implementation determine the further course of the post-resuscitation period and its outcome. If there is no pulse in the large arteries, a heartbeat cannot be heard, the pupils are dilated, the skin is pale or cyanotic, and indirect cardiac massage is performed simultaneously with artificial pulmonary ventilation (ALV). After recovery from the state clinical death the victim is warmed up if the body temperature is below 30 - 32 ° C, and massage of the upper and lower extremities is performed. Body temperature is maintained within 32-33 °C (moderate hypothermia increases the resistance of the central nervous system to hypoxia). Due to the risk of developing late complications, even with minimal pathological symptoms, hospitalization and observation in a hospital for at least 24 hours are necessary. Resuscitation measures do not stop during transportation. When transporting to the hospital, clear continuity must be ensured. Therapy in a hospital setting (preferably an intensive care unit) should primarily be aimed at combating hypoxia using oxygen inhalation or oxybarotherapy, and if there is no effect, mechanical ventilation is used (100% oxygen for the first 1-2 hours) with positive expiratory pressure or high-frequency mechanical ventilation . Early correction of metabolic acidosis and antihistamines are indicated. In order to prevent acute renal failure, forced diuresis with Lasix is ​​performed (in case of developed renal failure, extracorporeal hemodialysis). To prevent cerebral edema, local hypothermia is used, corticosteroids and barbiturates are administered; inflammatory process in the lungs - broad-spectrum antibiotics are prescribed parenterally. In case of true drowning in fresh water and the presence of severe cyanosis, indicating an overload of the right side of the heart, urgent bloodletting is performed. To remove hemolysis products, mannitol is administered dropwise, and to reduce hyperkalemia, a glucose solution with insulin is administered. When aspirating seawater, the loss of fluid is compensated for by intravenous administration of plasma-substituting solutions, glucose and sodium bicarbonate. For high venous and arterial pressure, ganglion blockers and diuretics are recommended; with low blood pressure - glucocorticoids, dopamine. To improve the metabolism and contractility of the myocardium, cardiac glycosides, panangin, cocarboxylase, vitamins C, group B are prescribed. If fibrillation of the ventricles of the heart occurs, defibrillation is indicated.

During the rehabilitation period, relapses of severe parenchymal respiratory failure, pulmonary edema and aspiration pneumonia are possible, and cerebral edema often occurs.

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In the event of drowning, you must act quickly. Any delay threatens to backfire terrible tragedy! Therefore, only timely provision of first aid in case of drowning can save a human life!

In the first minute after drowning in water, more than 90% of victims can be saved, after 6-7 minutes - only about 1-3%. Therefore, you need to pull yourself together, put aside panic and start taking action. The required amount of first aid for drowning is assessed based on the condition of the victim. Having noticed a drowning person, it is necessary to urgently inform rescuers about it. But if the rescuers are far away or are not on the beach at all, then you need to save the drowning person yourself.

The rescuer must quickly run to the closest place along the shore to the drowning place. You need to swim up to a drowning person from behind, otherwise the drowning person, in frantic attempts to swim out, may accidentally grab the rescuer and it will be very difficult to free himself from such a grip.

If a drowning person has sunk to the bottom, then you need to dive and swim to the drowning person along the bottom, taking into account the direction and speed of the current. If you find a drowning person, you need to take him by the hand, under the armpits or by the hair. Push off strongly from the bottom and rise to the surface, working with your legs and free hand.

On the surface, the drowning person should be supported so that his head remains above the surface of the water. Helping yourself with your free hand, you should try to deliver the victim to the shore as quickly as possible.

In drowning, death occurs as a result of lack of oxygen. Lack of oxygen can be caused by a reflex spasm of the larynx, which prevents not only air, but also water from entering the lungs. This kind of drowning is called dry drowning.

For dry drowning the victim loses consciousness and immediately sinks to the bottom. The victim's skin has a bluish tint, but it is less pronounced than with true drowning, i.e. drowning due to water entering the respiratory tract. Also, in true drowning, foamy liquid is released from the victim's mouth and nose.

Indirect cardiac massage should be done if the victim has no signs of circulation.

Manifestations:

In mild cases, consciousness is preserved, mental and motor agitation, muscle tremors, and vomiting of gastric contents mixed with large amounts of water are noted.

In severe cases, there is no consciousness, convulsions are observed, the skin is bluish or a sharp pallor of the skin appears, the pupils are dilated, and breathing is bubbling.

After some time, white fluffy foam begins to emerge from the mouth (for drowning in sea water) or foam mixed with blood (for drowning in fresh water), which is a sign of pulmonary edema; heart rhythm is disturbed. If the victim remains in water for a long time, he can be pulled out without breathing or heartbeat.

First aid

When the victim is brought ashore, his vital signs must be checked. If breathing and pulse are satisfactory, then the victim should be laid on a dry, hard surface. The victim's head should be kept low. The victim should be removed from tight clothing and rubbed with hands or a towel. Give the victim a hot drink and wrap him in a warm blanket. Call an ambulance and be sure to send the victim to hospital.

In case of loss of consciousness and absence of spontaneous breathing, it is necessary to begin artificial respiration “mouth to nose” or “mouth to mouth” as soon as possible with a frequency of 12-16 respiratory movements per minute (the victim’s head should be thrown back as much as possible); in the absence of cardiac activity, closed masses of the heart (simultaneously with artificial ventilation of the lungs) - 1 breath should fall for 3 shocks to the heart area.

To remove water from the lungs, the victim is placed with his stomach on the thigh of the rescuer’s bent leg, hands are placed on the lateral surfaces of the chest and the chest is compressed with sharp pushes for 15 s. But this is not always necessary, since most often there is no time for this, priority goes to resuscitation!

Then the victim is turned over onto his back again and artificial ventilation of the lungs and closed cardiac massage (if necessary) are continued. For artificial ventilation of the lungs, the victim should be laid on his back, freed from clothing, and his head tilted back. The rescuer places one hand under the victim’s neck, the other on the forehead.

Move the victim's lower jaw forward and upward - this is necessary to restore patency of the airway. Taking a deep breath, the rescuer presses his lips tightly to the victim’s mouth or nose (through a handkerchief, if available), and blows in air. In this case, if mouth-to-mouth breathing is done, it is necessary to pinch the victim’s nose; if mouth-to-nose breathing, then the mouth. Exhalation occurs passively.

If, during artificial respiration, liquid continues to be released from the respiratory tract of a drowned person, then you should turn the victim’s head to the side and raise the opposite shoulder - this will allow the liquid to flow out faster.

You should not try to remove all the water from your lungs. It is imperative to remove all foreign substances from the victim’s mouth and nose (with a finger wrapped in a handkerchief). If the victim's jaws are clenched, it is necessary to press on the corners of the lower jaw.

Indirect cardiac massage should be done if the victim has no signs of circulation. The rescuer should position himself on the side of the victim, his arms should be perpendicular to the surface of the victim’s chest. Place one hand perpendicular to the sternum in its lower third, and the other on top of the first hand, parallel to the plane of the sternum.

With rhythmic jerks, at a frequency of 60-70 per minute, the rescuer must sharply press on the chest - the sternum bends 3-4 cm and blood from the ventricles of the heart enters the circulatory system. In the intervals between pressures, you cannot lift your hands.

Artificial respiration should be carried out for a long time even after spontaneous breathing is restored (using an Ambu bag designed for manual ventilation).

If breathing is initially preserved, the victim is given a cotton swab with ammonia to sniff, rubbed thoroughly, and wrapped in dry, warm blankets. The victim is urgently hospitalized by ambulance to the intensive care unit of the hospital.

Remember! You cannot take your eyes off the patient for a moment: at any moment, repeated cardiac and respiratory arrest may occur, and pulmonary or cerebral edema may develop.

Some features of resuscitation of drowned people:

• Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in case of drowning should be carried out even if the person was under water for 10-20 minutes (especially if we are talking about drowning of a child in cold water). Since cases of revival with complete neurological recovery have been described when being under water for more than 60 minutes.
• If during cardiopulmonary resuscitation there is a reflux of stomach contents into the oropharynx, the person being resuscitated should be turned on his side (if there is a possible injury to the cervical spine, make sure that the relative position of the head, neck and torso does not change), clear the mouth, and then turn back on back and continue resuscitation measures.
• If damage to the cervical spine is suspected, it is recommended to try to ensure free passage of the airways using the technique of “pushing the lower jaw forward” without throwing back the victim’s head. But, if this technique fails to ensure an open airway, then since 2005 it has been allowed to use head tilt even in patients with suspected cervical spine injury, since ensuring an open airway remains a priority action when resuscitating injured patients in an unconscious state .
• One of the most common mistakes when performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation is premature termination of artificial respiration. It can be stopped only after complete restoration of consciousness and disappearance of signs of respiratory failure. Artificial respiration must be continued if the victim has respiratory rhythm disturbances, rapid breathing (more than 40 per minute) or severe cyanosis.

Remember! Rescue of drowning people is, first of all, the work of the drowning people themselves! Be careful on the water! Because there are not always people nearby who are ready to help you!

Drowning can occur during sea and river accidents, when an airship falls into the water, or during natural disasters. But in Everyday life Most often it happens when swimming in unfamiliar bodies of water, jumping into water, skating on thin ice or fishing on it. Unintentional drowning can occur even in a puddle, in shallow water, or in a bathtub. In these cases, our help is usually especially necessary.

Death from drowning due to lack of oxygen in the body usually occurs within 2-3 minutes, provided that the victim had a healthy heart. However, there are cases of instantaneous cardiac arrest; this, as a rule, occurs under the influence of a sudden cold effect during a rapid jump into water or a small amount of water entering the upper respiratory tract, and the heart reacts primarily to these factors. In drowning, it also plays a role a large number of water penetrating from the lungs into the blood and significantly disrupting chemical equilibrium body.

Low water temperature under certain conditions of the body (tendency to antispasms, allergies to cold, etc.) causes spasm of blood vessels in the skin and lungs, prolonged contraction of the respiratory muscles, which leads to acute disturbances in breathing and cardiac activity.

But there are also many accidents in sun-warmed water. Risk factors include high current speed, the presence of whirlpools, key springs that sharply change the water temperature in a limited area, storms, the possibility of a collision with floating craft, etc. A significant reduction in the risk of drowning not only in normal but also in extreme conditions is facilitated by the development of strong-willed people. qualities and hardening of the body. But the main thing is to try not to lose composure in the water.

Often people drown not only due to loss of self-control, but also due to the onset of fainting, i.e. loss of consciousness. Fainting can occur, for example, due to the fact that on a hot day, a person overheated under the sun quickly plunges into water, as a result of which either a spasm of the brain occurs, or an outflow of blood from the brain, or both. Fainting can also occur due to the stomach being overfilled with abundant and dense food, when during the digestion process blood flows away from the central nervous system into the gastrointestinal tract. Fainting can also be caused by fear during an accidental fall into the water.

There are two types of drowning: true and “dry” - caused by a sudden stop of breathing and heart.

When drowning, there are two phases of death: clinical and biological. Drowning even when quickly removed from the water appearance resembles a dead one. However, he should be considered apparently dead, in the clinical death phase, and therefore immediate measures must be taken to revive him.

First aid for a drowned man

The nature of emergency assistance to the victim depends on the severity of his condition. If a person is conscious, he needs to be calmed down, take off his wet clothes, wipe his skin dry, change his clothes; if there is no consciousness, but the pulse and breathing are preserved, the victim should be allowed to breathe ammonia(in extreme cases, cologne or other strong-smelling liquid, even gasoline). Then free yourself from restrictive clothing, especially your neck and chest. To activate breathing, you can use rhythmic twitching of the tongue.

Here's something else to keep in mind. After pulling a drowning person to shore, look at the color of his face. If it is white, and there is foam on the lips and nose, then his lungs are full of water. It, of course, needs to be removed quickly. To do this, place your patient on a bent leg so that his head and torso are down and your thigh is pressing under his lower ribs. After this, press on your back until all the water flows out. And then you can do artificial respiration and indirect cardiac massage.

If the face is cyanotic, then you must first clean the oral cavity from mucus and other dirt that has got there using a handkerchief or a clean cloth wrapped around your finger. Sometimes a sharp short blow to the back is enough.

At the end of the procedure (and you should try to do it in 15-20 seconds), you can begin resuscitation measures. Place a bundle of clothing or something like that under the victim’s shoulder blades so that the head is thrown back as much as possible: this is the only way to open the airways. It is best to pull the tongue out with your hand. If the jaws are closed and the mouth cannot be reached, artificial respiration is done using the “mouth to nose” method. At the same time, perform chest compressions. And while you are pumping out the drowned man, let someone call an ambulance. It makes sense to pump out for 30-40 minutes.

When rescuing a drowning person, there is no time to waste, so in some cases it is possible not to pump out the water. After cleaning your mouth (preliminary measure), you must immediately begin artificial respiration. At the same time, every second counts!

In any condition of the victim, measures are taken to warm the body by rubbing, massaging the upper and lower extremities. It is advisable to do all this together.

As soon as the victim resumes breathing, he needs to be given hot tea, wrapped in a blanket and taken to a medical facility.

➨ To avoid accidents, you must follow the rules of behavior on the water: you cannot leave Children unattended, swim from boats, rafts, swim outside the designated swimming areas, swim before 1.5-2 hours after eating, while intoxicated and in state of physical and mental fatigue.

➨ It is dangerous to swim after severe overheating in the sun, especially for older people with illnesses of cardio-vascular system. Jumping into the water in an unfamiliar place, especially head down, is extremely dangerous.

➨ It is recommended to swim in the evening or in the morning when the sun is not hot. Warming up in the sun before swimming can be a big risk. With a sharp temperature change, a reflex muscle contraction may occur with a complete stop of breathing.

➨ It is not recommended to stay in the water for more than 10-15 minutes. Do not think that if the air temperature is close to 35°C, then you can swim all the time: a long stay in the water causes hypothermia of the body and, as a result, convulsions, which can lead to irreparable disaster.

➨ Do not allow stupid jokes while swimming. A favorite joke is to dive and pull the legs - a reliable way to send a person to the next world, because it is almost impossible to resist in such a situation, and the respiratory reflex is suppressed. The same applies to immersing your head in water and holding it there until bubbles appear. Bubbles may be the last...

It is prohibited to swim or climb on navigation signs shipping conditions (buoys, buoys).

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities). Interest in ancient culture appears, its “revival,” as it were, occurs - and this is how the term appeared.

Term Renaissance already found among Italian humanists, for example, Giorgio Vasari. IN modern meaning the term was coined by the 19th century French historian Jules Michelet. Currently the term Renaissance developed into a metaphor for cultural flourishing: for example, the 9th-century Carolingian Renaissance.

general characteristics

A new cultural paradigm arose as a result dramatic changes public relations in Europe.

The growth of city-republics led to an increase in the influence of classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and craftsmen, merchants, bankers. The hierarchical system of values ​​created by the medieval, largely ecclesiastical culture and its ascetic, humble spirit were alien to all of them. This led to the emergence of humanism - a socio-philosophical movement that considered man, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as highest value and a criterion for assessing public institutions.

Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The new worldview turned to antiquity, seeing in it an example of humanistic, non-ascetic relationships. The invention of printing in the middle of the century played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

Periods of the era

Early Renaissance

The period of the so-called “Early Renaissance” covers the time from year to year in Italy. During these eighty years, art has not yet completely abandoned the traditions of the recent past, but has tried to mix into them elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only later, and only little by little, under the influence of increasingly changing conditions of life and culture, did artists completely abandon medieval foundations and boldly use models ancient art both in the general concept of his works and in their details.

While art in Italy was already resolutely following the path of imitation of classical antiquity, in other countries it adhered to traditions for a long time gothic style. North of the Alps, and also in Spain, the Renaissance begins only at the end of the 15th century, and its early period lasts until approximately the middle of the next century, without producing anything particularly remarkable.

High Renaissance

The second period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is usually called the “High Renaissance”, it extends in Italy from approximately to 1580. At this time the center of gravity Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, an ambitious, courageous and enterprising man, who attracted him to his court best artists Italy, which occupied them with numerous and important works and who gave others an example of love for the arts. Under this pope and his immediate successors, Rome becomes, as it were, the new Athens of the time of Pericles: many monumental buildings are created in it, magnificent sculptural works, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered the pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually influencing each other. Antiquity is now studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater severity and consistency; calmness and dignity are established instead of the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the previous period; memories of the medieval completely disappear, and a completely classical imprint falls on all creations of art. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out their independence in artists, and they, with great resourcefulness and liveliness of imagination, freely rework and apply to their work what they consider appropriate to borrow from Greco-Roman art.

Northern Renaissance

The Renaissance period in the Netherlands, Germany and France is usually distinguished as a separate style direction, which has some differences with the Renaissance in Italy, and called the “Northern Renaissance”.

The most noticeable stylistic differences are in painting: unlike Italy, the traditions and skills of Gothic art were preserved in painting for a long time, less attention was paid to the study of ancient heritage and knowledge of human anatomy.

Renaissance Man

The science

In general, the pantheistic mysticism of the Renaissance prevailing in this era created an unfavorable ideological background for the development scientific knowledge. Final becoming scientific method and the subsequent Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. associated with the Reformation movement opposed to the Renaissance.

Philosophy

Renaissance philosophers

Literature

The literature of the Renaissance most fully expressed the humanistic ideals of the era, the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality. The love sonnets of Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) revealed the depth inner world man, the richness of his emotional life. In the XIV-XVI centuries Italian literature experienced its heyday - the lyrics of Petrarch, the short stories of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the political treatises of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the poems of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) put it among the “classical” (along with from ancient Greek and Roman) literatures for other countries.

The literature of the Renaissance was based on two traditions: folk poetry and “book” poetry. ancient literature, therefore, the rational principle was often combined in it with poetic fiction, and comic genres gained great popularity. This was manifested in the most significant literary monuments era: “The Decameron” by Boccaccio, “Don Quixote” by Cervantes, and “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Francois Rabelais.

Associated with the Renaissance is the appearance national literatures- in contrast to the literature of the Middle Ages, which was created primarily in Latin.

Theater and drama became widespread. The most famous playwrights this time became William Shakespeare (1564-1616, England) and Lope de Vega (1562-1635, Spain)

art

Painting and sculpture of the Renaissance are characterized by the rapprochement of artists with nature, their closest penetration into the laws of anatomy, perspective, the action of light and other natural phenomena.

Renaissance artists, painting traditional religious themes, began to use new artistic techniques: building a three-dimensional composition, using a landscape in the background. This allowed them to make the images more realistic and animated, which showed a sharp difference between their work and the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image.

Architecture

The main thing that characterizes this era is the return to tsui

To the principles and forms of ancient, mainly Roman art. Special meaning in this direction, symmetry, proportion, geometry and the order of its component parts are given, as is clearly evidenced by surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportions of medieval buildings are replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels; asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, niches, and aedicules.

Renaissance architecture experienced its greatest flourishing in Italy, leaving behind two monument cities: Florence and Venice. Great architects worked on the creation of buildings there - Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Donato Bramante, Giorgio Vasari and many others.

Music

In the era of the Renaissance (Renaissance), professional music loses the character of a purely church art and is influenced by folk music, imbued with a new humanistic worldview. High level The art of vocal and vocal-instrumental polyphony is achieved in the work of representatives of “Ars nova” (“New Art”) in Italy and France in the 14th century, in new polyphonic schools - English (XV century), Dutch (XV-XVI centuries), Roman, Venetian, French, German, Polish, Czech, etc. (XVI century).

Various genres of secular musical art- frottola and villanella in Italy, villancico in Spain, ballad in England, madrigal, which originated in Italy (L. Marenzio, J. Arkadelt, Gesualdo da Venosa), but became widespread, French polyphonic song (C. Janequin, C. Lejeune ). Secular humanistic aspirations also penetrate into religious music - among the Franco-Flemish masters (Josquin Depres, Orlando di Lasso), in the art of composers of the Venetian school (A. and G. Gabrieli). During the period of the Counter-Reformation, the question of expelling polyphony from the religious cult was raised, and only the reform of the head of the Roman school, Palestrina, preserves polyphony for the Catholic Church - in a “purified”, “clarified” form. At the same time, some valuable achievements of secular music of the Renaissance were reflected in Palestrina’s art. New genres of instrumental music are emerging, national schools performances on lute, organ, virginel. The art of making is flourishing in Italy bowed instruments with rich expressive capabilities. The clash of different aesthetic attitudes is manifested in the “struggle” of two types of bowed instruments - the viol, which was common in the aristocratic environment, and

FRANCESCO PETRARCA (1304-1374) - founder of the Italian Renaissance, great poet and thinker, political activist. Coming from a Popolan family in Florence, he spent many years in Avignon under the papal curia, and the rest of his life in Italy. Petrarch traveled a lot around Europe, was close to popes and sovereigns. His political goals: reform of the church, ending wars, unity of Italy. Petrarch was an expert in ancient philosophy; he is credited with collecting manuscripts of ancient authors and processing them textologically.

Petrarch developed humanistic ideas not only in his brilliant, innovative poetry, but also in Latin prose works - treatises, numerous letters, including his main epistolary, “The Book of Everyday Affairs.”

It is customary to say about Francesco Petrarca that he is more focused on himself than anyone else - at least in his time. That he was not only the first “individualist” of the New Age, but much more than that - an amazingly complete egocentric.

In the works of the thinker, the theocentric systems of the Middle Ages were replaced by the anthropocentrism of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch's “discovery of man” provided an opportunity for a deeper knowledge of man in science, literature, and art.

LEONARDO DA VINCI (1454-1519) - brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, scientist, engineer. Born in Anchiano, near the village of Vinci; his father was a notary who moved to Florence in 1469. Leonardo's first teacher was Andrea Verrocchio.

Leonardo's interest in man and nature speaks of his close connection with humanistic culture. He considered man's creative abilities to be limitless. Leonardo was one of the first to substantiate the idea of ​​the cognizability of the world through reason and sensations, which firmly entered the ideas of thinkers of the 16th century. He himself said about himself: “I would comprehend all the secrets by getting to the essence!”

Leonardo's research covered a wide range of problems in mathematics, physics, astronomy, botany, and other sciences. His numerous inventions were based on a deep study of nature and the laws of its development. He was also an innovator in the theory of painting. Leonardo saw the highest manifestation of creativity in the activity of an artist who scientifically comprehends the world and reproduces it on canvas. The thinker’s contribution to Renaissance aesthetics can be judged by his “Book on Painting.” He was the embodiment of the “universal man” created by the Renaissance.

NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI (1469-1527) - Italian thinker, diplomat, historian.

A Florentine, he came from an ancient but impoverished patrician family. For 14 years he served as secretary of the Council of Ten, in charge of military and foreign affairs of the Florentine Republic. After the restoration of power in Florence, the Medici were removed from government activities. In 1513-1520 he was in exile. This period includes the creation of Machiavelli’s most significant works - “The Prince”, “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy”, “History of Florence”, which earned him European fame. Machiavelli's political ideal was the Roman Republic, in which he saw the embodiment of the idea of ​​a strong state, the people of which “are far superior to the sovereigns in both virtue and glory.” (“Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy”).

The ideas of N. Machiavelli had a very significant influence on the development of political doctrines.

THOMAS MOP (1478-1535) - English humanist, writer, statesman.

Born into the family of a London lawyer, he was educated at Oxford University, where he joined the circle of Oxford humanists. Under Henry VIII he held a number of high government positions. His meeting and friendship with Erasmus of Rotterdam was very important for the formation and development of More as a humanist. He was accused of treason and executed on July 6, 1535.

The most famous work of Thomas More is “Utopia,” which reflects the author’s passion for ancient Greek literature and philosophy, and the influence of Christian thought, in particular Augustine’s treatise “On the City of God,” and also traces an ideological connection with Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose humanistic ideal was in is close to More in many ways. His ideas had a strong impact on social thought.

ERASM OF ROTTERDAM (1469-1536) - one of the most outstanding representatives of European humanism and the most versatile of the then scientists.

Erasmus, the illegitimate son of a poor parish priest, his early years spent in the Augustinian monastery, which he managed to leave in 1493. He studied the works of Italian humanists and scientific literature with great enthusiasm, and became a major expert in Greek and Latin.

Erasmus's most famous work is the satire “Praise of Folly” (1509), modeled on Lucian, which was written in just one week in the house of Thomas More. Erasmus of Rotterdam tried to synthesize the cultural traditions of antiquity and early Christianity. He believed in the natural goodness of man and wanted people to be guided by the demands of reason; among the spiritual values ​​of Erasmus are freedom of spirit, temperance, education, simplicity.

THOMAS MUNZER (circa 1490-1525) - German theologian and ideologist of the early Reformation and the Peasants' War of 1524-1526 in Germany.

The son of a craftsman, Münzer was educated at the universities of Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder, from where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in theology, and became a preacher. He was influenced by mystics, Anabaptists and Hussites. In the early years of the Reformation, Münzer was an adherent and supporter of Luther. He then developed his doctrine of the popular Reformation.

In Münzer's understanding, the main tasks of the Reformation were not to establish a new church dogma or new form religiosity, but in the proclamation of an imminent socio-political revolution, which must be carried out by the mass of peasants and the urban poor. Thomas Munzer strove for a republic of equal citizens, in which people would ensure that justice and law prevailed.

For Münzer, Holy Scripture was subject to free interpretation in its context modern events, - interpretation directly addressed to spiritual experience reader.

Thomas Münzer was captured after the defeat of the rebels in an unequal battle on May 15, 1525 and, after severe torture, was executed.

Conclusion

Based on the first chapter, we can conclude that the main features of the Renaissance culture are:

Anthropocentrism,

Humanism,

Modification of the medieval Christian tradition,

A special attitude towards antiquity - the revival of ancient monuments and ancient philosophy,

A new attitude towards the world.

As for humanism, its leaders emphasized the value of the human personality, the independence of personal dignity from origin and birth, man’s ability to constantly improve and confidence in his limitless capabilities.

The Reformation played an extremely important role in the formation of world civilization and culture in general. It contributed to the process of the emergence of the man of bourgeois society - an autonomous individual with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his beliefs and actions, thereby preparing the ground for the idea of ​​human rights. The bearers of Protestant ideas expressed a new, bourgeois type of personality with a new attitude to the world.

The figures of the Renaissance left us an extensive creative heritage that covers philosophy, art, political science, history, literature, natural sciences and many other areas. They made numerous discoveries that are a huge contribution to the development of world culture.

Thus, the Renaissance is a local phenomenon, but global in its consequences, which had a strong impact on the development of modern Western civilization and culture with its achievements: an effective market economy, civil society, a democratic legal state, a civilized way of life, and high spiritual culture.

[Francis Bacon's doctrine of "idols"

Idols and false concepts, which have already captivated the human mind and are deeply entrenched in it, so dominate the minds of people that they make it difficult for the truth to enter, but even if its entry is allowed and granted, they will again block the path during the very renewal of the sciences and will hinder it, unless the people, being warned, take arms against them as far as possible.

There are four kinds of idols that besiege the minds of people. In order to study them, let's give them names. Let us call the first type the idols of the clan, the second the idols of the cave, the third the idols of the square, and the fourth the idols of the theater.

The construction of concepts and axioms through true induction is, undoubtedly, genuine remedy in order to suppress and drive out idols. But pointing out idols is also very useful. The doctrine of idols is for the interpretation of nature what the doctrine of the refutation of sophisms is for generally accepted dialectics.

Idols of the family find their basis in the very nature of man, in the tribe or kind of people themselves, for it is false to assert that a person’s feelings are the measure of things. On the contrary, all perceptions, both of the senses and of the mind, rest on the analogy of man, and not on the analogy of the world. The human mind is like an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.

Idols of the Cave the essence of the delusion of an individual. After all, everyone, in addition to the mistakes inherent in the human race, has their own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. This occurs either from the special innate properties of each, or from upbringing and conversations with others, or from reading books and from the authorities before whom one bows, or due to the difference in impressions, depending on whether they are received by biased and predisposed souls or souls cool and calm, or for other reasons. So the spirit of a person, depending on how it is located in individuals, there is a thing that is changeable, unstable and seemingly random. This is why Heraclitus correctly said that people seek knowledge in small worlds, and not in the large or general world.

There are also idols that occur as if due to the mutual connectedness and community of people. We call these idols, meaning the communication and fellowship of people that gives rise to them, idols of the square. People unite through speech. Words are set according to the understanding of the crowd. Therefore, a bad and absurd statement of words besieges the mind in a surprising way. The definitions and explanations with which learned people are accustomed to arm themselves and protect themselves do not help the matter in any way. Words directly rape the mind, confuse everything and lead people to empty and countless disputes and interpretations.

Finally, there are idols that have entered the souls of people from various tenets of philosophy, as well as from perverse laws of evidence. We call them theater idols, for we believe that, as many philosophical systems as there are accepted or invented, so many comedies have been staged and performed, representing fictional and artificial worlds. We say this not only about philosophical systems that exist now or once existed, since tales of this kind could be folded and composed in multitude; after all, in general, very various errors There are almost the same reasons. At the same time, we mean here not only general philosophical teachings, but also numerous principles and axioms of the sciences, which received force as a result of tradition, faith and carelessness. However, each of these types of idols should be discussed in more detail and definitely separately, in order to warn the human mind.

The human mind, by virtue of its inclination, easily assumes more order and uniformity in things than it finds. And while many things in nature are singular and completely without similarity, he comes up with parallels, correspondences and relationships that do not exist. Hence the rumor that everything in the heavens moves in perfect circles\...\

The mind of man attracts everything to support and agree with what he has once accepted, either because it is an object of common faith, or because it pleases him. Whatever be the strength and number of facts that testify to the contrary, the mind either does not notice them, or neglects them, or diverts and rejects them through discrimination with great and pernicious prejudice, so that the reliability of those previous conclusions remains unimpaired. And therefore the one who answered correctly was the one who, when they showed him the images of those who had escaped shipwreck by taking a vow displayed in the temple and at the same time sought an answer whether he now recognized the power of the gods, asked in turn: “Where are the images of those who died after made a vow? This is the basis of almost all superstitions - in astrology, in dreams, in beliefs, in predictions and the like. People who delight themselves with this kind of vanity celebrate the event that has come true, and pass without attention the one that deceived, although the latter happens much more often. This evil penetrates even deeper into philosophy and science. In them, what is once recognized infects and subjugates the rest, even if the latter were much better and firmer. In addition, even if these partiality and vanity that we indicated did not take place, the human mind is still constantly characterized by the delusion that it is more amenable to positive arguments than negative ones, whereas in justice it should treat both of them equally; even moreover, in the construction of all true axioms great strength at the negative argument.

The human mind is most affected by what can immediately and suddenly strike it; this is what usually excites and fills the imagination. He transforms the rest imperceptibly, imagining it to be the same as the little that controls his mind. The mind is generally neither inclined nor capable of turning to distant and heterogeneous arguments by means of which axioms are tested, as if by fire., until harsh laws and strong authorities dictate this to him.

The human mind is greedy. He can neither stop nor remain at peace, but rushes further and further. But in vain! Therefore, thought is not able to embrace the limit and end of the world, but always, as if by necessity, imagines something existing even further. \...\ This impotence of the mind leads to much more harmful results in the discovery of causes, for, although the most general principles in nature must exist as they were found, and in reality have no causes, yet the human mind, knowing no rest , and here is looking for a more famous one. And so, striving for what is further, he returns to what is closer to him, namely, final causes, which have their source rather in the nature of man than in the nature of the Universe, and, starting from this source, have amazingly distorted philosophy. But he who seeks reasons for the universal philosophizes lightly and ignorantly, just as he who does not seek lower and subordinate causes.

The human mind is not dry light, it is sprinkled with will and passions, and this gives rise to what everyone desires in science. A person rather believes in the truth of what he prefers. He rejects the difficult because he has no patience to continue the research; sober - because it captivates hope; the highest in nature - because of superstition; the light of experience - because of arrogance and contempt for it, so that the mind does not turn out to be immersed in the base and fragile; paradoxes are due to conventional wisdom. In an infinite number of ways, sometimes unnoticeable, passions stain and corrupt the mind.

But to the greatest extent, the confusion and delusions of the human mind arise from inertia, inconsistency and deception of the senses, for what arouses the senses is preferred to what does not immediately arouse the senses, even if the latter is better. Therefore, contemplation ceases when the gaze ceases, so that the observation of invisible things is insufficient or absent altogether. Therefore, all the movement of spirits contained in tangible bodies remains hidden and inaccessible to people. In the same way, more subtle transformations in parts remain hidden. solids- what is usually called change, when in fact it is the movement of the smallest particles. Meanwhile, without research and clarification of these two things that we mentioned, nothing significant in nature can be achieved in a practical sense. Further, the very nature of air and all bodies that are thinner than air (and there are many of them) is almost unknown. Feeling in itself is weak and erroneous, and instruments designed to strengthen and sharpen feelings are worth little. The most accurate interpretation of nature is achieved through observations in appropriate, purposefully staged experiments. Here feeling judges only about experience, while experience judges nature and the thing itself.

The human mind by nature is focused on the abstract and thinks of the fluid as permanent. But it’s better to cut nature into pieces than to abstract. This is what the school of Democritus did, which penetrated deeper into nature than others. One should study more matter, its internal state and change of state, pure action and the law of action or motion, for forms are fictions human soul, unless we call these laws of action forms.

These are the idols we call idols of the race. They arise either from the uniformity of the substance of the human spirit, or from its prejudice, or from its limitations, or from its tireless movement, or from the instillation of passions, or from the incapacity of the senses, or from the way of perception.

Idols of the Cave come from the inherent properties of both soul and body, as well as from upbringing, from habits and accidents. Although this type of idols is varied and numerous, we will still point out those of them that require the most caution and are most capable of seducing and polluting the mind.

People love either those particular sciences and theories whose authors and inventors they consider themselves to be, or those in which they have invested the most work and to which they are most accustomed. If people of this kind devote themselves to philosophy and general theories, then under the influence of their previous plans they distort and spoil them. \...\

The biggest and, as it were, fundamental difference of minds in relation to philosophy and the sciences is the following. Some minds are stronger and more suitable for noticing differences in things, others - for noticing the similarities of things. Strong and sharp minds can focus their thoughts, lingering and dwelling on every subtlety of difference. And sublime and agile minds recognize and compare the subtlest similarities of things inherent everywhere. But both minds easily go too far in pursuit of either divisions of things or shadows.

Contemplation of nature and bodies in their simplicity crushes and relaxes the mind; contemplation of nature and bodies in their complexity and configuration deafens and paralyzes the mind. \...\ Therefore, these contemplations must alternate and replace each other so that the mind becomes both insightful and receptive and in order to avoid the dangers we have indicated and those idols that arise from them.

Caution in contemplation must be such as to prevent and expel the idols of the cave, which mainly arise either from the dominance of past experience, or from an excess of comparison and division, or from a tendency towards the temporary, or from the vastness and insignificance of objects. In general, let everyone who contemplates the nature of things consider doubtful that which has especially strongly captured and captivated his mind. Great care is necessary in cases of such preference, so that the mind remains balanced and pure.

But most painful of all idols of the square, which penetrate the mind along with words and names. People believe that their minds control their words. But it also happens that words turn their power against reason. This made science and philosophy sophistical and ineffective. Most of the words have their source in common opinion and divide things within the boundaries most obvious to the mind of the crowd. When a keener mind and a more diligent observation want to revise these boundaries so that they are more in accordance with nature, words become a hindrance. Hence it turns out that the loud and solemn disputes of scientists often turn into disputes regarding words and names, and it would be more prudent (according to the custom and wisdom of mathematicians) to begin with them in order to put them in order through definitions. However, even such definitions of things, natural and material, cannot cure this disease, for the definitions themselves consist of words, and words give birth to words, so it would be necessary to get to specific examples, their series and order, as I will soon say, when I move on to the method and way of establishing concepts and axioms.

Theater idols are not innate and do not penetrate the mind secretly, but are openly transmitted and perceived from fictitious theories and from perverse laws of evidence. However, an attempt to refute them would be decisively inconsistent with what we have said. After all, if we do not agree either on the grounds or on the evidence, then no arguments for the better are possible. The honor of the ancients remains unaffected, nothing is taken away from them, because the question concerns only the path. As they say, the lame man who walks on the road is ahead of the one who runs without a path. It is also obvious that the more dexterous and fast the off-road runner is, the greater his wanderings will be.

Our path of discovery of sciences is such that it leaves little to the sharpness and power of talents, but almost equalizes them. Just as in drawing a straight line or describing a perfect circle, firmness, skill and testing of the hand mean a lot if you use only your hand, it means little or nothing at all if you use a compass and ruler. This is the case with our method. However, although separate refutations are not needed here, something must be said about the types and classes of this kind of theory. Then also about the external signs of their weakness and, finally, about the reasons for such an unfortunate long and universal agreement in error, so that approaching the truth would be less difficult and so that the human mind would be more willing to purify itself and reject idols.

The idols of theater or theory are numerous, and there may be more of them, and someday there may be more of them. If for many centuries the minds of people had not been occupied with religion and theology and if civil authorities, especially monarchical ones, had not opposed such innovations, even speculative ones, and by turning to these innovations people had not incurred danger and suffered damage in their prosperity, not only not receiving rewards, but also being subjected to contempt and ill will, then, without a doubt, many more philosophical and theoretical schools would have been introduced, similar to those that once flourished in great variety among the Greeks. Just as many assumptions can be invented regarding the phenomena of the celestial ether, in the same way, and to an even greater extent, various dogmas can be formed and constructed regarding the phenomena of philosophy. The fictions of this theater are characterized by the same thing that happens in the theaters of poets, where the stories invented for the stage are more harmonious and beautiful and are more likely to satisfy everyone’s desires than true stories from the history.

The content of philosophy in general is formed by deducing a lot from a little or a little from a lot, so that in both cases philosophy is established on too narrow a basis of experience and natural history and makes decisions from less than it should. Thus, philosophers of the rationalist persuasion snatch from experience various and trivial facts, without knowing them exactly, but having studied them and without diligently weighing them. They assign everything else to reflection and the activity of the mind.

There are a number of other philosophers who, having worked diligently and carefully on a few experiments, dared to invent and derive their own philosophy from them, amazingly perverting and interpreting everything else in relation to it.

There is a third class of philosophers who, under the influence of faith and reverence, mix theology and traditions with philosophy. The vanity of some of them has reached the point that they derive science from spirits and geniuses. Thus, the root of the errors of false philosophy is threefold: sophistry, empiricism and superstition.

\...\ if people, prompted by our instructions and saying goodbye to sophistic teachings, seriously engage in experience, then, due to the premature and hasty fervor of the mind and its desire to ascend to the general and to the beginnings of things, a great danger may arise from philosophies of this kind . We must prevent this evil now. So, we have already spoken about certain types of idols and their manifestations. All of them must be rejected and cast aside by a firm and solemn decision, and the mind must be completely freed and purified from them. Let the entrance to the kingdom of man, based on science, be almost the same as the entrance to the kingdom of heaven, “where no one is given to enter without becoming like children.”