The flourishing of Russian culture in the 19th century is brief. Russian culture of the 19th century dawn in
Culture Rus' during the period of fragmentation
For Russian spiritual culture of the mid-XII - XIII centuries. characterized by the emergence of "polycentrism" - the emergence in different regions of Rus' of original cultural centers.
Receives further development chronicle. If in the XI - early XII century. the centers of chronicle work were only Kiev and Novgorod, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing was carried out in most of the centers of the resulting feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the "regional" nature of the chronicle, the chroniclers of the XII - first half XIII V. did not isolate themselves in their narrow regional events, to one degree or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the chronicle texts that have reached us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected by the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 13th century), the North-Eastern - by the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).
At the end of the 12th century. One of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. It is dedicated to the above-mentioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this hike that served as the occasion for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and made a strong impression on his contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy chronicle stories are dedicated to them).
“The Tale of Igor’s Host” in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the fall of 1188 (at the same time, perhaps its main text was written back in 1185, shortly after Igor’s escape from captivity, and in 1188 ... additions were made to it in connection with the return of his brother and son Igor from captivity). Its unknown author, the solution to whose name never ceases to amuse researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all existing versions do not stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum Old Russian nobility- boyars.
The main idea of the "Tale" is the need for unity of action of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely feuds and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of a unified state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his call is directed not to state unification, but to inner world, to agreement in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, “The Lay” is at the same time a striking monument to historical thought. The “present” time is compared in it with past events, moreover, of national history (which was rare - usually historical examples in the works ancient Russian literature drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of Rus''s current troubles: for this purpose, the author turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his appeal to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the 12th century. (the exact dating is a subject of dispute) in North-Eastern Russia another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature appeared, “The Word of Daniel the Sharper.” It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, a native of the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince’s favor again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The "Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the 13th century, a second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner." It was addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time to Prince Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. A characteristic feature of "Prayer" is a negative attitude towards high nobility- boyars.
Another outstanding work ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu’s hordes and his death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City of Yaroslav's brother - Yuri.
This work (which remains unfinished) contains unparalleled medieval literature a hymn glorifying the native land, reminiscing about its former power (under princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion about the “disease” - strife that undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” turns to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the reasons for its present-day troubles.
In the epic genre, mid-XII - early XIII centuries. - time of appearance of such epic stories, like “Saur Levanidovich”, “Sukhman”, Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temples, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. there is a combination local traditions, borrowed from Byzantium forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (late 12th century) near Novgorod can be especially highlighted; in North-Eastern Russia - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
The development of culture took place in the difficult conditions of fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite constant civil strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, there were achievements and successes in the ancient Russian culture of this period. Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, and new layers of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry There were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population who had their own views, tastes, and ideas.
Changes took place in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and, under the influence of local conditions, began to look for new solutions. Architectural schools arose in the appanage principalities, which were distinguished by their characteristics. The Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia they began to build smaller churches of a simplified design. The interior and exterior decoration of the temples changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, half-columns, arcature belts and the so-called curb.
The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.
The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podol, Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedrals of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.
The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and various items of applied art. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often also served as amulets and amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used by master jewelers and artisans who created household items to decorate many of their products. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New chronicle writing centers appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, and Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment possible.
New original forms have appeared historical works; family and clan princely chronicles, biographies of princes, etc. Unfortunately, most of These works have not survived.
An ancient Russian masterpiece, fiction is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work was written at a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the raids of the Polovtsians, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what the disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.
The center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities during the period of fragmentation became the Galicia-Volyn land. So, as elsewhere at that time, the church played an important role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galician-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. The peculiarity of this chronicle is its secular nature. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.
A clear indication of the high level of culture was the architecture of the region. They built mainly from wood; for a long time, temples and, in some cases, chambers remained stone buildings.
Temples were built mainly from white stone using carved
ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galich in the 12th century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only a small part of them
studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the princely palace and church of Panteleimon in Galich.
Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. merged into one Galicia-Volyn Principality, in the second half of the 12th century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they achieved significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galician-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land became politically weaker and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
Galician-Volyn book culture, which developed on the basis of the Kyiv literary tradition, stood at a considerable height, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively. A number of copies of the Gospel text have reached us, including the Galician Four Gospels of 1144, the Dobrilov Gospel of 1164, etc., the lives of Nifont and Fyodor the Studite in the Vygolexin collection of the 12th-13th centuries, Pandects of Antiochus of 1307, and other handwritten books of the 12th-13th centuries. centuries The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a “great scribe” and philosopher, the likes of which has never existed in all the land.” To one of the monasteries he donated the gospel, copied in his own hand, as well as the “Great Compendium,” which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, including the aprakos Gospel, written in gold and richly decorated, to Chernigov. On his initiative, the complete life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot's Book and, probably, the Conversations of Gregory Dvoeslov were copied. He had employees just like him, book lovers who were engaged in copying liturgical and holy books. Among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time, Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned.
In the second half of the 13th century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archive collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which contained bible books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title “Russian Chronicler” - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection like the Izbornik of Svyatoslav 1073.
Thus, the Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works translated and Russian historical literature Kyiv period.
Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not as intensively, even after it lost its political independence.
There can be no doubt that many literary monuments perished in that troubled historical setting, which befell the Galician-Volyn principality.
Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, undoubtedly included from the Galician Chronicle in the “Tale of Bygone Years” and in the Kiev Chronicle (description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097). Preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources included in Russian use, the Galician-Volyn Chronicle of the 13th century. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that druzhina poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's campaign,
Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the 12th-13th centuries. cannot be separated by a boundary Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, strong defensive walls of urban centers hampered the speed of the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniil Galitsky softened the hardships Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of social life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct destruction of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.
The art of Galicia-Volyn Rus' is connected with its origins with the treasury of artistic culture common to all ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which are also poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by archaeologically uncovered ruins of temples.
In Kiev architecture of the 11th-12th centuries. a beginning was made to solve a number of new problems - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the princely palace temple and the ensemble of the princely or feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestov - the country palace of Monomakh, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kiev itself and other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.
It is very important to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volyn and Galicia. The monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - the Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of a temple located in the “Old Cathedra” tract, apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.
Volyn in art, as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.
Galich's art followed a slightly different path and was more critical of the artistic heritage and canonical examples. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated direct communication with Western Europe and direct exposure to Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities of decorative processing of buildings - carvings, play of different tones of facing stone, etc. (Back in the middle of the 12th century) a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The chronicle's account of the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky depicts this building to us as a collection of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "entrance" and the palace temple, interconnected by a system of passages; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing that has received significant development here - the “mansion”, which was established in the conditions of life of the princely and druzhina elites Kievan Rus. The foundations of the white-stone palace Church of the Savior, discovered by excavations, provide a typical example of buildings of this kind. The Galician Palace reveals many similarities with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky Castle of the 12th century.
Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galich with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is redesigned in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a unique appearance of architecture.
It has been developing particularly magnificently since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the above-mentioned circumstance that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life did not end. All cultural forces that escaped captivity and death undoubtedly rushed here; The chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince, the Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs, came day and day and craftsmen and craftsmen of all sorts of bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and toolmakers and forges with iron and copper and silver, and without life, and filling the courtyards around the city, field and village "
It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn Chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in Kholm, which caused genuine delight and surprise of contemporaries.
Ivan's Church deserved special attention and admiration from the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted by a certain clever man,” “Roman glass,” that is, colored stained glass on the windows of the temple, created a fanciful illumination of its interior space; in the altar above the throne rose on two columns made of solid stone a beautiful canopy and a ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.
Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, in its beauty and size to other temples. A beautiful water-blessing bowl of red marble was made for this church; it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The cup was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done in the temples of that time in the West.
These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholm buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and unique composition of the elements that compose it. The appearance of the Kholm temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of the development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques from Romanesque art. These same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir Principality; Moreover, individual details of the decoration and design of the buildings of the Bogolyubov Castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in Kholm that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other craftsmen , who built and decorated the Kholm temples.
Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion from the “Latin” world, and this feature also contributed to the enrichment of art with acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir in the 12th century. and for Galician Rus' of the 13th century, since this art more fully than Byzantine art expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the 12th century. there were Vladimir “autocrats”, and in the 13th century. - Galician-Volyn “king” Daniil.
On the other hand, appealing to Western culture was a kind of form of affirmation of one’s own paths artistic and generally cultural development and departure from traditions.
This also explains the significant fact that in Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpting, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church in application to religious subjects, received significant development. It was expressed here not only in the decorative plastic arts of the Kholm temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature. The chronicle tells about an interesting statue placed by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.
The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in Galician-Volynian painting, which can be judged only by a few miniatures.
They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color scheme and in the very construction of the pictorial image.
So, Galician-Volyn art of the 13th century. is one of the most striking and significant pages in the history of ancient Russian art. Having begun its journey together with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its western neighbors. These additions were organically mastered by Galician masters, who created quite unique and high-quality monuments of art of Galician-Volyn Rus.
The principality became the heir of K. Rus', fought for the reunification and consolidation of lands, contributed to the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongol-Tatars; raised the authority of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in conditions of feudal fragmentation.
The Galician-Volyn principality, after the decline of Kyiv, continued the existence of a state formation in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center future Ukraine.
The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” of the theologian Gregory in the middle of the 11th century. The term “Ukraine” was mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle in 1187 as a synonym for the concept “krasha”, that is, land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. In Serbo-Croatian - Serbska Krasha). Since 1335, the concept “Little Rus'”, borrowed from the Greeks, began to be used for Galicia, which later turned into the concept “Little Russia”. However, in different periods it designated different regions of Ukraine.
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During the period of feudal fragmentation, three all-Russian cultural centers were formed around Galich, Novgorod and Vladimir. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each of them developed its own aesthetic environment, developed its own artistic ideals, your understanding and expression of beauty. And this did not indicate the collapse of the ancient Russian people and their culture. Despite the existence of local schools, styles, and traditions, ancient Russian culture continued to remain fundamentally united. The time of feudal fragmentation was not a time of decline, but of the flourishing of ancient Russian culture.
Chronicle
From the 12th century begins new period in the history of Russian chronicles. Chronicles began to be kept in all principalities, chronicle writing acquired a regional character. The most significant centers of chronicle writing, in addition to Kiev and Novgorod, are Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities. Local chroniclers focused on local events, but considered the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of the Russian state and preserved the Tale of Bygone Years as part of local chronicles. Family princely chronicles appear - biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. Individual traits appeared in local chronicles. So, for the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which tells about events in the life of the Galicia-Volyn principality from the beginning of the 13th century. before 1292, the style of presentation is characterized by secularism and poetry. The chronicle pays main attention to the struggle of the princely power with the rebellious boyars. The Novgorod chronicle is especially distinguished by its local character. Novgorod chroniclers describe in detail the events of intra-Novgorod life from the 11th to the 15th centuries. from the position of the boyars, eminent merchants and other representatives of the ruling class. The Novgorod chronicle reflects the life of Novgorod with its turbulent political events and fierce struggle both between various clans of the richest landowners and property owners, and between various social groups of the Novgorod land. At the same time, the style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by simplicity and efficiency, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir princes laid claim to all-Russian primacy, so the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers sought to give their chronicles an all-Russian character, to present themselves and their land as the successors of Kievan Rus, and for this they widely used religious argumentation, which was not the case in other chronicle centers.
Literature
High level of development of culture and literature X - XI centuries. prepared the ground for the creation in the 80s of the 12th century. a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature "The Lay of Igor's Campaign". "The Lay" is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. That campaign had a strong impression on his contemporaries, as it was accompanied by a number of unique circumstances: solar eclipse, the death of most of the Russian army, the capture and escape of Igor. The author not only narrates the events of the campaign, but also reflects on what happened, expresses his attitude to what happened, evaluates the campaign and Igor’s defeat in comparison with the events of the history of his country, with his thoughts about the fate of the Russian land. The author of the Lay is unknown; the answer to his name has been exciting researchers for several centuries. Most likely, he was a resident of Southern Rus' and belonged to the highest stratum of the nobility - the boyars. But unknown author was able to overcome the narrow interests of his principality and class and rise to the height of understanding of all-Russian interests. The author calls on the Russian princes, in the face of external danger, to unite and “stand up for the Russian land” and protect the southern borders of Rus'. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. “The Lay” narrated the events of its time, at the same time, it is also a monument to historical thought. What happens in it echoes past events from Russian history, which was rare at that moment. Typically, authors drew historical examples from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history. The peculiarity of the historicism of this work is that the author tries to find in the past the sources of current troubles and turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when princely feuds began in Rus', which led to the weakening of the country in the face of the Polovtsian danger. "The Word" is written in an extraordinary poetic language. The famous cry of Yaroslavna, Princess Euphrosyne, Igor’s wife, is unusually expressive. Yaroslavna begs the wind, the river, and the sun not to harm the wounded prince and to return him to his native land. The Lay embodied the characteristics characteristic of Russian literature of the 12th - 13th centuries. features - connection with oral folk art, with historical reality, patriotism, citizenship.
Architecture
The period of feudal fragmentation is a time of widespread stone construction in all principalities. Beautiful architectural structures were created in the capital cities, and their number was more than ten. The architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation has its own distinctive features. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the buildings of the previous period in the smaller scale of the buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and simplicity of decoration. A typical structure was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the 12th century. Byzantine influence in architecture was weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of tower-shaped temples, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joined the pan-European Romanesque style. This inclusion did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of the buildings: arcature belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. The architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the 14th century. Galician-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. Catholic Church over the course of many centuries, it destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the original appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kievan composition with Romanesque construction techniques and elements of Romanesque decorative decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kyiv plinth, from which they built churches of a wide variety of plans: four- and six-pillars, pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas- evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by the Church of Panteleimon near Galich (early 13th century) with its perspective portal and carved capitals.
The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes became hired leaders of the squad guarding the city and its possessions. The princes lose Detinets and St. Sophia Cathedral, which passes into the possession of the archbishop. The prince was evicted outside the city - to Gorodishche, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settled and built monasteries - fortresses with temples. Of the churches built by order of the princes, the most significant are the Annunciation, St. Nicholas and St. George Cathedrals of the Yuryev Monastery. The most remarkable of the princely churches is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is not typical for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the mixed masonry technique, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is virtually devoid of decoration, since Novgorod limestone is friable, oversaturated with shells and difficult to process. History has not brought to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod chronicles - “Master Peter”. One of the most striking architectural schools of the period of feudal fragmentation was the Vladimir-Suzdal school. It began with the construction of the first stone temple Vladimir Monomakh in the 11th century, its heyday occurred during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). The Vladimir princes pursued a policy that contributed to the birth of the Great Russian nationality in the North-East of Rus', laying the foundations of a new Russian statehood. The Vladimir-Suzdal architectural school was distinguished by solemnity, grace, and rich decor, which reflected the claims of the Vladimir princes to all-Russian primacy. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave birth to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city named after Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereyaslavl - Zalessky. The earliest of the temples there that have reached us were erected under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Dolgoruky became the first independent prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land. The prince chose the village of Kideksha, 4 km from Suzdal, as his residence. Here in 1152, in the center of the princely palace, probably by Galician craftsmen, the Church of Boris and Gleb was erected. The Church of Boris and Gleb is the only surviving building from the princely palace. This is a single-domed, four-pillar, three-apse church. It is made of massive blocks of local white limestone. The decor of the church is extremely modest for a princely building. At the same time, in 1152, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior was founded in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. This temple is also single-domed, four-pillared, and three-apsed. The temple is also almost devoid of decoration, but is distinguished by the clarity of its architectural design and the austere simplicity of its appearance. Andrei Bogolyubsky was the first to elevate the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. To decorate his new capital - Vladimir, he launched large-scale construction. In 1164 in Vladimir, in imitation of Kyiv, the Golden Gate was built in the western part of the city facing Moscow. They simultaneously served the city as a defense center and a ceremonial entrance.
On an artificially constructed hill not far from Vladimir, Bogolyubsky erected his country residence. Thus, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace (1158-1165) arose, or rather, a real castle - a fortress, which included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince’s tower, etc. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the patroness of the Vladimir land and the Vladimir prince. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. It was probably in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloodied, crawled down the stairs, as the chronicle unforgettably vividly tells about this. Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), designed to become the main cathedral of the new center of Rus' - Vladimir. He even asked the Patriarch of Constantinople to establish a metropolitanate in Vladimir separate from Kyiv and to subordinate the bishops of northern Rus' to the Vladimir metropolitan, but he did not receive permission for this.
The Assumption Cathedral is a majestic six-pillar temple, built of large slabs of white limestone tightly fitted to each other. An arcature belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; the portals are perspective, the windows are slit-like. The spinning wheels are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The interior of the cathedral was no less solemn. The decoration of the temple sparkled with gold, silver, and precious stones. After the fire in the Assumption Cathedral in 1185, the architects of Prince Vsevolod erected new walls around the one-domed six-pillar temple, crowned them with four domes and divided the facades into five parts - spindles. The temple appeared even more majestic and acquired a powerful, truly classical form for Russian architecture.
The brilliant development of Russian architecture was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. But the experience of creating majestic buildings, traditions and techniques of architectural schools, especially Vladimir, had a decisive impact on the culture of the new emerging center of Rus' - Moscow.
Fresco painting
In the XII - XIII centuries. V monumental painting- mosaics and frescoes - various Russian lands also developed local schools, which had their own characteristics. What all schools had in common was that Russian masters not only mastered the art of composition, but also learned to convey a complex range of feelings.
By the end of the 13th century. its own school of fresco painters developed in Novgorod. This school transformed everything it had and borrowed from outside into uniform style, which, according to art historians, is recognized as Novgorod. The Novgorod style is most fully expressed in the fresco paintings of the churches of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Annunciation in Arkazhi and St. George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod style is characterized by a desire to simplify artistic techniques, which was probably dictated by the desire to create art that was understandable to a person inexperienced in theological matters.
Iconography
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. A Russian school of icon painting was formed in Rus'. About two dozen icons have survived from pre-Mongol times to the present day.
The most famous icon of that era is Our Lady of Vladimir. This icon is not only a surviving example of Byzantine easel painting , but also one of highest achievements of all world art. The name of the brilliant author of this icon is unknown, but his belonging to the Constantinople school is undoubted. Already in 1155, this icon was on Russian soil, where it was delivered from Constantinople. The fate of this icon in our country is unprecedented. According to legend, Mary was painted from life by the Evangelist Luke ("patron of painters"), and on a board from the table on which Christ ate with his Mother. It was kept in one of the churches in Vyshgorod, a suburb of Kyiv. In 1155, Andrei Bogolyubsky, planted by his father Yuri Dolgoruky in Vyshgorod, left Vyshgorod for his native Rostov-Suzdal land. Andrei took with him a local shrine - an icon of the Virgin Mary. In Vladimir, Andrei began to glorify the icon: he decorated it with pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones; built a temple for her - the Assumption Cathedral, established new holiday in Rus' - Intercession (October 14).
Andrei tried in every possible way to emphasize that he and his land were under the protection of this icon. The glorification of this image of the Mother of God began in Vladimir. For centuries it received the name "Vladimirskaya". The most significant events in the life of our country were associated with her; more than once she saved Rus' from enemy invasions. With the rise of Moscow as the new center of Russian statehood, it was transported to Moscow and became a state shrine. In Christian iconography, one of the most beautiful subjects is the image of the young Mother Mary and her son - the God-Man, born to suffer for the sins of people.
In the Latin Western world, these motifs found their most vivid embodiment in Raphael's Sistine Madonna. Raphael's Madonna is a majestic maiden carrying a baby through the clouds with a childish gaze. In the Greco-Slavic world, these motifs are expressed in the Our Lady of Vladimir. In the Vladimir Icon, according to the artist I.E. Grabar, “the most ancient song of motherhood,” the icon painter brilliantly conveyed the inexpressible tenderness and inexpressible sadness in the eyes of the Mother, who knows about the unparalleled fate of her son - martyrdom, glory and power over millions. Nowhere in painting are maternal grief and sorrow so expressed, but at the same time the eternal joy of existence. Joy coexists with sorrow, revealing itself in the sweetest tenderness. This iconographic type, born in Byzantium, was called “Eleusa” (“Merciful”), and in Russian icon painting it was especially popular under the name beautifully sounding name- “Tenderness.”
Among the icons of the 12th and 13th centuries associated with Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, there are masterpieces. The mantle "Deesis" (in Greek "prayer" or "petition"), where on both sides of the young Christ mourning angels replace the traditional figures of the two main saints (Mary and John), interceding before Christ for the human race. The ideological meaning of "Deesis" symbolizes the idea of intercession. In the eyes of the people, "Deesis" embodied the last hope of the desperate.
Arts and crafts
During the period of feudal fragmentation, decorative and applied arts continued to develop. Large cities were famous for their craftsmen. Masters from Galich, Novgorod, and Vladimir improved their skills in engraving, wood carving, gold embroidery on fabric, etc. Special Development in Rus' the production of weapons and military armor began. Master gunsmiths made swords, battle axes, spears, sabers, knives, shields, and chain mail.
Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th - 13th centuries, using new technology, began to produce saber blades of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility. Far beyond the borders of Novgorod, the products of Novgorod goldsmiths were famous. Two signatures have survived krateira masters of Bratila and Costa and two Zion mid-12th century Novgorodians have achieved great skill in the manufacture of products from bone, glass, wood, metal. Large handicrafts - shopping center becomes Vladimir. It is inhabited by thousands of skilled architects, builders, masons, carvers, jewelers, and painters. Among them, blacksmiths and gunsmiths played a significant role. The high level of Vladimir-Suzdal gunsmiths and goldsmiths is evidenced by the so-called helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and father of Alexander Nevsky. It was found in 1808 near Yuryev-Polsky on the site of the Battle of Lipitsa, which took place in 1216 between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest, who decided the fate of their father's inheritance. The shape of the helmet is traditional, but technically it was very different from the helmets of the 9th - 10th centuries.
The entire body is forged from one piece, rather than riveted from individual plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. The helmet is decorated with chased silver plates. On the upper part there are images of the Archangel Michael, next to them are Saints Theodore and George, and at the back is Saint Basil. Along the edges of the plate there is an inscription: “Great Archangel Michael, help your servant Fedor.” Fedor is the baptismal name of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Nowadays the helmet is one of the most valuable exhibits in the collection of defensive weapons of the Moscow Kremlin Armory. Thus, in general, during the pre-Horde period, a powerful ancient Russian culture was created. Next, difficult times will come in Rus', the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars will cause significant damage to the culture of Rus', but Russian culture will not perish. She was able to express such a high spiritual ideal, she had such powerful creative abilities, such a large supply of original artistic ideas that she was far from exhausted. Old Russian culture XI - XII centuries laid the foundations for the culture of the new Russian statehood - the Moscow Kingdom.
