Heroic folk epic. Report: The Origin of the Heroic Epic

1). The question of the origin of the heroic epic - one of the most difficult in literary science - has given rise to whole line various theories. Two of them stand out: “traditionalism” and “anti-traditionalism.” The foundations of the first of them were laid by the French medievalist Gaston Paris (1839-1901) in his major work “The Poetic History of Charlemagne” (1865). The theory of Gaston Paris, called the “cantilena theory,” boils down to the following main principles. The primary basis of the heroic epic were small lyrical-epic cantilena songs, widespread in the 8th century. Cantilenas were a direct response to certain historical events. For hundreds of years, cantilenas existed in... oral tradition, and from the 10th century. the process of their merging into large epic poems begins. Epic is a product of long collective creativity, the highest expression of the spirit of the people. Therefore, it is impossible to name a single creator of an epic poem; the recording of poems itself is a more mechanical process than a creative one,

The positions of “traditionalists” and “anti-traditionalists” were to a certain extent brought together in his theory about the origin of the heroic epic by Alexander Nikolaevich Veselovsky. The essence of his theory is as follows. The beginning of epic creativity was small songs - lyrical-epic cantilenas, born as a response to events that excited the people imagination. After a while, the attitude towards the events described in the songs becomes calmer, the severity of emotions is lost and then an epic song is born. Time passes, and songs, in one way or another close to each other, develop into cycles. And finally the cycle turns into an epic poem While the text exists in the oral tradition, it is the creation of a collective.At the last stage of the formation of the epic decisive role played by a separate author. Writing down poems is not a mechanical act, but a deeply creative one.

The fundamentals of Veselovsky’s theory retain their significance for modern science (V. Zhirmunsky, E. Meletinsky), which also dates the emergence of the heroic epic to the 8th century, believing that the epic is the creation of both oral collective and written individual creativity.

Only the question of the fundamental principles of the heroic epic is corrected: they are considered to be historical legends and the richest arsenal of figurative means of the archaic epic.

It is no coincidence that the beginning of the formation of the heroic (or state) epic dates back to the 8th century. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), over the course of a number of centuries there was a transition from slave-owning forms of statehood to feudal ones, and among the peoples Northern Europe- the process of the final decomposition of patriarchal-tribal relations. Qualitative changes associated with the establishment of a new statehood definitely made themselves felt in the 8th century. In 751, one of the largest feudal lords in Europe, Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founder of the Carolingian dynasty. Under the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne (reign: 768-814), a huge state was formed, including a Celtic-Roman-Germanic population. In 80b, the pope crowned Charles with the title of emperor of the newly revived Great Roman Empire. In turn, Kara completes the Christianization of the German tribes, and seeks to turn the capital of the empire, Aachen, into Athens. The formation of the new state was difficult not only because of internal circumstances, but also because of external ones, among which one of the main places was occupied by the ongoing war between Christian Franks and Muslim Arabs. This is how history powerfully entered the life of medieval man. And the heroic epic itself became a poetic reflection historical consciousness people.

The focus on history determines the decisive features of the difference between the heroic epic and the archaic epic, Central themes The heroic epic reflects the most important trends in historical life, a specific historical, geographical, ethnic background appears, mythological and fairy-tale motivations are eliminated. The truth of history now determines the truth of the epic.

Heroic poems created by different peoples of Europe have much in common. This is explained by the fact that a similar historical reality; this reality itself was comprehended from the point of view of the same level of historical consciousness. In addition, the image medium served artistic language, which has common roots in European folklore. But at the same time, the heroic epic of each individual nation has many unique, nationally specific features.

The most significant of the Heroic poems of the peoples Western Europe considered: French - “The Song of Roland”, German - “Song of the Nibelungs”, Spanish - “Song of My Sid”. These three great poems make it possible to judge the evolution of the heroic epic: “The Song of the Nibelungs” contains a number of archaic features, “The Song of My Sid” shows the epic at its end, “The Song of Roland” is the moment of its highest maturity.

2) GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC

During the Mature Middle Ages, the development of the traditions of folk epic literature continued. This is one of the significant stages in its history, when the heroic epic became the most important link in medieval book literature. The heroic epic of the Mature Middle Ages reflected the processes of ethnic and state consolidation and the emerging seigniorial-vassal relations. The historical theme in the epic has expanded, displacing the fairy-tale-mythological theme, and the significance has increased Christian motives and patriotic pathos intensified, a larger epic form and a more flexible style were developed, which was facilitated by some distance from purely folklore models. However, all this led to a certain impoverishment of the plot and mythopoetic imagery, so subsequently the chivalric romance again turned to folklore fiction. All these features of the new stage in the history of the epic are closely interconnected internally. The transition from epic archaics to epic classics, in particular, was expressed in the fact that the epics of nationalities that had reached the stage of clear state consolidation abandoned the language of myth and fairy tales and turned to developing plots taken from historical legends (while still continuing to use, of course, old plot and language clichés dating back to myths).

Clan and tribal interests were pushed aside by national interests, albeit still in their infancy, therefore in many epic monuments we find pronounced patriotic motives, often associated with the fight against foreign and other religious conquerors. Patriotic motives, as is specific to the Middle Ages, partly appear in the form of contrasting Christians with “infidel” Muslims (in Romanesque and Slavic literatures).

As said, the epic at the new stage depicts feudal strife and seigniorial-vassal relations, but due to the epic specificity, vassal loyalty (in the “Song of the Nibelungs”, “Song of Roland”, “Song of my Sid”), as a rule, merges with loyalty to clan, tribe, native country, state. Characteristic figure in the epic of this time - the epic “king”, whose power embodies the unity of the country. It is shown in difficult relationships with the main epic hero- bearer of people's ideals. Vassal loyalty to the king is combined with a story about his weakness, injustice, with a very critical depiction of the court environment and feudal strife (in the cycle of French poems about Guillaume of Orange). The epic also reflects anti-aristocratic tendencies (in songs about Dietrich of Bern or in “Song of My Sid”). In epic-heroic works of the XII-XIII centuries. At times, the influence of the courtly (knightly) novel also penetrates (in “The Song of the Nibelungs”). But even with the idealization of courtly forms of life, the epic mainly preserves folk-heroic ideals and heroic aesthetics. The heroic epic also displays some tendencies that go beyond its genre nature, for example, hypertrophied adventurism (“Raoul de Cambrai” and others), material motivations for the behavior of the hero who patiently overcomes adverse circumstances (in “The Song of My Sid”), drama , reaching the point of tragedy (in “The Nibelungs” and in “The Song of Roland”). These Diverse Trends Reveal Hidden Opportunities epic kind poetry, anticipate the development of romance and tragedy.

Stylistic features epics are now largely determined by a departure from folklore and deeper processing folklore traditions. In the process of transition from oral improvisation to recitation from manuscripts, numerous enjambements appear, i.e. transfers from verse to verse, synonymy develops, the flexibility and variety of epic formulas increases, sometimes the number of repetitions decreases, more clear and harmonious composition(“The Song of Roland”).

Although broad cyclization is also familiar to oral creativity (for example, in folklore Central Asia), but basically the creation of large-scale epic works and their addition into cycles is supported by the transition from oral improvisation to handwritten book. Apparently, bookishness also contributes to the emergence of “psychological” characteristics, as well as the interpretation of the heroic character in terms of a kind of tragic guilt. However, the interaction between folklore and book literature actively continues: in the composition and especially the performance of many epic works, the participation of shpilmans and jugglers was great during this period.

6) One of the most remarkable monuments of medieval literature is the epic tale French people- "The Song of Roland."

An insignificant historical fact formed the basis of this heroic epic and over time, enriched by a number of later events, helped the widespread dissemination of tales about Roland and the wars of Charlemagne in many literatures of Western Europe.

The Song of Roland clearly expresses the ideology of a feudal society, in which the faithful service of a vassal to his overlord was an untouchable law, and violation of it was considered betrayal and treason. However, the traits of courageous steadfastness, military valor, selfless friendship and a thoughtful attitude to what is happening were not given a class-feudal connotation in the poem, as in the remarkable monument of creativity of the Russian people “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”; on the contrary, these convincing properties of the valiant defenders of the homeland - military leaders-peers and their vassals, were perceived as typical, national. Also in to a greater extent recognition and sympathy on the part of the broad masses were facilitated by thoughts about the defense of the fatherland, about the shame and danger of defeat, which run like a red thread through the entire poem.

1). The question of the origin of the heroic epic - one of the most difficult in literary science - has given rise to a number of different theories. Two of them stand out: “traditionalism” and “anti-traditionalism.” The foundations of the first of them were laid by the French medievalist Gaston Paris (1839-1901) in his major work “The Poetic History of Charlemagne” (1865). The theory of Gaston Paris, called the “cantilena theory,” boils down to the following main principles. The primary basis of the heroic epic were small lyrical-epic cantilena songs, widespread in the 8th century. Cantilenas were a direct response to certain historical events. For hundreds of years, cantilenas existed in... oral tradition, and from the 10th century. the process of their merging into large epic poems begins. The epic is the product of long-term collective creativity, the highest expression of the spirit of the people. Therefore, it is impossible to name a single creator of an epic poem; the recording of poems itself is a more mechanical process than a creative one,

The positions of “traditionalists” and “anti-traditionalists” were brought together to a certain extent in his theory about the origin of the heroic epic by Alexander Nikolaevich Veselovsky. The essence of his theory is as follows. The beginning of epic creativity was small songs - lyrical-epic cantilenas, born as a response to events that excited the popular imagination. Over time, the attitude towards the events described in the songs becomes calmer, the severity of emotions is lost and then an epic song is born. Time passes, and songs that are close to each other in one way or another form into cycles. And finally the cycle turns into an epic poem. As long as the text exists in the oral tradition, it is the creation of a collective. At the last stage of the formation of the epic, the decisive role is played by the individual author. Writing down poems is not a mechanical act, but a deeply creative one.

Only the question of the fundamental principles of the heroic epic is corrected: they are considered to be historical legends and the richest arsenal of figurative means of the archaic epic.

It is no coincidence that the beginning of the formation of the heroic (or state) epic dates back to the 8th century. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), over the course of a number of centuries there was a transition from slaveholding forms of statehood to feudal ones, and among the peoples of Northern Europe there was a process of final decomposition of patriarchal-tribal relations. Qualitative changes associated with the establishment of a new statehood definitely made themselves felt in the 8th century. In 751, one of the largest feudal lords in Europe, Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founder of the Carolingian dynasty. Under the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne (reign: 768-814), a huge state was formed, including a Celtic-Roman-Germanic population. In 80b, the pope crowned Charles with the title of emperor of the newly revived Great Roman Empire. In turn, Kara completes the Christianization of the German tribes, and seeks to turn the capital of the empire, Aachen, into Athens. The formation of the new state was difficult not only because of internal circumstances, but also because of external ones, among which one of the main places was occupied by the ongoing war between Christian Franks and Muslim Arabs. This is how history powerfully entered the life of medieval man. And the heroic epic itself became a poetic reflection of the historical consciousness of the people.

The focus on history determines the decisive features of the difference between the heroic epic and the archaic epic. The central themes of the heroic epic reflect the most important trends in historical life, a specific historical, geographical, ethnic background appears, mythological and fairy-tale motivations are eliminated. The truth of history now determines the truth of the epic.

Heroic poems created by different peoples of Europe have much in common. This is explained by the fact that a similar historical reality was subjected to artistic generalization; this reality itself was comprehended from the point of view of the same level of historical consciousness. In addition, the medium of image was an artistic language that has common roots in European folklore. But at the same time, the heroic epic of each individual nation has many unique, nationally specific features.

The most significant of the Heroic poems of the peoples of Western Europe are considered to be: French - “The Song of Roland”, German - “Song of the Nibelungs”, Spanish - “Song of My Cid”. These three great poems allow us to judge the evolution of the heroic epic: “The Song of the Nibelungs” contains a number of archaic features, “The Song of My Sid” shows the epic at its end, “The Song of Roland” is the moment of its highest maturity.

2) GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC

During the Mature Middle Ages, the development of the traditions of folk epic literature continued. This is one of the significant stages in its history, when the heroic epic became the most important link in medieval book literature. The heroic epic of the Mature Middle Ages reflected the processes of ethnic and state consolidation and the emerging seigniorial-vassal relations. The historical themes in the epic expanded, displacing the fairy-tale-mythological ones, the importance of Christian motifs increased and patriotic pathos intensified, a larger epic form and a more flexible style were developed, which was facilitated by some distance from purely folklore samples. However, all this led to a certain impoverishment of the plot and mythopoetic imagery, so subsequently the chivalric romance again turned to folklore fiction. All these features of the new stage in the history of the epic are closely interconnected internally. The transition from epic archaics to epic classics, in particular, was expressed in the fact that the epics of nationalities that had reached the stage of clear state consolidation abandoned the language of myth and fairy tales and turned to developing plots taken from historical legends (while still continuing to use, of course, old plot and language clichés dating back to myths).

As said, the epic at the new stage depicts feudal strife and seigniorial-vassal relations, but due to the epic specificity, vassal loyalty (in the “Song of the Nibelungs”, “Song of Roland”, “Song of my Sid”), as a rule, merges with loyalty to clan, tribe, native country, state. A characteristic figure in the epic of this time is the epic "king", whose power embodies the unity of the country. He is shown in a complex relationship with the main epic hero - the bearer of folk ideals. Vassal loyalty to the king is combined with a story about his weakness, injustice, with a very critical depiction of the court environment and feudal strife (in the cycle of French poems about Guillaume of Orange). The epic also reflects anti-aristocratic tendencies (in songs about Dietrich of Bern or in “Song of My Sid”). In epic-heroic works of the XII-XIII centuries. At times, the influence of the courtly (knightly) novel also penetrates (in “The Song of the Nibelungs”). But even with the idealization of courtly forms of life, the epic mainly preserves folk-heroic ideals and heroic aesthetics. The heroic epic also displays some tendencies that go beyond its genre nature, for example, hypertrophied adventurism (“Raoul de Cambrai” and others), material motivations for the behavior of the hero who patiently overcomes adverse circumstances (in “The Song of My Sid”), drama , reaching the point of tragedy (in “The Nibelungs” and in “The Song of Roland”). These various trends testify to the hidden possibilities of the epic kind of poetry and anticipate the development of the novel and tragedy.

The stylistic features of the epic are now largely determined by a departure from folklore and a deeper processing of folklore traditions. In the process of transition from oral improvisation to recitation from manuscripts, numerous enjambements appear, i.e. transfers from verse to verse, synonymy develops, the flexibility and variety of epic formulas increases, sometimes the number of repetitions decreases, a clearer and more harmonious composition becomes possible (“Song of Roland").

Although broad cyclization is also familiar to oral creativity (for example, in the folklore of Central Asia), the creation of large-scale epic works and their arrangement in cycles is mainly supported by the transition from oral improvisation to a handwritten book. Apparently, bookishness also contributes to the emergence of “psychological” characteristics, as well as the interpretation of the heroic character in terms of a kind of tragic guilt. However, the interaction between folklore and book literature actively continues: in the composition and especially the performance of many epic works, the participation of shpilmans and jugglers was great during this period.

6) One of the most remarkable monuments of medieval literature is considered to be the epic legend of the French people - “The Song of Roland”.

The Song of Roland clearly expresses the ideology of a feudal society, in which the faithful service of a vassal to his overlord was an untouchable law, and violation of it was considered betrayal and treason. However, the traits of courageous steadfastness, military valor, selfless friendship and a thoughtful attitude to what is happening were not given a class-feudal connotation in the poem, as in the remarkable monument of creativity of the Russian people “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”; on the contrary, these convincing properties of the valiant defenders of the homeland - military leaders-peers and their vassals, were perceived as typical, national. To an even greater extent, recognition and sympathy from the broad masses were facilitated by thoughts about the defense of the fatherland, about the shame and danger of defeat, which run like a red thread through the entire poem.

Feudal society, with its sharp class struggle, differentiation, with the peculiar pathos of class knightly heroism and features of Christian religiosity, gave rise to dozens of epic tales. It was in France, where feudal relations developed in a classical form, that such big number heroic poems. Differing in theme, volume and form, these poems did not equally reflect the broad interests of the people. Some of them talked about bloody civil strife, about vengeful and selfish invader barons who recognized the right of the strong as the only law and considered violence and arbitrariness to be the basis of their morality; A convincing example of this kind of poem is the poem "Raoul de Cambrai". Personal interest prevailed in these works, and faithful service to the overlord and the state lost its obligatory character for the “unfaithful barons.” In other epics, the theme of fidelity dominated, and the fate of a traitor, a traitor to the homeland and a violator of the vassal oath led him to retribution and a sad end. This theme is most clearly developed in the poems telling about the wars of Charlemagne, and especially in the “Song of Roland.”

The actual events of the 8th century formed the core of the “Song of Roland”. In 778, in the Pyrenees, the troops of Charlemagne, who were returning from the Spanish campaign, were attacked by the Basques. The best regiments were destroyed in a bloody battle, common destiny, according to close biographer Karl Einhard, the best commanders did not escape. In the “Biography of Charlemagne” this author says: “In this battle, Eggichard, the royal steward, Anselm, the Count Palatine and Hruodland (i.e. Roland), the head of the Breton March, were killed.” A particular episode of the battle with the Basques, co-religionists of the French (Franks), underwent a significant rethink: instead of the Basques, formidable Muslim Arabs appeared, who captured significant areas in Spain and more than once invaded France. The defeat at Roncesvalles did not cover the French with shame, but only helped to reveal their courage and ability to stand to the death, defending their homeland and covering the rear of the main retreating forces. The historical governor of the Breton March became the main character of the epic tale - Roland, his clash with his stepfather Gwenelon and the latter's betrayal became the basis of the plot. New details have also emerged characterizing the warring camps and their commanders. The historical Charlemagne was contrasted with the Saracen king Marsilius, a fictitious person. Events and their participants have shifted in time and space: Crusades The 11th century gave a new ideological coloring to the entire poem as a whole. Although historical accuracy in the “Song of Roland” is not observed, the features of the distant past found their poetic interpretation in it.

General, typological and nationally unique

in the heroic epic. Similarities of the heroic epic different nations Western Europe

Heroic epic: concept, content, typology

An analysis of specialized literature shows that many researchers have turned to the study of poetic heroic poems foreign literature. Therefore, the term “epic” turned out to be full of different meanings and is now used to designate different types literary works.

Let us give examples of several meanings of the word “epic”. The term "epos" in Russian can act as either a noun (epos) or an adjective (epic). As an adjective, it serves to denote narrative genres, as opposed to lyrical and dramatic genres.

The noun "epic" denotes a certain type of literary work, i.e. literary genre. The works designated as epic are very diverse, and no definition has yet been presented that would correspond to all types. But there are several partial definitions. For example:

an epic is a long narrative in verse;

it's long heroic narrative in verse;

is a long narrative poem in a sublime style that talks about traditional or historical heroes, and so on.

None of them can be used to determine

genre divisions. A long narrative, heroic or not, can also be told in prose or through combinations of prose and verse. /3.6/.

A heroic narrative poem can be short, no longer than a few dozen lines. A long narrative poem is not necessarily about physical struggle and heroic deeds. What is a “heroic” feat? Kill a strong opponent in a duel? To risk own life to save another person? Endure torture? Overcome your own “nature”? And these are just some of the problems of defining a genre.

According to the type of organization of the texture of the work, epics can be classified as follows: poetic form, prose, or combinations thereof. /10/.

According to the organization of the plot: the plot tells about the struggle in which two groups oppose each other; single heroes are usually representatives of groups. These groups can be two peoples (for example, Russians and Tatars), tribes, clans; or gods and demons (for example, the Greek Olympians and Titans). Opponents meet in physical combat.

In polytheistic cultures, human opponents can use their ability for magic (witchcraft; deities use their own physical strength like human warriors and their miraculous abilities, which correlate with human magical abilities). The form of combat is either a duel between individuals or a battle between groups of warriors.

Conflict arises over power, fame, or material wealth (which includes owning women). According to the type of relationship to reality: epic belongs to the realistic genres.

In polytheistic cultures, the human capacity for witchcraft, magic and the ability of the gods to perform miracles are included in general idea about reality.

Oral composition, oral performance and oral transmission of the epic give rise to formality and require ready-made models at all levels of the work.

Oral performance can range from perfect impromptu performance to exact reproduction of a memorized text, or reading aloud and singing from a written text.

A recorded work can be at any stage: from a bona fide recording of a single oral performance to entirely original works. In between these extremes are the various results of editing and rewriting such records (now called "traditional" epic, which includes, for example, the Finnish Kalevala, the Indian classical Mahabharata).

So, let's try to summarize all the data obtained about the oral heroic epic.

Firstly, this work can be presented in both poetry and prose, which does not have of great importance for the genre.

Secondly, the basis of the heroic poem is the opposition of two groups to each other: in battle or through their representatives in a duel, in physical struggle with the help of witchcraft, magic and miracles.

Thirdly, the works are mostly performed in a realistic manner.

Fourth, the heroic epic has a central status for a given culture; if it has no religious aspects, its status is average and inferior to that of religious literature, which occupies a central position in culture.

Fifthly, works are composed and performed orally with intensive use of literary formulaic means. Oral performances may be written by hand. The works of the past have reached us in more or less thoroughly edited or revised form.

Now let's move on to the direct classification of the heroic epic.

So, we can distinguish three groups of heroic poems.

The first group is the “episodic” type: individual works do not depend on each other and are repeatable in the same way as folk tales.

It features many characters, many of whom are historical figures, however for the most part they are taken out of their actual historical context, reduced to mere names, and play standard roles in the narrative.

All characters are thought of as belonging to the same generation and equal in status. Here and there the father or son of a warrior appears on the stage. For example, in the South Slavic epic, characters who lived in the 14th century can coexist in the same work with characters who lived in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Plots rarely tell about the real historical event; These are typical stories that repeat each other. Not a single character has an epic biography.

The second type of heroic epic tradition is the biographical epic. Tradition is built around central character and traces his biography. It can be continued with the biography of his son and grandson.

The central character is the king, the head of the tribe and the like, and the other knights are his paladins. The historicity of the central hero, and even more so of his paladins, is often controversial. Again, all knights belong to the same generation and interact with each other. Never, or almost never, is a work performed entirely in one sitting; rather, it is a chain of independent works, each of which follows the episodic nature of the epic and is performed separately.

Differences from episodic epic lie in the hierarchical organization of characters, in the figure of the central hero, in the episodes of his birth, growing up and death, which form a whole tradition. All this is absent from the tradition of episodic epic. Examples include Armenian, Tibetan and Central Asian Turkic oral epics.

The third type of heroic epic is the "epic cycle": a group of completed works, each of which features the same characters. The works themselves are independent of each other and relate to the same epic plots as the works of episodic epic.

The characters are perceived as belonging to the same generation. They are hierarchically related to each other as paladins of the central character who is their overlord.

Individual integral works are not subordinated organizational principle, which could be a biography of the central character.

The epic cycle does not give detailed biography. For example: the Russian epic tradition does not provide a biographical description of the life of Prince Vladimir as a bearer of supreme power.

Like folk tales, the same epic story exists in many cultures; Epic works, like folk tales, are repeatable. There is no people who do not preserve the memory of their past.

When in the development of his culture he reaches the stage at which writing appears, this memory is deposited in the form of calendar records, annals, and chronicles. But even before writing, even centuries before the state, tribal, clan life, any people told and sang about the deeds and events of their past and current life, about their gods and the exploits of their heroes.

This is how the legendary and historical song, more or less decorated with fairy-tale and mythological fiction.

The era in which the heroic epic of any people is created always leaves the stamp of the environment in which and for which they were created on these poetic creations. Epics are as diverse as the destinies of countries and peoples, as national characters, as language.

Epic(ancient Greek ἔπος - “word”, “narration”) - a heroic narrative about the past, containing a holistic picture folk life and representing in harmonic unity a certain epic world heroes-heroes.

Epic is a literary genre distinguished along with lyricism and drama; represented by such genres as fairy tale, legend, varieties of heroic epic, epic, epic poem, story, short story, short story, novel, essay. An epic, like a drama, is characterized by the reproduction of an action unfolding in space and time - the course of events in the lives of the characters. The specific feature of Epic is the organizing role of the narrative. the speaker (the author or narrator himself) reports events and their details as something past and remembered, simultaneously resorting to descriptions of the setting of the action and the appearance of the characters, and sometimes to reasoning.
The narrative layer of speech in an epic work naturally interacts with the dialogues and monologues of the characters. The epic narrative either becomes self-sufficient, temporarily suspending the statements of the characters, or is imbued with their spirit in inappropriately direct speech; Sometimes it frames the characters’ remarks, sometimes, on the contrary, it is reduced to a minimum or temporarily disappears. But overall, it dominates the work, holding together everything depicted in it. Therefore, the features of an epic are largely determined by the properties of the narrative. Speech here acts mainly in the function of reporting what happened earlier. Between the conduct of speech and the depicted action in the Epic, a temporary distance is maintained: the epic poet talks “... about an event as something separate from himself...” (Aristotle, On the Art of Poetry).
The epic narration is told on behalf of the narrator, a kind of mediator between the person depicted and the listeners (readers), a witness and interpreter of what happened. Information about his fate, his relationships with the characters, and the circumstances of the “story” are usually missing. The “spirit of storytelling” is often “... weightless, ethereal and omnipresent...”. At the same time, the narrator’s speech characterizes not only the subject of the statement, but also himself; the epic form captures the manner of speaking and perceiving the world, the uniqueness of the narrator’s consciousness. Live perception The reader is always associated with close attention to the expressive principles of the narrative, i.e., the subject of the narrative, or the “image of the narrator” (the concept of V.V. Vinogradov, M.M. Bakhtin, G.A. Gukovsky).
The epic is as free as possible in the exploration of space and time. The writer either creates stage episodes, that is, pictures that record one place and one moment in the life of the characters (an evening with A.P. Sherer in the first chapters of “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), or in descriptive, overview episodes , “panoramic” speaks of long periods of time or what happened in different places(L.N. Tolstoy’s description of Moscow, empty before the arrival of the French). In the careful recreation of processes occurring in a wide space and at significant stages of time, only cinema can compete with the Epic.
The arsenal of literary and visual means is used by the epic in its entirety (portraits, direct characterizations, dialogues and monologues, landscapes, interiors, actions, gestures, facial expressions, etc.), which gives the images the illusion of plastic volume and visual and auditory authenticity. What is depicted can be an exact correspondence to the “forms of life itself” and, on the contrary, a sharp re-creation of them. Epic, unlike drama, does not insist on the conventions of what is being recreated. Here it is conditionally not so much what is depicted, but rather the “depicting” one, that is, the narrator, who is often characterized by absolute knowledge of what happened in its smallest details. In this sense, the structure of the epic narrative, which usually differs from non-fictional messages (reportage, historical chronicle), seems to “give out” the fictitious, artistic and illusory nature of what is depicted.
The epic form is based on various types stories. In some cases, the eventfulness of the works is extremely intense (the adventure-detective plots of F. M. Dostoevsky), in others, the course of events is weakened, so that what happened seems to be drowned in descriptions, psychological characteristics, reasoning (prose by A.P. Chekhov of the 1890s, novels by T. Mann and W. Faulkner). According to J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller, retarding motives are an essential feature of the epic genre of literature as a whole. The volume of text of an epic work, which can be both prosaic and poetic, is practically unlimited - from miniature stories (early Chekhov, O. Henry) to lengthy epics and novels ("Mahabharata" and "Iliad", "War and Peace" and " Quiet Don"). An epic can concentrate in itself such a number of characters and events that are inaccessible to other types of literature and types of art (only serial television films can compete with it). At the same time, the narrative form is able to recreate complex, contradictory, multifaceted characters that are in the making. Although the possibilities of epic display are not used in all works, the word Epic is associated with the idea of showing life in its integrity, revealing the essence of an entire era and the scale of the creative act. epic genres not limited to any types of experiences and worldviews. In nature, Epic is a universally wide use of the cognitive and ideological capabilities of literature and art in general. “Localizing” characteristics of the content of epic works (for example, the definition of Epic in the 19th century as a reproduction of the domination of an event over a person or the modern judgment about a “generous” attitude towards a person) do not absorb the entire history of epic genres.
The epic took shape in different ways. Lyric-epic, and on their basis, epic songs themselves, like drama and lyrics, arose from ritual syncretic performances. The formation of the prose genres of the Epic, in particular the fairy tale, is genetically connected with individually told myths. On early epic creativity and further development forms of artistic storytelling were also influenced by oral and then written historical traditions.
In ancient and medieval literature, the folk heroic epic was very influential. Its formation marked the full and widespread use of epic capabilities. A carefully detailed narrative, maximally attentive to everything visible and full of plasticity, has overcome naive-archaic poetics short messages characteristic of myth, parable and early fairy tale. The heroic epic is characterized by the “absolutization” of the distance between the characters and the one who narrates; the narrator is endowed with the gift of imperturbable calm and “omniscience” (it was not for nothing that Homer was likened to the Olympian gods), and his image - the image of a being who has risen above the world - gives the work the flavor of maximum objectivity. “... The narrator is alien to the characters, he not only surpasses the listeners with his balanced contemplation and sets them in this mood with his story, but, as it were, takes the place of necessity...” (Schelling F., Philosophy of Art.).
But already in ancient prose the distance between the narrator and actors ceases to be absolutized: in the novels “The Golden Ass” by Apuleius and “Satyricon” by Petronius, the characters themselves talk about what they have seen and experienced. In the literature of the last three centuries, marked by the predominance of romantic genres, “personal”, demonstrative-subjective narration dominates. On the one hand, the narrator's omniscience covers the thoughts and feelings of the characters that are not expressed in their behavior. On the other hand, the narrator often looks at the world through the eyes of one of the characters, imbued with his state of mind. Thus, the battle of Waterloo in Stendhal’s “Parma Monastery” is not at all reproduced in the Homeric way: the author seemed to reincarnate as young Fabrizio, the distance between them practically disappeared, the points of view of both were combined (the method of narration inherent in L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, G. Flaubert, T. Mann, Faulkner). This combination is caused by an increased interest in originality inner world heroes, sparingly and incompletely manifested in their behavior. In connection with this, a method of narration also arose in which the story of what happened is at the same time a monologue of the hero ("The Last Day of a Man Condemned to Death" by V. Hugo, "The Meek" by Dostoevsky, "The Fall" by A. Camus). Internal monologue as a narrative form is absolutized in the literature of the “stream of consciousness” (J. Joyce, partly M. Proust). Narration methods often alternate; events are sometimes told different heroes, and each in his own manner (“Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “To Have and Have Not” by E. Hemingway, “The Mansion” by Faulkner, “Lotte in Weimar” by T. Mann). In monumental examples of E. 20th century. (“Jean Christophe” by R. Rolland, “Joseph and His Brothers” by T. Mann, “The Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky, “Quiet Don” by M. A. Sholokhov) synthesizes the long-standing principle of “omniscience” of the narrator and personal, full of psychologism image forms.
In novel prose of the 19th-20th centuries. Emotional and semantic connections between the statements of the narrator and the characters are important. Their interaction gives artistic speech an internal dialogical quality; the text of the works captures a set of different quality and conflicting consciousnesses. The “voices” of different persons can either be reproduced one by one, or combined in one utterance - a “two-voice word.” Narrative polyphony is not typical for the canonical genres of ancient eras, where the voice of the narrator reigned supreme, and the characters spoke in the tone in which they spoke. In the literature of the last two centuries, on the contrary, internal dialogicity and polyphony of speech are widely represented, thanks to which people’s verbal thinking and spiritual communication between them are mastered.

In a narrower and more specific sense of the word, the heroic Epic as a genre (or group of genres), that is, a heroic narrative about the past, containing a holistic picture of the people. life and representing in harmonious unity a certain epic world and heroic heroes. Heroic Eros exists both in book and oral form, and most of the book monuments of the Epics have folklore origins; The very features of the genre developed at the folklore stage. Therefore, the heroic Epic is often called the folk Epic. However, such an identification is not entirely accurate, since the book forms of the Epic have their own stylistic and sometimes ideological specificity, and are certainly attributable to the folk Epic. Ballads, historical legends and songs, folk novels, etc. can be considered heroic epics only with significant reservations.
The Heroic Epic has come down to us both in the form of extensive epics, book ("Iliad", "Odyssey", "Mahabharata", "Ramayana", "Beowulf") or oral ("Dzhangar", "Alpamysh", "Manas", and in the form of short “epic songs” (Russian epics, South Slavic youth songs, poems by Edda the Elder), partly grouped into cycles, less often - prose tales (sagas, Nart (Nart) epic).
The folk heroic Epic arose (based on the traditions of the mythological Epic and heroic tales, later - historical legends and partly panegyrics) in the era of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and developed in ancient and feudal society, in conditions of partial preservation patriarchal relations and ideas in which the typical image of social relations in the heroic Epic as blood and clan might not yet represent conscious artistic technique.
In the archaic forms of the Epic (Karelian and Finnish runes, heroic poems of the Turkic-Mongolian peoples of Siberia, the Nart epic, the most ancient parts of the Babylonian "Gilgamesh", the Elder Edda, "Sasuntsi David", "Amiraniani"), heroism appears in a fairy-tale-mythological shell (heroes possess not only military, but also “shamanic” power, epic enemies appear in the guise of fantastic monsters); main themes: the fight against “monsters”, heroic matchmaking to the “betrothed”, family revenge.
In the classical forms of the Epic, the heroes-leaders and warriors represent the historical people, and their opponents are often identical to the historical “invaders,” foreign and heterodox oppressors (for example, the Turks and Tatars in Slavic Epics). The “epic time” here is no longer the mythical era of first creation, but the glorious historical past at the dawn national history. The most ancient state political formations (for example, Mycenae - “Iliad”, Kiev State Prince Vladimir - epics, the state of four Oirots - "Dzhangar") act as a national and social utopia turned to the past. In the classical forms of Epics, historical (or pseudo-historical) persons and events are glorified, although the depiction of historical realities itself is subject to traditional plot schemes; sometimes ritual-mythological models are used. The epic background is usually the struggle of two epic tribes or nationalities (more or less correlated with real story). It is often located in the center military event- historical ( Trojan War in the Iliad, the battle on Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata, on Kosovo Polje - in Serbian youth songs), less often - mythical (the fight for Sampo in the Kalevala). Power is usually concentrated in the hands of the epic prince (Vladimir - in epics, Charlemagne - in the "Song of Roland"), but the bearers of active action are the heroes, whose heroic characters, as a rule, are marked not only by courage, but also by independence, obstinacy, even fury (Achilles in the Iliad, Ilya Muromets in epics). Obstinacy sometimes leads them to conflict with the authorities (in the archaic epic - to fight against God), but the directly social nature of the heroic act and the commonality of patriotic goals for the most part ensure a harmonious resolution of the conflict. The Epics depict primarily the actions (deeds) of the heroes, rather than their emotional experiences, but their own plot narrative is supplemented by numerous static descriptions and ceremonial dialogues. The stable and relatively homogeneous world of the Epic corresponds to a constant epic background and often measured verse; The integrity of the epic narrative is preserved by focusing on individual episodes.

Epic literally means “narration” from Greek. Its main task is to describe events from the outside. For a long time, the epic did not touch upon events related to the inner experiences of a person. And even when the situation has changed, the description of feelings and inner life continued to be detached and reasonable.

Objectives of the epic in literature

An epic is a mutual reflection on the events of both the author and his readers. And they, in turn, demand a sober assessment of things. This allows you to better see the connection between the causes and effects that accompany human life. It allows you to look behind the curtain of everyday haste and unite what at first glance seems random, but in reality is a pattern.

Epic as a genre of literature

The volume of work written in the epic genre includes small stories, large novels, and epics. The main role in such works is assigned to the narrator himself. While narrating about characters and events, he distances himself, as if he is not participating in it, which is what creates the unique atmosphere of the work. In addition, such stories leave not only a trace of the events described, but also preserve the memory of the narrator himself, his way of thinking and manner of speaking. It is worth noting that an epic work contains all kinds of literary devices. Thanks to the use of narrative form in epic works, readers have the opportunity to penetrate deeply into the inner world of a person, hidden from prying eyes.

Development of epic literature in cultural history

Considering epic literature before the 18th century, we can safely say that the poem was the most widespread genre in this field. The main source of its plot were folk legends. All images were generalized and idealized, information was provided in poetic form.

But the main genre, in the period from the 18th to the 19th centuries, which is the epic, is the novel. Modernity is described in prose form, images are individualized, speech becomes a reflection public consciousness. But the full depiction of life concerned more stories, novellas and short stories.

The original essence of the epic was the retelling of exploits. Thus, the leading characters were positive, courageous, courageous heroes and their opponents, who represented evil. The heroes of the epic were mostly idealized, mystical properties were attributed to them, but at the same time they continued to be people who care about their loved ones and compatriots. The heroic epic mainly combines war and love. Main character enters the warpath against the forces of evil, shows valor, honor, dignity and kindness. And in the end, having gone through all the obstacles and overcome all the evil, he receives pure and bright love.

Mystification and attribution to heroes supernatural abilities allows you to make the story more interesting for readers, introduces them to another world in which there is no gray ordinariness. It is filled with events, exploits and emotions of heroes shown from the outside. Thus, epic is one of the oldest genres of literature and storytelling. He is able to show the reader not only events that are long gone, but also the soul of the narrator. And given the fact that epic is still one of the most widespread genres among modern writers and poets, we can conclude that this is one of the most significant forms of literature. And thanks to its versatility, every reader will be able to find an epic work that corresponds to his inner cultural and spiritual needs.