The concept of scientific research method is brief. Abstract: Methodology of scientific research

Source

Definition

“Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) is the study of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity”

“Methodology is a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system”

“The doctrine of methods of activity (method and “logos” - doctrine)”

“Methodology – 1) a set of research techniques used in any science; 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world"

“The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action"

“The main goal of the methodology of science is the study of those methods, means and techniques with the help of which new knowledge in science is acquired and substantiated. But, in addition to this main task, methodology also studies the structure of scientific knowledge in general, the place and role in it of various forms of knowledge and methods of analysis and construction of various systems of scientific knowledge.”

“Methodology is a discipline about the general principles and forms of organization of thinking and activity”

General approach to solving problems of a particular class

V.V. Kraevsky)

Methodology as a way, a means of connecting science and practice

ON THE. Masyukov, groups of specialists began to form, calling themselves “methodologists”, and their scientific direction of “systematic thinking activity” methodology. These groups of methodologists (O.S. Anisimov, Yu.V. Gromyko, P.G. Shchedrovitsky, etc.) began to conduct “organizational and activity games” with groups of workers, first in the field of education, then in agriculture, with political scientists, etc. .d., aimed at understanding innovation activities, which brought them quite wide popularity. In parallel with this, publications by scientists began to appear in the press devoted to the analysis and scientific substantiation of innovative activities - in education, engineering, economics, etc. . In recent years, the term “methodology” has spread among programmers with a completely new “sound.” By methodology, programmers began to understand one or another type of strategy, that is, one or another general method of creating computer programs. Thus, along with the methodology of research activities, a new direction began to form - the methodology of practical activities.

Methodology is the study of the organization of activities. This definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology – the organization of activities. It is necessary to consider the content of the concept “organization”. In accordance with the definition given in, organization is 1) internal orderliness, consistency in the interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, determined by its structure; 2) a set of processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole; 3) an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules.

Let us note that not every activity needs organization or application of methodology. As is known, human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive activities (see, for example,). Reproductive activity is a cast, a copy of the activity of another person, or a copy of one’s own activity, mastered in previous experience. Productive activity aimed at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively new result. In the case of productive activity, the need to organize it arises, that is, the need to apply methodology arises. If we proceed from the classification of activities by target orientation: play-learning-work, then we can talk about the following focus of the methodology:

Game activity methodologies

Methodologies of educational activities;

Methodologies of labor and professional activities.

Thus, the methodology considers the organization of activity (activity is the purposeful activity of a person). Organizing an activity means ordering it into an integral system with clearly defined characteristics, a logical structure and the process of its implementation - a time structure (the authors proceed from a pair of dialectic categories “historical (temporal) and logical”). The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, subject, forms, means, methods of activity, its result. External to this structure are the following characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms.

The methodology structure diagram contains the following critical components (Fig. 5).

General diagram of the methodology structure

Rice. 5 - General diagram of the methodology structure

Such an understanding and construction of methodology allows us to generalize from a unified position and in a single logic the various approaches and interpretations of the concept of “methodology” available in the literature and its use in a wide variety of activities.

Each science has its own methodology.

Ultimately, both lawyers and philosophers understand the methodology of scientific research as the doctrine of methods (method) of knowledge, i.e. about a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques designed to successfully solve cognitive problems. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of methods for studying state legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology (Table 2.).

Table 2 - Main levels and methodologies

3. Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research

Among the universal (philosophical) methods, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles (Fig. 6.).

Rice. 6 - Compliance with the principles of dialectics in scientific research

It is advisable to divide all general scientific methods in scientific research into three groups (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7 - Classification of general scientific methods of scientific research

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy. We present a detailed description of general logical research methods in Table 3.

Table 3 - Characteristics of general logical research methods

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

We present a description of the essential content of these methods in Table 4.

Table 4 - Characteristics of theoretical level methods

Methods of the empirical level include: observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling. Let us characterize the essence of these methods using Table 5.

Table 5 - Characteristics of empirical methods

4. Private and special methods of scientific research

There are private and special methods of scientific research. Particulars, as a rule, are used in related sciences, and have specific features that depend on the object and conditions of cognition. Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their use is limited to several narrow fields of knowledge.

For example, private methods of state studies and jurisprudence are:

1) formal legal (special legal);

2) concrete sociological.

The formal legal method is a special system of methods and techniques for studying state legal phenomena. It includes:

a) description of the rules of law;

b) establishing legal characteristics of certain phenomena;

c) development of legal concepts;

d) classification of legal concepts;

e) establishing their nature from the point of view of the provisions of legal science;

f) their explanation from the point of view of legal theories;

g) description, analysis and generalization of legal practice.

This method is also applicable when studying the forms of the state, determining the competence of its bodies, etc.

Concrete sociological methods are based on the application of methods of concrete sociology to study state and legal phenomena. Concrete sociological research is the scientific study, analysis and systematization of social facts, phenomena and processes related to various spheres of social life.

Methods of concrete sociological research include: study of documents (documentary method), surveys in the form of questionnaires and interviews, the method of expert assessments and others.

Not only the methods for obtaining information about phenomena, but also the methods for collecting, processing and evaluating them are important.

In this regard, sociology distinguishes, for example, the following methods:

registration of single events (observation, survey, study of documents, etc.);

data collection (continuous, sample or monographic survey);

data processing and analysis (description and classification, typology, system analysis, statistical analysis, etc.).

Let us consider the essence of the most common methods of concrete sociological research of phenomena using Table 6.

Table 6 - The essence of common methods of sociological research

When conducting specific sociological studies of phenomena, other methods are used: sociometry, tests, biographical, psychological and logical-mathematical.

List of sources used

Archibald R.S. Management of high-tech programs and projects. – M.: DMK Press, 2002.

Bezrukova V.S. Pedagogy. Projective pedagogy. – Ekaterinburg: Business book, 1996.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd edition. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1968-1979.

Descartes R. Reasoning about the method. The beginnings of philosophy. – M.: Vezha, 1998.

Kagan M.S. Human activity. – M.: Politizdat, 1974.

Kanke V.A. Basic philosophical directions and concepts of science.

Results of the twentieth century. - M.: Logos, 2000.

Kotarbinsky T. Treatise on good work. Per. from Polish – M.: Economics, 1975.

Kochergin A.N. Methods and forms of knowledge. – M.: Nauka, 1990.

Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of scientific research: A manual for students and graduate students of humanitarian universities. – SPb.: SPb. State Unitary Enterprise, 2001.

Kraevsky V.V., Polonsky V.M. Methodology for teachers: theory and practice. – Volgograd: Peremena, 2001.

Leshkevich T.G. “Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations” M.: PRIOR, 2001

Masyukova N.A. Design in education. – Minsk: Technoprint, 1999.

Methodological problems of modern science. – M.: Nauka, 1978.

Methodology: yesterday, today, tomorrow. In 3 vols. ed.-comp. Krylov G.G., Khromchenko M.S. – M.: Publishing House of the School of Cultural Policy, 2005.

Nikitin V.A. Organizational types of modern culture: Abstract of dissertation. Doctor of Cultural Studies. – Tolyatti, 1998.

New philosophical encyclopedia: In 4 volumes - M.: Mysl, 2000.

Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. M.: Sinteg, 2007.

Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Educational project / Methodology of practical educational activities. – M.: Egves, 2004.

Novikov A.M. Russian education in a new era: Paradoxes of heritage; development vectors. – M.: Egves, 2000.

Fundamentals of the philosophy of science: Textbook for graduate students / V.P. Kokhanovsky and others - Ed. 2nd. – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2005.

Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific research: Textbook. A manual for universities. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 1999.

Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2002.

Philosophy//pod. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov - n/a: Phoenix, 2000

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. MM. Rosenthal. Ed. third. – M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1972.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. – M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983. Shchedrovitsky P.G. On the analysis of the topic of organizational-activity games. – Pushchino, 1987.

scientific research. CONCEPTS METHOD AND METHODOLOGIES SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Method scientific research ...

1. Methods scientific research (3)

   Study Guide >> Philosophy

   Methods scientific research Basic concepts scientifically-research work Aspect - angle of view... Business, 2000. 2. Mogilevsky V.D. Methodology systems – M.: Economics, 1999. 3. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology scientific research. – M.: UNITY, 1999. 4. Tatarova...

2. Methods scientific research (4)

   Lecture >> Physical education and sports

   ... methodology scientific research ... Concept method scientific research and its classifications 5.2. Methodological functions of philosophy in scientifically- research activities 5.3. General scientific (general logical) methods 5.1. Concept method scientific research ...

3. Methods scientific research (4)

   Abstract >> Pedagogy

   Chapter Sh. METHODOLOGY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH§ 1. CONCEPTS METHOD AND METHODOLOGIES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Method scientific research- is a way of understanding objective reality. ...

Methodology of scientific research.

1. The concept of methodology and method. 3
2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

1. Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) is the study of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastery of reality, based on the patterns of behavior of the object being studied.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the relationship between empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena and their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in Fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its own specific scientific, special methods, determined by the essence of the object of study. However, often methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of the movement of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.

Since the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has been increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The relationship between general scientific methods can also be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the combination of elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization is the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”

Abstraction (idealization) is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models, photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.

The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but freed from its historical form.

Classification is the distribution of certain objects into classes (divisions, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing the natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig. 3.

Observation.

Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical cognition, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

· purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the research problem);

· systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);

· activity (the researcher must actively search and highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to record the technical properties and aspects of the object being studied, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of observational results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect.

During direct observation, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method for studying the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, boundaries of the removal of turbid river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often observation is indirect, that is, carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, until the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then Galileo’s invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observations, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From all of the above, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, ensuring the collection of extensive information about the world around us.

An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It involves the active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object being studied in order to identify and study certain of its aspects, properties, and connections. It has a number of unique features:

· an experiment allows you to study an object in a “purified” form, that is, eliminate all kinds of side factors, layers that complicate the research process;

· during the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular extreme conditions (at ultra-low temperatures, at high pressures, at enormous electromagnetic field voltages, etc.);

· while studying any process, an experimenter can interfere with it and actively influence its course;

· experiments can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

Preparing and conducting an experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions. So, a scientific experiment:

1. never put at random, it presupposes the presence of a clearly formulated research goal;

2. it is not done “blindly”, it is always based on some initial theoretical principles;

3. it is not carried out unplanned, the researcher first outlines the ways of its implementation;

4. requires a certain level of development of technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation;

5. must be carried out by people with sufficiently high qualifications.

Depending on the nature of the problems solved during the experiments, the latter are usually divided into research and testing.

Research makes it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object. The result of such an experiment may be conclusions that do not follow from existing knowledge about the object of study. Tests are used to test and confirm certain theoretical constructs.

Measurement is a process that involves determining the quantitative values ​​of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon being studied using special technical devices.

An important aspect of the measurement process is the methodology for carrying it out. It is a set of techniques that use certain principles and means of measurement. In this case, the principles of measurements mean some phenomena that form the basis of measurements (for example, measuring temperature using the thermoelectric effect).

Based on the method of obtaining results, measurements are distinguished between direct and indirect. In direct measurements, the desired value of the measured quantity is obtained by directly comparing it with a standard or is issued by a measuring device. In indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of a known mathematical relationship between this value and other values ​​obtained by direct measurements (for example, finding the electrical resistivity of a conductor by its resistance, length and cross-sectional area).

Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, or features of objects may be excluded from consideration. Thus, the widespread idealization in mechanics, called a material point, implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient when describing movement. Moreover, such an abstraction makes it possible to replace a wide variety of real objects in research: from molecules or atoms when solving many problems of statistical mechanics to the planets of the solar system when studying, for example, their movement around the Sun.

The advisability of using idealization is determined by the following circumstances:

Firstly, idealization is appropriate when the real objects to be studied are sufficiently complex for the available means of theoretical, in particular, mathematical analysis.

Secondly, it is advisable to use idealization in cases where it is necessary to exclude certain properties and connections of the object under study, without which it cannot exist, but which obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it.

Thirdly, the use of idealization is advisable when the properties, aspects, and connections of the object being studied that are excluded from consideration do not affect its essence within the framework of this study.

The main positive significance of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge is that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis then make it possible to effectively study real objects and phenomena.

Formalization. Formalization refers to a special approach in scientific knowledge, which consists in the use of special symbols, which allows one to escape from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions describing them, and to operate instead with a certain set of symbols (signs).

To build any formalized system it is necessary:

a) specifying the alphabet, that is, a certain set of characters;

b) setting the rules by which “words” and “formulas” can be obtained from the initial characters of this alphabet;

c) setting rules according to which one can move from some words and formulas of a given system to other words and formulas.

An important advantage of this system is the possibility of carrying out research of any object within its framework in a purely formal way without directly addressing this object.

Another advantage of formalization is to ensure the brevity and clarity of recording scientific information, which opens up great opportunities for operating with it.

Bibliography.

1. Kochergin A.N. Methods and forms of knowledge. – M.: Nauka, 1990.

2. Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of scientific research: A manual for students and graduate students of humanitarian universities. – SPb.: SPb. State Unitary Enterprise, 2001.

3. Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. M.: Sinteg, 2007.

4. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific research: Textbook. A manual for universities. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 1999.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

State educational institution

Higher professional education

"Russian Customs Academy"

Department of Humanities

ABSTRACT

in the discipline "Fundamentals of Scientific Research"

on the topic "Scientific Research Methods"

Completed by: 2nd year student

full-time education

Faculty of Customs Affairs,

group T-094 A.S. Akimushkin

Introduction

1. The concept of method and methodology of scientific research

2. Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research

3. Private and special methods of scientific research

4. Theoretical and empirical methods

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

As we know, all science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - establishes the laws of the field of activity that she studies. The methods of obtaining these facts are called methods of scientific research.

The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively this branch of knowledge is able to perceive and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences.

In its procedural implementation, research can be structured in different ways. It can begin with the development of a goal and be consistently carried out until a certain result is achieved, going through the stages of a hypothesis or concept, preliminary recommendations or just preparatory work. The research process is a sequence of stages of its implementation, a combination and sequence of various operations and procedures, a choice and combination of priorities.

Modern science has an extensive and rich arsenal of research methods. But the success of the research largely depends on the criteria by which we choose methods for conducting a particular study and in what combination we use these methods.

Purpose of the work: to characterize the main methods of scientific research.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved:

1. give a formulation of the concepts “method” and “methodology”;

2. list the main methods of scientific research;

3. briefly describe the philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research;

4. briefly describe private and special methods of scientific research.

1. Concepts of method and methodology of scientific research

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished. See: Fundamentals of Scientific Research: Textbook. / Ed. IN AND. Krutova, V.V. Popova. M., 2004.

Empirical methods include:

1. observation;

2. description;

3. comparison;

5. measurement;

6. questionnaire;

7. interview;

8. experiment, etc.

Theoretical level methods include:

1. axiomatic;

2. hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive);

3. formalization;

4. abstraction;

5. general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration.

Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge See: Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1999. P. 354; Modern dictionary of foreign words. St. Petersburg, 1994. P. 376. .

Each science has its own methodology. The methodology of scientific research is usually understood as the doctrine of methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques designed to successfully solve cognitive problems. So, for example, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of methods for studying state legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Particular methodology of scientific research for a group of related sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

2. Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research

Among the universal (philosophical) methods, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function and is a unique way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic (understanding), etc.

Dialectics (from the Greek dialektike - the art of conversation, argument) is the doctrine of the most general laws of development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle of opposites;

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes being studied, based on philosophical categories: general, special and individual; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; causes and consequences.

3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena being studied:

a) comprehensively;

b) in universal connection and interdependence;

c) in continuous change and development;

d) specifically historically.

5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.

In the process of cognition and practice, the metaphysical method is also often used, which is the antipode of the dialectical method. The term “metaphysics” (literally “what follows after physics”) was introduced in the 1st century. BC. commentator on the philosophy of Aristotle A. Rhodes. Systematizing the works of the great ancient Greek thinker, he placed after physics those works that dealt with general issues of being and knowledge, and called it “metaphysics.”

In modern social science, the concept of “metaphysics” has three main meanings:

1. Philosophy as the science of the universal, the original prototype of which was the teaching of Aristotle;

2. A special philosophical science is ontology, the doctrine of being as such, regardless of its particular conclusions and abstractions from issues of theory and logic of knowledge. In this meaning, this concept was used both in the past (Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, etc.) and in the present. Representatives of modern Western science (Agassi and others) see the task of metaphysics in creating a picture of the world, certain models of reality, ontological schemes based on the generalization of private scientific knowledge;

3. A philosophical way of cognition (thinking) and action, opposed to the dialectical method as its antipode.

General scientific research methods, just like other methods, are classified according to the degree of generality and scope of action. They were widely developed and used in science in the 20th century. General scientific methods act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “probability”, “optimality”.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, appropriate methods and principles of cognition are formed, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods. General scientific methods include systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization, etc.

Recently, such a general scientific discipline as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and development of individual integral systems of any origin - natural, social, cognitive (cognitive) - has been intensively developing. The basic concepts of synergetics are “order”, “chaos”, “nonlinearity”, “uncertainty”, “instability”, etc. Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as “being”, “whole”, “ chance", "opportunity", etc.

It should be noted that in the structure of general scientific methodology, three levels of methods and techniques of scientific research are most often distinguished:

· Methods of empirical research - observation, experiment, comparison, description, measurement;

· Methods of theoretical research - modeling, formalization, idealization, axiomatic method, hypothetico-deductive method, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.;

· General logical methods of scientific research: analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction and analogy, abstraction, generalization, idealization, formalization, probabilistic statistical methods, systems approach, etc.

The important role of general scientific approaches is that, due to their “intermediate nature,” they mediate the mutual transitions of philosophical and particular scientific, disciplinary, interdisciplinary knowledge and corresponding methods of scientific research.

3. Private and special methods of scientific research

They are called private because they are used in related sciences and have specific features that depend on the object and conditions of knowledge. scientific research method

Particular methods of scientific research are determined primarily by the specific nature of individual forms of motion of matter. Each somewhat developed science, having its own special subject and its own theoretical principles, applies its own special methods resulting from one or another understanding of the essence of its object.

Private scientific methodology is most often defined as a set of methods, principles and research techniques used in a particular science. These usually include mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and social sciences.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their use is limited to several narrow fields of knowledge. For example, special forensic methods include traceological, handwriting, odorological, forensic ballistics, anthropometric, etc.

4. Theoretical and empirical methods of scientific research

Let's consider the division of research methods into empirical and theoretical in the following grouping:

Theoretical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, constructing a hypothesis, etc.;

Methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and specification, etc.

Empirical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc.;

Methods-operations: observation, measurement, survey, testing, etc.

Let's briefly consider the main ones.

Theoretical methods-operations are determined by the main mental operations, which are: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, generalization, formalization, induction and deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.

Analysis is the decomposition of the whole under study into parts, the identification of individual features and qualities of a phenomenon, process or relationships of phenomena, processes. Analysis procedures are an organic component of any scientific research and usually form its first phase, when the researcher moves from an undifferentiated description of the object under study to the identification of its structure, composition, its properties and characteristics.

Synthesis is the combination of various elements, aspects of an object into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, with which it is inextricably linked.

Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarities and differences between objects. With the help of comparison, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are identified, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out.

Abstraction is one of the main mental operations that allows you to mentally isolate and turn into an independent object of consideration individual aspects, properties or states of an object in its pure form.

Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, that is, finding the holistic, interconnected, multilateral and complex. The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, through concretization, reproduces this integrity (mental concrete), but at a qualitatively different level of knowledge of the concrete.

Generalization is one of the main cognitive mental operations, consisting of isolating and fixing relatively stable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. The function of generalization is to organize the variety of objects and their classification.

Formalization - displaying the results of thinking in precise concepts or statements. It is, as it were, a “second order” mental operation. Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking.

In scientific conclusions, one judgment comes from another, based on already existing conclusions: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Induction is the inference of particular objects, phenomena to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.

Deduction is an inference from the general to the particular, from general judgments to particular conclusions.

Idealization is the mental construction of ideas about objects that do not exist or are not realizable in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world. Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization can be the mathematical concepts of “point” and “straight line”. Concepts that are the result of idealization are said to represent idealized (or ideal) objects.

Let's consider theoretical methods (methods - cognitive actions). The general philosophical, general scientific method is dialectics, discussed earlier.

The deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) is a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions of the axiom (synonym - postulates), from which all the main provisions of this theory (theorem) are derived in a purely logical way through proof. This method is used to build theories in mathematics, mathematical logic, and theoretical physics;

The second method has not received a name in the literature, but it certainly exists, since in all other sciences, except those listed above, theories are built using a method that we will call inductive-deductive: first, an empirical basis is accumulated, on the basis of which theoretical generalizations (induction) are built, which can be built at several levels, and then these resulting generalizations can be extended to all phenomena and objects covered by this theory (deduction). Most theories in the natural sciences are constructed using the inductive-deductive method: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

Now let's look at the main empirical methods (methods-operations).

Observation is the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be scientific or non-scientific. Observation as a method has a number of significant disadvantages. Thus, subjective human opinion can make its own adjustments, so observation is often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:

1) a cognizing subject who carries out measurements for certain cognitive purposes;

2) measuring instruments, among which there can be both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

3) the object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

4) a method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

5) the result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.

Survey is an empirical method that is used only in the social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral and written survey.

Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from English test - task, sample). Tests are usually given to subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of problems that do not take much time to solve. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.

Next, we will consider empirical methods-actions, which are based on the use of operational methods and their combinations. These methods can be divided into two classes. The first class is methods for studying an object without transforming it. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

Another class of methods is associated with the researcher’s active transformation of the object being studied - let’s call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.

A survey is a study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. There are internal (survey of the enterprise) and external (survey of the economic situation in the region, labor market, etc.) surveys. The survey is carried out through empirical research methods-operations: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written surveys, etc.

Monitoring is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the condition of an object, the values ​​of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

Experiment is a general empirical research method (action method), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and manageable conditions.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. Depending on the nature of the object being studied, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, psychological and other experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into testing and exploratory. Depending on the nature and variety of means and experimental conditions and methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions), laboratory (in artificial conditions ) experiment.

Conclusion

Thus, I reviewed the main methods of scientific research. In conclusion, I would like to say that before starting research work, you should mainly choose a research method.

List of sources used

1. Kraevsky V.V., Polonsky V.M. Methodology for teachers: theory and practice. - Volgograd: Change, 2006.

2. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1999. P. 354; Modern dictionary of foreign words. St. Petersburg, 1994.

3. Fundamentals of scientific research: Textbook. / Ed. IN AND. Krutova, V.V. Popova. M., 2006.

4. Sabitov R.A. Fundamentals of scientific research: Textbook. allowance / Chelyab. state univ. Chelyabinsk, 2005.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

The concept and main function of the scientific research method. Approaches to its classification depending on the scope of application and other characteristics. The essence and types of methodology, the general scheme of its structure, the main levels. General scientific methods of scientific knowledge.

presentation, added 06/23/2011


History of the development of scientific knowledge. General classification of scientific research methods. Structure and content of the research process. Application of logical laws and rules of argumentation. Registration of the results of research work.

course of lectures, added 02/16/2011


Concepts of method and methodology. Classification of types of research and factors of their quality. Goals and types of randomization, masking (blinding), control. Characteristics of research methods in the structure of general scientific methodology: theoretical, empirical.

presentation, added 05/15/2017


Concept, essence and subject of methodology. The concept of "method", the main types of methods and their relationship. Methods of scientific knowledge. Basic methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Problems of methodology and ways to solve them. The most important tasks of the methodology.

test, added 11/11/2010


Types of research. Classification and composition of research methods. Selection of research methods. Classification of research methods according to the method and source of obtaining information about the objects under study. Various types of analysis occupy a special place in research

lecture, added 11/14/2004


Scientific method as a means of rational knowledge. Approaches to classification of research method. Encyclopedic and author's definitions of methodology. Philosophical, general scientific and special methods of scientific research. Diagram of the methodology structure.

abstract, added 01/25/2010


The emergence of rational knowledge as a methodology for understanding the world. Dialectical continuity of experimental and theoretical research. Development of the fundamentals of logic and mathematical methods, formation of ideas about nature. The role of hypotheses in science.

test, added 04/05/2015


Scientific problem: concept, topic, quality criteria. Method: essence and concept. Classification of research methods and their brief characteristics. Requirements for scientific methods. Benefits of marketing information and research in tourism.

lecture, added 10/02/2013


Structure of the book. Basic concepts of Kuhn's concept. Paradigm. Science community. Normal science. The role of work in the methodology of scientific knowledge. In understanding reality, scientists constantly rely on special agreements-paradigms about problems and methods for solving them.

abstract, added 09/28/2005


Concept, essence and patterns of methods of cognition. Analysis of the relationship and features of correctness and truth. Dialectics as a universal philosophical method of modern science. General characteristics of the main structural elements of the system of general scientific methods.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Introduction

Functions and levels of methodology

Introduction

As the volume and scale of scientific knowledge increases, as well as the deepening of scientific knowledge in revealing the laws and patterns of functioning of the real natural and social world, the desire of scientists to analyze the techniques and methods by which knowledge is acquired becomes more and more obvious. At the dawn of ancient culture, the monopoly on the study of problems of knowledge belonged to philosophy. And this is not accidental, since at that time science had not yet largely separated itself from philosophy. Even at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries, when experimental natural science was formed, it was mainly philosophers who studied various problems of the methodology of knowledge, although the greatest contribution to this period was made by those who, simultaneously with philosophy, were also engaged in other social branches of scientific knowledge (Galileo, Descartes, Newton, Leibniz, etc.)

Starting from the second half of the 19th century, especially at the end of it, a sharp differentiation occurred, i.e. the branching off from philosophy of various scientific disciplines that study certain aspects of the process of scientific knowledge. Along with traditional philosophical methods, methods of mathematical logic, and then methods of probabilistic logic, emerged and began to actively develop at this time. Somewhat later, such independent spheres of scientific knowledge as psychology and sociology of science were formed, and today a new branch is emerging - the science of science, or science studies. The methodology of science received its greatest development in the 60s and 70s of the last century.

Basic definitions of method and methodology

Problems of the method and methodology of scientific research have attracted the attention of social thinkers, scientists and philosophers since ancient times. However, a thorough analysis of the methods and means of scientific knowledge began to be actively carried out only in the last half century. Well-known difficulties arise mainly due to unclear delimitation of the spheres of such areas of research as philosophy of science, methodology of science and logic of science. Until now, scientific debates are ongoing all over the world about the subject and tasks of these logical-philosophical disciplines. True, the overwhelming majority of scientists are inclined to think that the philosophy of science should analyze mainly the most general, ideological and epistemological problems of science, but here their opinions differ radically: many of them, although they consider the logic of science to be an independent branch of scientific knowledge, include it into the methodology of science. Others, on the contrary, believe that the methodology of science should become part of the logic of science, since in most cases it uses many of the tools and methods that the logic of science develops. Such discrepancies and disputes often arise due to the fact that scientific knowledge itself is a very complex object of study, the various elements of which, although closely related to each other, nevertheless still have relative independence.

Let's take a closer look at the concepts of method and methodology.

The concept of “method” comes from the Greek language and means a way of knowing. But this definition is perhaps too short; there are many others. For example:

Method is a way of understanding objective reality, which represents a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations - the most common definition;

Method is a systematized set of steps, actions that must be taken to solve a certain problem or achieve a certain goal [Wikipedia];

Method is a way, a path of knowledge and practical transformation of reality, a system of techniques and principles that regulates practical and cognitive activity.

Brief classification of methods:

I. Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

II. Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

III. Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private scientific research methods;

4) disciplinary research methods;

5) interdisciplinary research methods.

Let's look at the definitions of the methodology:

1. Methodology - the doctrine of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity;

2. Methodology - a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system;

3. Methodology - 1) a set of research techniques used in any science; 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world;

4. Methodology is a discipline about the general principles and forms of organization of thinking and activity;

5. Methodology - as a doctrine about the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific research activity;

6. Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology;

7. Methodology is the study of the organization of activities.

Methods of scientific research. Classification of methods

The variety of types of human activity also determines the variety of methods of scientific knowledge, which can be classified according to various grounds and criteria. First of all, in scientific methodology there are methods of spiritual (including scientific) and methods of practical activity. However, it is now obvious that methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, but must, in turn, go far beyond its limits and certainly include it in its orbit and scope of practice.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for dividing them into groups (or classes). Thus, according to their role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, they distinguish between formal methods (methods of formal and mathematical symbolic logic) and substantive ones. The main types of substantive methodology include philosophical, general scientific, general logical and special scientific methods. There are also such methods of science as empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied, research methods and methods of presentation.

The content of the objects being studied can also serve as the basis for dividing the set of methods into two groups: methods of natural science and methods of social sciences and humanities. In turn, the methods of natural sciences can be divided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. In this regard, there are also methods of qualitative and quantitative, probabilistic, direct and indirect cognition, etc.

In modern science of science, a multi-level methodological classification of methods of scientific knowledge is successfully working, according to which, according to the degree of generality and scope of action, methods of scientific knowledge are divided into general philosophical, general scientific, special scientific, disciplinary and interdisciplinary research methods.

I. Universal philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function and is a unique way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic (understanding), etc.

Philosophical systems (and, accordingly, their methods) were often combined and intertwined in different proportions. Thus, the dialectical method of G. Hegel was combined with idealism, in K. Marx (as, by the way, in Heraclitus) - with materialism. Gadamer tried to combine hermeneutics with rationalistic dialectics.

It should be noted that philosophical methods are not a set of rigidly fixed regulations, but a system of soft principles, operations, techniques that are of a general, universal nature, located at the highest “floors” of abstraction. Therefore, philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, and do not lend themselves to mathematization and formalization.

Philosophical methods determine only the most general regulations of research, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not determine the final result of knowledge directly and directly. Experience shows that “the more general the method of scientific knowledge, the more uncertain it is in relation to the prescription of specific steps of knowledge, the greater its ambiguity in determining the final results of the study.” But this does not mean that philosophical methods are not necessary in scientific research. For example, erroneous initial attitudes from the very beginning imply a distortion of objective truth and can lead to a limited view of the essence of the object being studied.

To concretize the universal philosophical method, let us consider the characteristic features of the dialectical and metaphysical methods of scientific research, taking into account that these philosophical methods are quite widely represented in the history of philosophy and science and are widely used in research at the present stage of social development.

Dialectics (from the Greek dialektike - the art of conversation, argument) is the doctrine of the most general laws of development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine. In the history of philosophy, three main forms of dialectics are distinguished.

1. Ancient dialectics, which was “naive and spontaneous” because it was based on everyday experience. It is represented in the teachings of Heraclitus, who proves that “everything flows, everything changes,” Plato, who understood dialectics as the art of dialogue, Zeno, who tried to express real contradictions in the logic of concepts, and some others.

2. German idealist dialectics was developed by Kant, Fichte, Schelling and especially Hegel in his work on the science of logic. Hegel analyzed the most important laws and categories of dialectics, logic and theory of knowledge, formulated the basic principles of the dialectical method, and introduced the idea of ​​development into the understanding of all phenomena of reality.

3. Materialist dialectics, the foundations of which were developed by the classics of Marxism. This form of dialectics has absorbed everything positive that has been accumulated by the previous development of philosophy and science.

When determining the structure of dialectics, one should highlight its main elements - principles, laws and categories. It is also necessary to emphasize that elements of dialectics are also contained in modern concepts of different philosophical directions. Thus, in modern Western philosophy, dialectical tendencies are characteristic of such movements as neo-Hegelianism and hermeneutics, the Frankfurt School, etc.

The most important principle of dialectics is the principle of historicism, i.e. consideration of objects in their development, self-movement, change. The historical approach to the subject under study includes an analysis of the main stages and trends of its emergence, development and functioning. This principle of dialectics is especially widely used in biology, geology, astronomy, humanities and other sciences.

The principle of universal connection and interdependence is important in scientific research. The fact is that the world around us is a single whole, a certain system, where each object is inextricably linked with other objects, and they all constantly interact with each other. Moreover, any of them is not only in relationship and interaction with other external phenomena, but at the same time each thing has many internal aspects. The universal connection and interdependence of phenomena take place not only in nature and society, but also in thinking.

From the position of universal connection and interdependence of all phenomena, one of the basic principles of dialectics follows - a comprehensive consideration of objects and phenomena of reality. A correct understanding of any thing is possible only if the entire totality of its internal and external aspects, connections, and relationships has been studied. Thus, society is a complex, developing system, including diverse spheres, parties, relationships, but the main, decisive, determining all its other elements and connections is the material - economic, production - sphere.

In addition to historicism, universal connection and comprehensiveness, the dialectical method includes other principles - objectivity, concreteness, determinism, the principle of inconsistency, structure, etc. They are formed on the basis of relevant laws and categories, which in their totality reflect the unity of the objective world in its continuous development.

The categories and laws of dialectics play an important role in the structure of the dialectical method. The categories of dialectics are concepts that reflect the most general and essential properties, aspects, connections, relationships of objects and phenomena in reality and knowledge.

The main categories of dialectics - cause and effect, essence and phenomenon, individual and general, content and form, necessity and chance and others - are extremely general and therefore applicable in the process of cognition to all phenomena of reality without exception.

The categories and laws of dialectics, being a reflection of the real world, in the human mind are objective in their content. They are an expression of the universal laws of nature and society. The object for all categories and laws of dialectics is one - the real world. Various philosophical categories and laws allow us to see it from a new side each time, representing its unique cross-sections. At the same time, the categories and laws of dialectics are subjective in nature, since their bearer is a real subject - a person.

The universal, essential connection of objects and phenomena of the real world is expressed using the laws of dialectics, the main of which is the law of unity and struggle of opposites. It expresses the most fundamental thing in development - its source, which is the contradictory as the interconnection and interdependence of opposites. In turn, opposites are such aspects, forces, tendencies of objects and phenomena of the real world that are at the same time inextricably linked, mutually presuppose each other and at the same time mutually exclude each other. Opposites include, for example, such phenomena and processes as positive and negative, assimilation and dissimilation (in biology), progress and regression, material and ideal.

The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula “separation into opposites, their struggle and resolution.” Thus, development appears as a process of emergence, aggravation and expansion of diverse contradictions, among which the main, determining role is played by the internal contradictions of a particular object or process. They are the decisive source of their development.

An important law of dialectics is the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes. This law reveals the mechanism of development, shows how development occurs, namely: the gradual accumulation of quantitative changes at a certain moment necessarily lead to radical qualitative transformations, to the emergence of a new quality, which in turn has a reverse effect on the nature and pace of quantitative changes. These are, for example, the transitions of water from one state of aggregation to another depending on changes in temperature, pressure and other factors; the transformation of one chemical element into another depending on the change in the charge value of the atomic nucleus.

For a scientific understanding of the direction of development, the law of negation of negation is of great importance, expressing the progressive, cyclical, successive nature of the development of phenomena and processes in the real world. This law shows that progressive development has the form of an ascending spiral (and not a circle or a straight line), repetition at the highest level of some properties of the lower, “return to the supposedly old,” but on a new basis. At the same time, development appears as a process that seems to repeat what has been passed, but at a higher level. Each cycle acts as a turn in development, and a spiral acts as a chain of cycles. The action of this law is not detected at every moment, but only in a holistic, relatively completed process of development.

Structural elements of dialectics, i.e. principles, categories and laws not only reflect the essential universal natural connections of reality, but also in their totality represent a dialectical method of its cognition and transformation. Being the universal methodological basis of knowledge and practice, the system of elements of dialectics constantly deepens and enriches its content in the course of the development of material and spiritual culture.

In the process of cognition and practice, the metaphysical method is also often used, which is the antipode of the dialectical method. The term “metaphysics” (literally “what follows after physics”) was introduced in the 1st century. BC. commentator on the philosophy of Aristotle A. Rhodes. Systematizing the works of the great ancient Greek thinker, he placed after physics those works that dealt with general issues of being and knowledge, and called it “metaphysics.”

In modern social science, the concept of “metaphysics” has three main meanings:

1. Philosophy as the science of the universal, the original prototype of which was the teaching of Aristotle;

2. A special philosophical science is ontology, the doctrine of being as such, regardless of its particular conclusions and abstractions from issues of theory and logic of knowledge. In this meaning, this concept was used both in the past (Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, etc.) and in the present. Representatives of modern Western science (Agassi and others) see the task of metaphysics in creating a picture of the world, certain models of reality, ontological schemes based on the generalization of private scientific knowledge;

3. A philosophical way of cognition (thinking) and action, opposed to the dialectical method as its antipode. Next, we will consider precisely this aspect of the concept of “metaphysics” (as an anti-dialectic).

The most characteristic, essential feature of metaphysics is one-sidedness, the absolutization of one of the aspects of the process of cognition. Metaphysics (like dialectics) has never been something given once and for all; it has changed and appeared in various historical forms, among which two main ones can be distinguished.

Old metaphysics was characteristic of philosophy and science of the 17th - 19th centuries. (metaphysical materialism, natural philosophy, philosophy of history, etc.). The specificity of this form of metaphysics is the denial of universal connection and development, the absence of a holistic systemic view of the world, thinking on the “either-or” principle, and the belief in the final completeness of all world connections.

The old metaphysical way of thinking had an objective basis for its appearance - the need to explain particulars, individual elements of the whole, for which these aspects had to be torn out (mentally, of course) from the whole and considered in isolation from other aspects, without connection with them and without development.

Strengthening the idea of ​​development at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. under the influence of the facts of reality and its wide dissemination led to the emergence of a new metaphysics, which became dominant in the 20th century.

The new metaphysics, unlike the old one, does not reject either the universal connection of phenomena or their development. The peculiarity of anti-dialectics in the new form is the concentration of efforts on the search for various options for interpreting development, which began to be understood as follows: as simple, universal and eternal growth, increase or, conversely, decrease, i.e. as quantitative changes; or only as qualitative changes, a chain of continuous leaps; as repetition, as a process that has a strictly linear orientation (“development in a straight line”); as an eternal movement in a circle, without the emergence of anything new (the concept of “circulation”); as a movement from which its essence is removed - a contradiction; as soon as progress, i.e. as an ascent from lower to higher, from simple to complex. Other, including mixed, interpretations of development, connection and interaction are also possible.

The main types of metaphysics can be distinguished on various grounds. Thus, both the method of cognition and the method of practical activity - bureaucracy, conservatism, voluntarism and other unilateral actions - can be metaphysical, anti-dialectical.

The metaphysical method of cognition has varieties due to the absolutization of individual moments, forms, stages of the cognitive process: idealism, sensationalism, rationalism, empiricism, dogmatism, relativism, sophistry, eclecticism, etc. The last two originated in Ancient Greece and were used to substantiate what is obviously false. In confirmation, we cite the famous ancient sophism: “What you have not lost, you have; you didn't lose the horn; that means you have horns.” Sophistry and eclecticism are perhaps the most insidious and cunning varieties of the anti-dialectical way of thinking. They are still widely used today to prove illogical conclusions and illegal cases, especially in the political sphere.

II. General scientific research methods, just like other methods, are classified according to the degree of generality and scope of action. They were widely developed and used in science in the 20th century. General scientific methods act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “probability”, “optimality”.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, appropriate methods and principles of cognition are formed, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods. General scientific methods include systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization, etc.

Recently, such a general scientific discipline as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and development of individual integral systems of any origin - natural, social, cognitive (cognitive) - has been intensively developing. The basic concepts of synergetics are “order”, “chaos”, “nonlinearity”, “uncertainty”, “instability”, etc. Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as “being”, “whole”, “ chance", "opportunity", etc.

It should be noted that in the structure of general scientific methodology, three levels of methods and techniques of scientific research are most often distinguished:

· Methods of empirical research - observation, experiment, comparison, description, measurement;

· Methods of theoretical research - modeling, formalization, idealization, axiomatic method, hypothetico-deductive method, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.;

· General logical methods of scientific research: analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction and analogy, abstraction, generalization, idealization, formalization, probabilistic statistical methods, systems approach, etc.

The important role of general scientific approaches is that, due to their “intermediate nature,” they mediate the mutual transitions of philosophical and particular scientific, disciplinary, interdisciplinary knowledge and corresponding methods of scientific research.

III. Private scientific research methods. They are determined primarily by the specific nature of individual forms of motion of matter. Each somewhat developed science, having its own special subject and its own theoretical principles, applies its own special methods resulting from one or another understanding of the essence of its object.

Private scientific methodology is most often defined as a set of methods, principles and research techniques used in a particular science. These usually include mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and social sciences.

IV. Disciplinary methods of scientific research, i.e. a system of techniques, principles used in a particular discipline that is part of any branch of science or that arose at the intersections of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own research methods.

From the height of the current level of development of scientific knowledge, it is obvious that there is a system of certain scientific disciplines, the number of which is growing rapidly despite integrative processes. Numerous “interface” disciplines have emerged, such as biophysics, geophysics, physical chemistry, geochemistry, and electrochemistry. The interaction of various sciences and scientific disciplines, and therefore their research methods and techniques, has increased.

V. Methods of interdisciplinary research. The deepening interconnection of sciences leads to the fact that the results, techniques and methods of some sciences are increasingly used in others, for example, the use of physical and chemical methods in biology and medicine. This raises problems for interdisciplinary research methods. The latter can be defined as a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods that arose as a result of a combination of elements of various levels of methodology, aimed mainly at the interfaces of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in complex scientific programs.

As you can see, methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even “very important” method, much less “the only scientific one”. In scientific research there is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, and focus, which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions. Among them, the most universal, used both in knowledge and in practice, are philosophical methods.

Examples of theoretical and empirical methods

Let's consider the division of research methods into empirical and theoretical in the following grouping:

Theoretical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, constructing a hypothesis, etc.;

Methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and specification, etc.

Empirical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc.;

Methods-operations: observation, measurement, survey, testing, etc.

Let's briefly consider the main ones.

Theoretical methods (methods-operations). Theoretical methods-operations have a wide field of application, both in scientific research and in practical activities.

Theoretical methods-operations are determined by the main mental operations, which are: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, generalization, formalization, induction and deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.

Analysis is the decomposition of the whole under study into parts, the identification of individual features and qualities of a phenomenon, process or relationships of phenomena, processes. Analysis procedures are an organic component of any scientific research and usually form its first phase, when the researcher moves from an undifferentiated description of the object under study to the identification of its structure, composition, its properties and characteristics.

Synthesis is the combination of various elements, aspects of an object into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, with which it is inextricably linked. Analysis and synthesis are closely related. If the researcher has a more developed ability to analyze, there may be a danger that he will not be able to find a place for details in the phenomenon as a whole. The relative predominance of synthesis leads to superficiality, to the fact that essential details for the study will not be noticed, which can be of great importance for understanding the phenomenon as a whole.

Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarities and differences between objects. With the help of comparison, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are identified, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out. Comparison is comparing one thing to another. In this case, the grounds, or signs of comparison, which determine possible relationships between objects, play an important role. Comparison makes sense only in a set of homogeneous objects that form a class.

Abstraction is one of the main mental operations that allows you to mentally isolate and turn into an independent object of consideration individual aspects, properties or states of an object in its pure form. Abstraction consists in the process of isolating such properties of an object that do not exist in themselves and independently of it. This is possible only mentally - in abstraction.

Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, that is, finding the holistic, interconnected, multilateral and complex. The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, through concretization, reproduces this integrity (mental concrete), but at a qualitatively different level of knowledge of the concrete.

Generalization is one of the main cognitive mental operations, consisting of isolating and fixing relatively stable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. Generalization allows you to display the properties and relationships of objects from particular and random conditions of their observation. The function of generalization is to organize the variety of objects and their classification.

Formalization - displaying the results of thinking in precise concepts or statements. It is, as it were, a “second order” mental operation. Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking. Formalization, that is, abstraction from concepts of their content, ensures the systematization of knowledge, since intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer from the point of view of ordinary consciousness, are of little use for science: in scientific knowledge it is often impossible not only to resolve, but even to formulate and pose problems before until the structure of the concepts related to them is clarified.

In scientific judgments, connections are established between objects, phenomena or between their certain characteristics. In scientific conclusions, one judgment comes from another, based on already existing conclusions: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Induction is the inference of particular objects, phenomena to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.

Deduction is an inference from the general to the particular, from general judgments to particular conclusions.

Idealization is the mental construction of ideas about objects that do not exist or are not realizable in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world. The process of idealization is characterized by abstraction from the properties and relationships inherent in the objects of reality and the introduction into the content of the concepts being formed of such features that, in principle, cannot belong to their real prototypes. Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization can be the mathematical concepts of “point” and “straight line”. Concepts that are the result of idealization are said to represent idealized (or ideal) objects.

Analogy, modeling. Analogy is a mental operation when knowledge obtained from the consideration of any one object (model) is transferred to another, less studied or less accessible for study, less visual object, called the original, prototype. This opens up the possibility of transferring information by analogy from model to prototype. This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling (construction and research of models). The difference between analogy and modeling is that if analogy is one of the mental operations, then modeling can be considered in different cases both as a mental operation and as an independent method - an action method.

The model is an auxiliary object. The forms of modeling are varied and depend on the models used and the scope of their application. According to the nature of the models, subject and sign (information) modeling are distinguished.

Subject modeling is carried out on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic, or functional characteristics of the modeling object - the original. In symbolic modeling, models are diagrams, drawings, formulas, etc. The most important type of such modeling is mathematical modeling.

Modeling is always used together with other research methods, and is especially closely related to experiment. The study of a phenomenon using its model is a special type of experiment - a model experiment, which differs from a regular experiment in that in the process of cognition an “intermediate link” is included - a model, which is both a means and an object of experimental research, replacing the original. A special type of modeling is a thought experiment.

Theoretical methods (methods - cognitive actions). The general philosophical, general scientific method is dialectics, discussed earlier.

The deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) is a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions of the axiom (synonym - postulates), from which all the main provisions of this theory (theorem) are derived in a purely logical way through proof. The construction of a theory based on the axiomatic method is usually called deductive. This method is used to build theories in mathematics, mathematical logic, and theoretical physics;

The second method has not received a name in the literature, but it certainly exists, since in all other sciences, except those listed above, theories are built using a method that we will call inductive-deductive: first, an empirical basis is accumulated, on the basis of which theoretical generalizations (induction) are built, which can be built at several levels, and then these resulting generalizations can be extended to all phenomena and objects covered by this theory (deduction). Most theories in the natural sciences are constructed using the inductive-deductive method: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

Empirical methods (methods-operations).

Observation is the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be scientific or non-scientific. Purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the external world, associated with the solution of a specific task or scientific problem, is usually called scientific observation. Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, therefore, the theoretical construction of knowledge would be impossible. However, observation as a method has a number of significant disadvantages. Thus, subjective human opinion can make its own adjustments, so observation is often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

Measurement. It is used everywhere, in any human activity. A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:

1. Cognizing subject, carrying out measurement with certain cognitive goals;

2. Means of measurement, which can include both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

3. The object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

4. A method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

5. The result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.

Survey. This empirical method is used only in the social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral and written survey.

During an oral interview, the observer can see the respondent’s reaction and ask additional questions. At the same time, it was noticed that respondents answered “sensitive” questions in writing more openly and thoroughly. Questions for both oral and written surveys are prepared in advance. At the same time, questions should be concise, understandable and should not contradict ethical standards.

Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from English test - task, sample). Tests are usually given to subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of problems that do not take much time to solve. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.

Next, we will consider empirical methods-actions, which are based on the use of operational methods and their combinations. These methods can be divided into two classes. The first class is methods for studying an object without transforming it. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

Another class of methods is associated with the researcher’s active transformation of the object being studied - let’s call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.

A survey is a study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. A survey is basically an initial study of an object, carried out to become familiar with its condition, functions, structure, etc. There are internal (survey of the enterprise) and external (survey of the economic situation in the region, labor market, etc.) surveys. The survey is carried out through empirical research methods-operations: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written surveys, etc.

Monitoring is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the condition of an object, the values ​​of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

Experiment is a general empirical research method (action method), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and manageable conditions. The basic principle of any experiment is to change only one factor in each research procedure, while keeping the rest unchanged and controllable.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. Depending on the nature of the object being studied, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, psychological and other experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into testing and exploratory. Depending on the nature and variety of means and experimental conditions and methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions), laboratory (in artificial conditions ) experiment.

Functions and levels of methodology

The concept of “methodology” has two main semantic meanings: methodology, firstly, is interpreted as a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity - in science, politics, art, etc.; secondly - as a doctrine of this system or as a general theory of method, theory in action. In other words, methodology is a philosophical doctrine about the system of methods of scientific knowledge and transformation of reality, as well as the doctrine about the application of principles, categories, laws of dialectics and science to the process of cognition and practice in the interests of acquiring new knowledge.

In the process of cognition and action, the methodology develops, as it were, a strategy for cognitive and practical activity and performs the following main functions:

History and the current state of knowledge and practice show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution to theoretical and practical problems. The point is that not only the result of the research, but also the leading path to it must be true.

In the process of scientific research, it is necessary to correctly use such a concept as the methodology of scientific knowledge, which expresses a certain sequence of solving a specific scientific and practical problem, as well as the totality and order of application of the methods used.

Some authors divided methodology (meaning the methodology of science) into two types: descriptive (descriptive) methodology - about the structure of scientific knowledge, the laws of scientific knowledge, etc.; and normative (prescriptive) methodology - directly aimed at regulating activities and representing recommendations and rules for carrying out scientific activities. But such a division again leads to bifurcation and ambiguity of the subject of methodology. Obviously, in this case it is necessary to talk about two different functions - descriptive and normative of one doctrine - methodology.

Methodology as such, primarily the methodology of science, began to take shape in Soviet times only in the 60s and 70s of the last century. Before this, and even in those days, party bodies believed that the entire methodology was contained in Marxist-Leninist teaching. Despite this, the methodology of science, thanks to the works of P.V. Kopnina, V.A. Lektorsky, V.I. Sadovsky, V.S. Shvyreva, G.P. Shchedrovitsky, E.G. Yudin and other authors began to develop. They divided the methodology (considering only the methodology of science) into four levels:

This division of methodology was recognized by almost all methodologists and was not questioned. But this division led to some confusion, which we still have today, since scientists had to deal with methodology or use it at some level - separately. But in research, a unified picture is also important.

Indeed, apparently, the upper first and second levels of the above structure of the methodology are reserved for philosophers. But philosophers themselves do not conduct specific scientific research (except for strictly philosophical ones). They analyze only the most general results obtained in various branches of scientific knowledge in past research. Their works, therefore, should be attributed mainly to epistemology as the science of knowledge, the logic of science, etc., that is, to those aspects that are associated with science as an established system of scientific knowledge. And scientists - representatives of specific sciences: physicists, chemists, teachers - need methodology as the science of organizing activities to conduct their own research currently being carried out. In addition, the works of philosophers on the problems of epistemology and methodology are often written in such a complex and abstruse language that they are inaccessible to the understanding of the common man.

Further, the third level is assigned to methodologists of specific sciences - methodologists of physics, chemistry, psychology and others. But the position, the position of these methodologists seems to hang in the air - they are no longer philosophers, but also not scientists who actually obtain new scientific knowledge. These methodologists do not delve into specific methods and techniques of scientific research. Therefore, their results are rarely of interest to researchers in specific subject areas.

And it seems that specific research methods and techniques should be dealt with by “ordinary” scientists (the fourth level), often in a significant or complete separation from the upper floors of such a structure of methodology.

Thus, we have to admit that despite the large volume of accumulated useful materials, a paradoxical situation has developed in it: on the one hand, the significance of its subject, on the other, its narrowness.

Recently, along with the methodology of research activities, a new direction has begun to emerge - the methodology of practical activities. Although, according to some authors, they cannot be separated from each other and considered in the same way, from a single position, namely from the position of the modern design-technological type of organizational culture. It is impossible to single out separately any methods, principles or means of research that are purely specific to any particular science. Thus, features of scientific activity, principles of knowledge, etc. are common to science in general, science as a whole. The requirements, for example, for an experiment are the same for physics, biology, pedagogy, and any other branch of scientific knowledge. Even seemingly exotic methods such as drilling in geology or excavations in archeology are types of experimental work, just like in pedagogy and psychology. The study and generalization of best practices is widely used in pedagogy, economics, organization of labor and production, but in physics and chemistry their use is meaningless. But this is only the specificity of certain methods, but in principle the general structure of the methodology of science is the same.

List of used literature

1. Baskakov A.Ya., Tulenkov N.V. Methodology of scientific research: Textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., rev. - K.: MAUP, 2004. - 216 p.: ill. - Bibliography: pp. 208 - 212.

2. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd edition. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1968 - 1979.

3. Descartes R. Discourse on the method to correctly direct your mind and find the truth in the sciences. Metaphysical reflections. The beginnings of philosophy. - M.: Vezha, 1998.

4. Kravets A.S. Methodology of science. - Voronezh, 1991.

5. Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of pedagogy: A manual for teacher-researchers. - Cheboksary: ​​Chuvash Publishing House, University, 2001. - 244 p.

6. Kraevsky V.V., Polonsky V.M. Methodology for teachers: theory and practice. - Volgograd: Peremena, 2001.

7. Kuzin V.S. Psychology. Textbook. - M.: AGAR, 1997.

8. Methodology: yesterday, today, tomorrow. At 3 nn. ed. - comp. Krylov G.G., Khromchenko M.S. - M.: Publishing House of the School of Cultural Policy, 2005.

9. Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. - M.: SYNTEG. - 668 p.

10. Sabitov R.A. Fundamentals of scientific research: Textbook. allowance / Chelyab. state univ. Chelyabinsk, 2002. 138 p.

11. Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. MM. Rosenthal. Ed. Third. - M.: Publishing house of political literature, 1972.

12. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983.

Similar documents

Scientific method as a means of rational knowledge. Approaches to classification of research method. Encyclopedic and author's definitions of methodology. Philosophical, general scientific and special methods of scientific research. Diagram of the methodology structure.

abstract, added 01/25/2010


Concept, essence and subject of methodology. The concept of "method", the main types of methods and their relationship. Methods of scientific knowledge. Basic methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Problems of methodology and ways to solve them. The most important tasks of the methodology.

test, added 11/11/2010


The concept and main function of the scientific research method. Approaches to its classification depending on the scope of application and other characteristics. The essence and types of methodology, the general scheme of its structure, the main levels. General scientific methods of scientific knowledge.

presentation, added 06/23/2011


Concepts of method and methodology. Classification of types of research and factors of their quality. Goals and types of randomization, masking (blinding), control. Characteristics of research methods in the structure of general scientific methodology: theoretical, empirical.

presentation, added 05/15/2017


The emergence of rational knowledge as a methodology for understanding the world. Dialectical continuity of experimental and theoretical research. Development of the fundamentals of logic and mathematical methods, formation of ideas about nature. The role of hypotheses in science.

test, added 04/05/2015


The method of scientific research as a way of understanding reality. Main levels of methodology. Special research methods, their use in one branch of scientific knowledge or in several narrow fields of knowledge. Characteristics of modeling theory.

presentation, added 08/22/2015


Types of research. Classification and composition of research methods. Selection of research methods. Classification of research methods according to the method and source of obtaining information about the objects under study. Various types of analysis occupy a special place in research

lecture, added 11/14/2004


Structure of the book. Basic concepts of Kuhn's concept. Paradigm. Science community. Normal science. The role of work in the methodology of scientific knowledge. In understanding reality, scientists constantly rely on special agreements-paradigms about problems and methods for solving them.

abstract, added 09/28/2005


Science: concept and social institution. Structure and specificity of scientific knowledge. The concept of method and methodology. Empirical and theoretical research methods. Forms of scientific knowledge. The phenomenon of the scientific revolution. Social responsibility of a scientist.

lecture, added 05/25/2014


Modern methodology and philosophy of science. Experimental and axiomatic method. The hypothetico-deductive method is a kind of synthesis of axiomatic and experimental methods. Mendeleev-Clayperon law. Modern inductive logic.