home-Skirts-Literary movements of the 20th century and their representatives. Literary trends and methods

Literary movements of the 20th century and their representatives. Literary trends and methods

Option 1

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

G. Realism

1. Reflection of the idea of ​​harmony, strict orderliness of the world, faith in the human mind.

2. Contains a contrast between reality and dreams.

3. Opposes the abstraction and rationality of the works of classicism. It reflects the desire to depict human psychology.

4. The main character is lonely and not understood by others, he opposes society.

5. The actions and actions of the heroes are determined from the point of view of feelings, the sensitivity of the heroes is exaggerated.

6. The plot and composition obey accepted rules (the rule of three unities: place of time, action).

7. Image typical heroes under typical circumstances.

8. Main genres - comedy, ode.

9. Idealization of the village way of life, the heroes are ordinary people.

10. The name of the direction in translation means “material, real.”

11. Replaces classicism.

12. Civil (educational) orientation of the works.

13. M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"

14. G.R. Derzhavin Ode “Felitsa”

15. N.V. Gogol " Dead Souls»

16. V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana"

17. M.V. Lomonosov

18. N.M. Karamzin

19. D.I. Fonvizin

20. L.N. Tolstoy

Test on the topic " Literary directions»

Option 2

When answering test questions, indicate only the letter that corresponds to the literary direction.

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

G. Realism

I. Which literary movement does the characteristic correspond to?

1. The actions and deeds of the heroes are determined from the point of view of reason.

2. Idealization of the natural world (a special landscape).

3. An exceptional hero acts in exceptional circumstances.

4. Main genres - elegy, ballad.

5. The hero is individual and at the same time embodies typical traits.

6. The name of the direction in translation means “Exemplary”

7. Representatives of the lower classes are endowed with a rich spiritual world.

8. Replaces romanticism and exists to this day.

9. Unusual and exotic depiction of events, landscapes, people.

10. Dividing comedy heroes into positive and negative.

11. The work shows a special interest in the surrounding reality, perfect world opposed to the real.

12. A hero is judged by how he can show feelings, and not by the benefit he brings to the state.

II. What literary movement do the works belong to?

13. V.A. Zhukovsky Elegy “Sea”

14. M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time"

15. M.V. Lomonosov “Ode on the day of Elizabeth Petrovna’s accession to the throne”

16. A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"

III. Which literary movement does the writer's work belong to?

17. G.R. Derzhavin

18. A.P. Chekhov

19. M.V. Lomonosov

20. N.M. Karamzin

Option 1

Option 2

Evaluation criteria

"5" - 18-20 points (90% correct answers)

"4" - 14-17 points (70%-89% correct answers)

"3" - 10-13 points (50%-69% correct answers)

"2" - 0-9 points (less than 49% correct answers)

  1. Literary direction is often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. The laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed in the struggle and change of directions. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:

    a) Classicism,
    b) Sentimentalism,
    c) Naturalism,
    d) Romanticism,
    d) Symbolism,
    f) Realism.

  2. Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Designates a set of creative personalities who are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, literary movement- this is a variety (as if a subclass) of a literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin “classicus” - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

  1. Appeal to images and forms ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, putting forward on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature,” which implies strict adherence to immutable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
  2. Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin “ratio” - reason), which affirms the view of piece of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
  3. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring characteristics over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
  4. The social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
  5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable that depicted private daily life people of the middle classes). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
  6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time about which the play should have been narrated is one day), the unity of action implied that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism with its concepts of “exemplaryness”, a strict hierarchy of genres, etc. is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier, etc. After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism came into decline, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism arose in the second quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, joined the pan-European literary development, while maintaining its national identity. Characteristics Russian classicism:

A) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, etc.);
V) High level of development of the ode genre (M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) The general patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

IN late XVIII- beginning 19th century Russian classicism is influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and civil lyrics Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) is a movement in European literature and art XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of Enlightenment rationalism and was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it mainly preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

  1. Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
  2. Unlike classicism with its educational pathos, the dominant “ human nature" declared feeling, not reason.
  3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.”
  4. The hero of sentimental literature is more individualized: by origin (or convictions) he is a democrat, rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
  5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods and the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed first - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (most famous work - “Poor Liza”), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V. A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Educational trends;
d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced colloquialisms.

Favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th-first half of the 19th century, which received global significance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. “Romanticism” begins to be called a new literary movement.

Main features of romanticism:

  1. Anti-Enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its highest point in romanticism. Social and ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of “reason”, irrational, full of secrets and contingencies, and the modern world order is hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
  2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow” (heroes in the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). Theme "lying in evil" scary world“was especially clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffman, E. Poe).
  3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. The Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. For them, a person is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic work There is always a strong, exceptional personality opposing society, its laws or moral standards.
  4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which is subject to the romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: “The Golden Pot”, “The Nutcracker”, “Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober”) . The romantics contrasted the classicist “imitation of nature” with the creative activity of the artist with his right to transform the real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
  5. "Local color" A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature (East). Exotic wild nature was quite consistent in spirit with the romantic personality striving beyond the boundaries of everyday life. Romantics are the first to pay close attention to creative heritage people, their national-cultural and historical features. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the romantics, was part of one large unified whole - the “universum”. This was clearly realized in the development of the historical novel genre (authors such as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

The Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres developed: fantastic story, historical novel, a lyric-epic poem, the lyricist reaches extraordinary flowering.

The classical countries of romanticism are Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in major European countries gave way to critical realism and faded into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The origin of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - the nationwide upsurge after the War of 1812. All this determined not only the formation, but also the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker, A. I. Odoevsky), whose work was inspired by the idea of ​​civil service, imbued with the pathos of love of freedom and struggle.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

A) The acceleration of the development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “rush” and combination of various stages, which in other countries were experienced in stages. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies were intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy were combined with the classic orderliness of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of “harmonic accuracy” (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll receive special development. The development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky) was very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism. The contours of Russian romanticism were most clearly defined with the emergence of the genre of lyric-epic poem (southern poems by A. S. Pushkin, works by I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a large epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the combination of seemingly independent (and partially published separately) works (“Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “Our Hero” time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary movement that developed in last third XIX century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristics of naturalism:

  1. The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, determined by physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as the immediate everyday and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a natural scientist studies nature, artistic knowledge was likened to science.
  2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
  3. Naturalists rejected moralization, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism was not widespread; it played only a certain role at the initial stage of the development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among writers of the so-called “ natural school"(see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from Late Latin realis - material, real) - literary and artistic direction XIX-XX centuries It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called “Renaissance realism”) or in the Enlightenment (“ educational realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore and ancient literature.

Main features of realism:

  1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
  2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.
  3. Knowledge of reality occurs with the help of images created through typification of facts of reality (“typical characters in a typical setting”). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” in the “specifics” of the characters’ conditions of existence.
  4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is Gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, in contrast, for example, to romanticism.
  5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary movement was formed in the 30s of the 19th century. The immediate predecessor of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spirituality, emotionally, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other movements of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against the idealization of social relations, for national-historical originality artistic images(color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism of the first half of the 19th century; in the works of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged together - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, and partly Charles Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (the southern poems of Pushkin and “Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were already in the 1820-30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “ Captain's daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. Realism of the 19th century is usually called “critical”, since the defining principle in it was precisely the social-critical one. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features of Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, the activities of writers of the “natural school”. Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century central figures world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, and new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.

Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

Main features of literary movements :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in certain genres;

· stand out for their artistic speech style;

· put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

A movement in literature and art of the 17th – early 19th centuries, based on examples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national and patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Peter the Great era.

Distinctive features:

· the significance of themes and plots;

· violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· far-fetched images, schematic characters;

· the edifying nature of the work, the strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· use of language that is poorly understood to the common people;

· appeal to the sublime heroic moral ideals;

· national, civic orientation;

· establishing a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes and tragedies), “middle” (elegy, historical works, friendly letters) and “low” (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of the “three unities”: time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille – tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”;

· J. Racine – tragedies “Phaedra”, “Midridate”;

· Voltaire - tragedies “Brutus”, “Tancred”;

· Moliere - comedies “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”;

· N. Boileau – treatise in verse “ Poetic art»;

· J. Lafontaine - “Fables”.

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - poem “Conversation with Anacreon”, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”;

· G. Derzhavin - ode “Felitsa”;

· A. Sumarokov – tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”;

· Y. Knyazhnin - tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”;

· D. Fonvizin - comedies “The Brigadier”, “The Minor”.

Sentimentalism

Movement in literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant “human nature” was not reason, but feeling, and sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings.

Distinctive features:

· revealing human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed to be the highest value;

· interest in to the common man, to the world of his feelings, to nature, to everyday life;

· idealization of reality, subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (narrator - author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Representatives of sentimentalism

· S. Richardson – novel “Clarissa Garlow”;

· – novel “Julia, or the New Eloise”;

· - novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther.”

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - the story “Poor Liza” - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, “Bornholm Island”;

· I. Bogdanovich - poem “Darling”;

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers classify his work as sentimentalism; it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).

Romanticism

A movement in art and literature of the late 18th – first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist’s desire to contrast reality and dreams.

Distinctive features:

· unusualness, exoticism in the depiction of events, landscapes, people;

· rejection of prosaicness real life; expression of a worldview characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, and the cult of freedom;

· striving for ideal, perfection;

· a strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;

· depiction of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in the mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, “The Corsair”;

· – drama “Egmont”;

· I. Schiller - dramas “Robbers”, “Cunning and Love”;

· E. Hoffmann - fantastic story “The Golden Pot”; fairy tales “Little Tsakhes”, “Lord of the Fleas”;

· P. Merimee - short story “Carmen”;

· V. Hugo - historical novel “Notre Dame Cathedral”;

· V. Scott - historical novel “Ivanhoe”.

Russian literature

(Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)
  1. The central place is given to the symbol*
  2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
  3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
  4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
  5. Sophistication and musicality of verse
The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 gave a lecture “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into older ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub made their debut in the 1890s) and younger ones (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others made their debut in the 1900s)

  • Acmeism

    (From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In the programmatic article of 1913 “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “ worthy father“, but emphasized that the new generation has developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”
    1. Focus on classical poetry of the 19th century
    2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity and visible concreteness
    3. Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
    4. In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
      5. regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to the living colloquial speech

  • Futurism

    Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “ Jack of Diamonds", "Donkey's Tail", "Youth Union". In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.
    1. Rebellion, anarchic worldview
    2. Denial of cultural traditions
    3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
    4. Active word creation

  • Imagism

    From lat. imago - image A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. The main expressive means of imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets
    • 2) Sentimentalism
    Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion of human personality. Sentimentalism arose in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory that was dominant at that time.
    Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of human spiritual qualities, psychological analysis, and sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of ​​​​universal equality of people.
    The main genres of sentimentalism:
    story
    elegy
    novel
    letters
    trips
    memoirs
    England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the surrounding nature, depicting simple and peaceful rural landscapes in their works, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A prominent representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. He put psychological analysis in the first place and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Laurence Stern preached humanism as highest value person.
    In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
    IN German literature– works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
    Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and “ Poor Lisa» N.I. Karamzin.

    3)Romanticism
    Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, promoted deviations from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it - bourgeois laws and ideals.
    Romanticism, like sentimentalism, great attention paid attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
    The Romantics became disillusioned with the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly visible in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must submit to them and not try to change his destiny. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, and the early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called “world evil” and contrasted it with the strength of the human spirit.
    The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to struggle with the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics depicted feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of man, but also in the mysteries of existence, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
    In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the works of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only in the early 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stael, E. P. Senancourt, P. Mérimée, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
    On the development of Russian romanticism big influence had a great French revolution And Patriotic War 1812 Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile) believed in victory spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into an outcast and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
    Main genres of romanticism:
    Elegy
    Idyll
    Ballad
    Novella
    Novel
    Fantastic story
    Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
    The idea of ​​two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of ​​dual worlds has two modifications:
    escape into the world of fantasy;
    travel, road concept.
    Hero concept:
    the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
    the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
    the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone;
    aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
    Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero’s internal state with the surrounding nature.
    Speech style of a romantic work:
    extreme expression;
    the principle of contrast at the composition level;
    abundance of symbols.
    Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
    rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a value system that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict value system (home, comfort, Christian morality);
    cultivating individuality and artistic worldview; reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on creative imagination artist.

    4) Realism
    Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
    While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, a realist writer is interested in how the world influences personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
    The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning to him. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
    Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
    critical (social) realism;
    realism of characters;
    psychological realism;
    grotesque realism.
    Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that influence a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
    Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world and the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.

    In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, and the greater the grotesque, the more strongly the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism was developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N.V. Gogol, the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Bulgakov.

    5) Modernism
    Modernism is a set of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. How new form creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all types of art - painting, architecture, literature.
    The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around us. The author does not seek to depict reality realistically or allegorically, as was the case in realism, or inner world the hero, as was the case in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
    Features of modernism:
    denial of the classical artistic heritage;
    a declared discrepancy with the theory and practice of realism;
    focus on the individual, not the social person;
    increased attention to the spiritual rather than the social sphere of human life;
    focus on form at the expense of content.
    The largest movements of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and art nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture a moment as the author saw or felt it. In this author’s perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined; what is important is the impression that an object or phenomenon has on the author, and not this object itself.
    Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowing familiar images and words with mystical meaning. The Art Nouveau style promoted the rejection of the correct geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially clearly in architecture and applied arts.
    In the 80s 19th century a new trend of modernism - decadence - was born. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, and has lost his taste for life.
    The main features of decadence:
    cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal human values);
    eroticism;
    tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of personality).
    In literature, modernism is represented by the following movements:
    Acmeism;
    symbolism;
    futurism;
    imagism.
    The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are French poets C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.

    6) Naturalism
    Naturalism is the name of a movement in European literature and art that emerged in the 70s. XIX century and especially widely developed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential movement. The theoretical basis for the new trend was given by Emile Zola in his book “The Experimental Novel.”
    End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, to a high level of technology and increased exploitation, and, on the other, to the growth of self-awareness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class, fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of the petty bourgeois writers who adhere to naturalism.
    The main requirements made by naturalists for literature: scientific, objective, apolitical in the name of “universal truth.” Literature should be at the level modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on science that does not deny existing social order. Naturalists make the basis of their theory mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, giving advantages to some over others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
    By objectively and scientifically demonstrating the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby bring about a series of reforms in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
    The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola included G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers in the natural school. Zola considered the French realists: O. Balzac and Stendhal to be the immediate predecessors of naturalism. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theorist understood this direction. Naturalism, as the style of the leading class, was temporarily embraced by writers very heterogeneous both in artistic method and in belonging to various class groupings. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not artistic method, namely the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
    Followers of naturalism are characterized by only partial recognition of the set of demands put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they start from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. Whole line followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, without hesitation discarding even such a typical requirement for naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This is what the German “early naturalists” did (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belsche and others).
    Under the sign of decay and rapprochement with impressionism, naturalism began to develop further. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the decomposition of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of capitalization processes are creating more and more new cadres of the intelligentsia, which do not always find application for themselves. Disillusionment with the power of science is becoming more and more widespread among them. Hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are gradually being crushed.
    German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, represents entirely a transitional stage from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht, in his “History of the German People,” proposed calling this style “physiological impressionism.” This term is subsequently used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German nature writers do not even try to hide their bias. At its center there is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which the facts that illustrate it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann’s “Before Sunrise”, heredity in Ibsen’s “Ghosts”).
    The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Schlyaf. Their basic principles are set out in Goltz’s brochure “Art,” where Goltz states that “art tends to become nature again, and it becomes it in accordance with the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application.” The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is taken by a short story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transmission of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also being replaced by drama and poetry, which French naturalists viewed extremely negatively as a “kind of entertaining art.” Special attention is given to drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Suderman), in which intensively developed action is also denied, only the catastrophe and recording of the experiences of the heroes are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). Subsequently, naturalistic drama is reborn into impressionistic, symbolic drama.
    In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. They were called naturalistic early works F. I. Panferova and M. A. Sholokhova.

    7) Natural school
    By the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that arose in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfdom and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The term “natural school” itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
    The natural school in the expanded use of the term, as it was used in the 40s, does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conditional concept. The natural school included writers as diverse in their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
    Most common features, on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school, were the following: socially significant topics that covered a wider circle than even the circle social observations(often in the “low” strata of society), a critical attitude towards social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric.
    V. G. Belinsky highlighted the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the “truth” and not the “false” of the image. The natural school does not appeal to ideal, fictitious heroes, but to the “crowd,” to the “mass,” to ordinary people and, most often, to people of “low rank.” Common in the 40s. all sorts of “physiological” essays satisfied this need to reflect a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
    N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and main feature of the “literature of the Gogol period” its critical, “negative” attitude to reality - “literature of the Gogol period” is here another name for the same natural school: specifically to N. V. Gogol - auto RU " Dead souls", "The Inspector General", "Overcoat" - as the founder of the natural school, V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics erected it. Indeed, many writers ranked as part of the natural school experienced a powerful influence various sides creativity of N.V. Gogol. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
    One of the movements of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjacent to it, was distinguished by the superficial and cautious nature of its criticism of reality: this was either harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The range of social observations of this group was limited to the manor’s estate. Representatives of this trend of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
    Another current of the natural school relied primarily on the urban philistinism of the 40s, which was disadvantaged, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor People", "The Double" and others).
    The third movement in the natural school, represented by the so-called “raznochintsy”, ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of the natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Confused Case”) should also be included in this group.

    8) Constructivism
    Constructivism is an artistic movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis German architect G. Semper, who argued that aesthetic value Any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
    This thesis, which was subsequently adopted by functionalists and functionalist constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), brings to the fore the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
    In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and post-war period expressed themselves in a variety of directions, more or less “orthodox” interpretation of the main thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in “purism”, in “machine aesthetics”, in “neoplasticism” (iso-art), and in the aestheticizing formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
    In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was initially a narrowly formal movement, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrow aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
    A. N. Chicherin moved away from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized Constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement of the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the “organizational onslaught of the working class,” in the construction of socialist culture. This is where constructivism aims to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
    The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: “Intelligentsia in revolution and construction.” Dwelling with special attention on the image of the intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, “Commander 2”) and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky “Pushtorg”), constructivists first of all put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific weight and significance under construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is contrasted with the mediocre communist Krol, who prevents him from working and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of the work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
    This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article of the main theorist of constructivism Cornelius Zelinsky “Constructivism and Socialism”, where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being experienced. At the same time, Zelinsky again replaces the main social contradictions of this period with the struggle between man and nature, with the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside of social conditions, outside of the class struggle. These erroneous positions of Zelinsky, which caused a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
    The social source feeding constructivism is, undoubtedly, that layer of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the most prominent poet of constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly revealed.
    In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and in its place the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), aiming at the gradual transition of fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning the previous mistakes of constructivism, although preserving its creative method.
    However, the contradictory and zigzag nature of constructivism’s progress towards the working class makes itself felt here too. This is evidenced by Selvinsky’s poem “Declaration of the Rights of the Poet.” This is confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved the tasks set for itself.

    9)Postmodernism
    Postmodernism translated from German language literally means "that which follows modernism". This literary movement appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information saturation of our time.
    Postmodernists were not happy that literature was divided into elite and mass literature. Postmodernism opposed all modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of detective, thriller, and fantasy, behind which serious content was hidden.
    Postmodernists believed that highest art ended. To move forward, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds its source in these genres new mythology. Works become aimed at both the elite reader and the undemanding public.
    Signs of postmodernism:
    using previous texts as potential for own works(a large number of quotes, it is impossible to understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
    rethinking elements of the culture of the past;
    multi-level text organization;
    special organization of text (game element).
    Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodernist works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism of mass culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the boundary between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented and they could only play with words, take ready-made (already once thought up or written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and assemble works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
    Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it refers to the juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
    Associated with postmodernism is the concept of intertextuality. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly appearing text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves in quotes. Modernism is characterized by quotational thinking.
    Intertextuality– the presence of two or more texts in the text.
    Paratext– the relationship of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
    Metatextuality– these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
    Hypertextuality– ridicule or parody of one text by another.
    Archtextuality– genre connection of texts.
    Man in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in in this case destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work; the image of the hero appears in a blurred form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
    avoid excessive heroic pathos;
    to take the hero into the shadow: the hero does not come to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
    Prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barth, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, H. Cortazar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.

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