Metal engravings. History of development and types of metal engraving techniques

UDC 658.7

ON THE QUESTION ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF “TRANSPORT HUB”

Klimenko Vladimir Vitalievich

candidate of historical sciences, associate professor,

Moscow State University

railways, Moscow, Russia

Email:[email protected]

TO THE QUESTION ABOUT THE CONCEPT HUB

Klimenko Vladimir Vitalievich

S.H.S., Associate Professor.

Moscow state University of railway engineering,

Moscow, Russia

The article substantiates the need to expand the concept of a transport hub. A new definition of a transport hub and prospects for its application are proposed.

Keywords:Transport system, transport hub, economic zone

The article substantiates the need of expand the definition of hub. A new definition is proposed transport hub.

Key words:Transport system, hub, economic zone

Transport hubs play a huge role in the transport system and in the economy of any country as a whole. This fact is an axiom in the expert community. At the same time, the very concept of “transport hub,” in our opinion, cannot yet be considered exhaustively disclosed!

IN scientific literature There are many options for defining a “transport hub,” but they can all be combined into two groups.

The first group includes definitions that consider transport hubs. as crossing points of two or more types of mainline transport, solving the problems of transportation and redistribution of goods and passengers.

The second group includes definitions that characterize a transport hub as a complex of corresponding transport devices in an area that ensure the functioning and interaction of several types of mainline transport that serve transit, local and urban transportation of goods and passengers, a set of transport processes, control and management tools.

In general, these definitions correctly reflect the essence of such a phenomenon as a transport hub. In the second case, the definition is somewhat broader than the first, which reflects both the evolution of the transport hubs themselves and their deeper understanding. But in both cases, it prevails technical view on this most important element transport system countries!

Indeed, a transport hub can only arise where several modes of transport intersect and it becomes possible to transfer passengers or transfer goods from one mode of transport to another. Thus, the definition of a transport hub is based on the opportunity it creates for changing modes of transport in order to continue the movement of people or goods. At the same time, it is important to pay attention to the fact that transport hubs play a role here serving role!

However, the modern economy, developing integration processes in it, innovative technologies, and logistics services objectively pose new, much more complex tasks for transport hubs and at the same time increase their capabilities and role in the economy of states and the world as a whole. Because of this, in our opinion, the traditional definition of a transport hub, as a tool for understanding reality, becomes insufficient! This is felt both in research and practical work.

Let us give just a few arguments.

Thus, in scientific and specialized literature for quite a long time, when studying the problems of the country’s transport system, transport hubs and their role in its development, going beyond the traditional (technical) understanding of a transport hub has been indicated. They talk about the largest cities as transport hubs (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, etc.) But these are huge cities and entire territories that consist not only of transport hubs in the technical sense of the concept! And in the government programs for the development and modernization of the Moscow and Murmansk transport hubs, in essence, we are talking about the development of entire territories!

In the works. dedicated to urban planning policy, especially in major cities, the infrastructure of transport hubs is subject to the same requirements as urban architecture. For example, one of the leading trends has been the construction of multifunctional station complexes that combine railway infrastructure, office buildings, retail facilities, and social and cultural premises.

Increasingly, the development of transport hubs in Lately is also associated with solving environmental problems.

The experience of the formation and functioning of large international transport hubs indicates that over time, various types of industrial enterprises are created near or even on the territory of transport hubs (Rotterdam, Shanghai, etc.). They actually become, by their interaction, economically part of transport hubs. In some cases, transport hubs operate as special economic zones of the UAE).

The leading trend in global development is the formation of a new, network economy. Transport and other communications become its framework. And transport nodes in this network economy begin to play some kind of role new role in comparison with the old, traditional one! In particular, integrated communication systems are being formed, including transport routes, information channels, and energy networks. Transport hubs will also be transformed under the influence of these processes.

In the very definitions of transport hubs in modern literature More and more new terms are being used: hub, transport and logistics clusters, transport and industrial clusters, integrated multimodal transport hub, etc. The diversity of these definitions indicates that, firstly, transport hubs evolve under the influence of changing economic reality. Secondly, the largest transport hubs as a phenomenon today already represent a more complex and diverse formation.

Functions and tasks that are solved at transport hubs and with their help are significantly expanded. Accordingly, their role in the national and global economy is increasing. Their structure and management system are becoming more complex. The territory in which they are located and operate is expanding.

All this indicates, in our opinion, that the leading trend in the evolution of transport hubs is their transformation into economic zones that become integral part, an element of a national and global economic system that is increasingly complex and deeply integrated. As a result, the approach to transport hubs, scientific and practical view on them.

In our opinion, taking into account the above, a modern transport hub could be defined as a socio-economic zone formed on the basis of intersecting main transport routes of various types, in which the problems of ensuring the transport process are solved, as well as the use of the transport system to solve problems of economic, spatial and socio-cultural development of regions.

The proposed definition is complex. It reflects the more complex and growing role that transport hubs can and should actually play in society.

It is very important that if traditional definition actually assigns to transport hubs serving role, then the new emphasizes them active role in all spheres of socio-economic life of the country and the world. It expands the potential of transport hubs in terms of its use for economic development and modernization! Transport hubs are becoming an important tool of modern socio-economic policy.

Of course, the proposed definition, firstly, does not cross out or exclude concepts established in science. It proposes to change the perspective of the study and development of transport hubs. Make it primarily economic. Secondly, it is most suitable for introducing integrated logistics into practice. And thirdly, it will make it possible to create a model towards which existing transport hubs will evolve in the process of creating a new economy.

A promising direction for the development of this segment is the expected significant increase in cargo flows in connection with the extension of the transport corridor from Nizhny Novgorod to Yekaterinburg with subsequent access along the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Far Eastern ports. The volume of terminal cargo transportation in this direction in 2000 amounted to 5.1 million tons and is projected for the period until 2005 at the level of 7.6 million tons.
The third segment “South-East” included the territory gravitating towards MTC No. 9-a (Kashirskaya and Ryazan highways) with access to Astrakhan and Novorossiysk. This zone has the largest volume of terminal cargo transportation (packaged and in containers) heading towards Rostov-on-Don and Novorossiysk, as well as to the Caspian Sea (Astrakhan). The volume of cargo transportation was estimated in 2000 at 8.5 million tons and in 2005 (forecast) at 12.6 million tons.
In addition to container transportation on the Novorossiysk - Moscow route, an experimental piggyback transportation took place. The piggyback train included 23 specialized platforms with road trains with imported cargo and one passenger car for drivers. The annual flow of cargo by road in this direction is 37 thousand road trains. For this direction, the Russian Ministry of Railways has established competitive tariff rates for transportation of road trains and semi-trailers by specialized route piggyback trains.
The fourth segment of the ITU “South - South-West” includes a zone of gravity towards the southern and south-western parts of transport corridor No. 9 with a direction to Kyiv and Simferopol. The volume of transportation of terminal cargo passing through this segment amounted to 4.6 million tons in 2000, or 12% of the total volume of transportation of terminal cargo at this hub. In the future on-BALTIKA
Transport corridor No. 9 Helsinki - St. Petersburg - Moscow - Rosgov-nv-Don - * Novorossiysk * Astrakhan
URAL
Legend :
border of the Moscow region
highway
railways
waterways
Gdonshortny corridor I* 2 Berlin - Warsaw -
- shaves - Moscow -
- Nizhny Novgorod gt;
- Ekaterinburg

There is a slight decrease in the share of this segment (up to 11.3%) due to the switching of part of the freight traffic to corridor No. 9-a.
The fifth segment “West” includes the territory gravitating towards the western section of the MTC No. 2 “Berlin - Minsk - Moscow”. In 2002, the volume of terminal cargo transportation in this direction was relatively small and amounted to 3.5 million tons, or 7.6% of the total volume according to MTU. In the future, until 2005, cargo traffic is expected to increase to 5.4 million tons. Big influence The growth of cargo and goods traffic in the Western direction may be influenced by the planned construction in the Minsk direction of a large International Logistics Transport and Distribution Center, which will provide the necessary level of transport and logistics services that meets international standards.

Surely, every person before the important birthday of his friend or loved one I was thinking about a gift. Indeed, it is very difficult to choose a thing that would amaze with its beauty and elegance. It’s too commonplace to purchase personalized mugs or portraits, paintings or unusual things... But there is a way out - metal engraving. Such wonderful gift, made to order, with an image or inscription, can be called a real work of art that will not leave anyone indifferent! The sea will bring such a gift positive emotions and impressions, besides, it will look beautiful in any interior.

A Brief History of Metal Engraving

The distinctive beauty and sophistication of metal engraving was appreciated several thousand years ago. Archaeologists in Eurasia have found many bronze items dating back to the first millennium (jewelry, daggers, dishes and axes), which were decorated by masters with engravings. As a rule, these were skillful ornaments of flora and fauna, mystical creatures and people. Throughout the entire period of the formation of the art of engraving, two artistic directions were born: line and armor carving. The first is produced by the technique of applying cutting in the form of contour lines or strokes on a smooth, even metal surface. The second type is armor engraving - a technique for applying reliefs with an in-depth background or with voluminous, convex processing of the elements that are depicted.

Metal engraving became popular in Europe already in the fifteenth century. Then the craftsmen processed the metal using a cutter and a gravel, which they used to apply drawings to a polished metal board. Through blows and mechanical action, the design, step by step, “transferred” to the material and became a real decoration.

Modern metal engraving

The development of technology allows modern masters carry out beautiful and quick application of the necessary elements on the metal. Metal engraving in the 21st century happens self made, laser and electromechanical. The appearance of the engraving depends on this. Modern technologies allow each stroke to be accurately and subtly applied to the required element and create real works of art, and the masters, passing on ancient secrets to each other, complement the work with the knowledge of their ancestors. Thus, in the end, a metal engraving becomes a real decoration and the best gift!

Advantages of metal engraving as a gift

Nowadays it is becoming popular to give beautiful and sophisticated gifts. Engraving is one of these. The fact is that since ancient times it has served in a wonderful way to make a thing of its kind one of a kind in the world, unique, inimitable. When engraved, an ordinary, faded souvenir becomes bright, unsurpassed, and unique. If you cover the necessary gift precious metal, it will become a real valuable heirloom! Yes, such pleasure is not cheap, but it is really worth it. Even a simple inscription made on metal will speak of excellent taste and the desire to please the hero of the occasion with something special. Such a gift is for all occasions, it will become not just a memory, but will take first place among and will be passed on from generation to generation!

Metal engraving as an art form arose during the Renaissance. A bunch of famous artists worked in the technique of engraving. Works are known not only on plates, but also on daggers, swords, and bracelets. There are many techniques, each with its own aesthetics and language.

Today, metal engraving is experiencing a rebirth. Thanks to the use of new technologies, it is possible to create a unique masterpiece to order.

Metal engraving

History and technology

New genres and trends took root more easily in engraving than in painting, which is why many Renaissance artists willingly turned to this type of art. His works could be replicated in hundreds of copies, they became available to wide sections of the population. In addition, engravings brought in good income.

The first engravings served a purely practical purpose: they were used to print images of saints and playing cards.

The very first to appear was engraving. It required effort on the part of the artist. Using a chisel (cutter), the master created strokes, overcoming the resistance of the metal. It is characterized by mintness and at the same time expressiveness of the figures. Albrecht Durer worked in this technique. His three works “The Knight, Death and the Devil”, “Saint Jerome in the Cell” and “Melancholy” are considered masterpieces of engraving art and still cause controversy among art critics.

Etching

It was invented in the 16th century. This method bears little resemblance to working with a graver. An artist doesn't have to put in so much effort. The etching needle easily scratches the film, which ensures smooth, light lines. An etching is similar to a drawing, while a chisel is more likely associated with a sculptural bas-relief.

Landscapes, portraits, and sketches were made using this technique. Van Dyck worked in the genre of etching - he created portraits of his contemporaries. The works of students of Rubens-Snyders and Jordaens are known. Rembrandt created a number of masterpieces.

Metal engraving in the genre of etching flourished in France in the 18th century. Francois Boucher was not only an artist, but also an outstanding etcher in the Rococo genre. The master's series depicting intimate, street scenes, life of the peoples of the East. He made a number of engravings based on Watteau's drawings. Boucher's works are grace, sophistication and freedom of composition.

In Russia, not many masters worked in the etching genre. The heyday of this genre occurred in the 19th century. Ivan Shishkin, Andrey Somov, Taras Shevchenko worked in this technique.

Sword engraving

Aquatint, a type of etching, allows you to create engravings with a wider range of tones. Francisco Goya did a lot for the development of this genre. He is known as the inventor of a system of techniques in this technique. Aquatint remains one of the most complex techniques and in our time. It requires a workshop and a number of tools.

Other techniques

1. Mezzotint - another type of metal engraving - allows you to obtain a special depth and velvety tones. This technique is also used to produce color printing. The technique was invented in the 17th century. The artists Johann Pichler, John Farber and an outstanding artist of the 20th century worked there. Maurits Cornelius Escher.
2. Drypoint, unlike etching, does not require engraving or etching. Strokes are applied not only with steel, but also with a diamond cutter. The softness and unusualness of the impression is given by the barba - a groove with burrs. Rembrandt and Durer worked in this technique (along with other genres of engraving). Many artists of the 20th century practiced the drypoint technique: Max Beckman, Milton Avery, David Milne, etc.
3. Mederite - metal engraving, which became famous in Belarus XVII-XVIII centuries. The metal was etched with nitric acid. Mederite was used in cartography and book publishing.
4. Several other techniques are known, for example, soft varnish, lavis, reserve. Some artists work in mixed media, which allows you to create your own unique style.

Engraving continues to attract artists in our time. Today, laser and electromechanical engraving are common. There are a number of workshops that specialize in performing work using this technique.

Unlike woodcut printing, in which the “printing” design is raised, the design on a metal board consists of recessed strokes, either cut with a chisel or etched with acids. Therefore, this kind of engraving is called “in-depth”.

There are several types of metal engraving.

1. CARVING ENGRAVING

The earliest type of metal engraving, invented in the mid-15th century, was the so-called chisel engraving. The design in it was scratched or cut out with deep lines on a copper board using special cutters - gravers. Sharp protrusions that formed along the edges of the cut grooves were cleaned off with a smoothing iron. After this, the board was ready for printing. The paint was applied to the entire board in such a way that it would fit tightly into the grooves, into the deep strokes of the design. Then the board was wiped dry, and the paint remained only in its deepest parts. By pressing wet paper under strong pressure against such a board, which absorbed the paint, an impression was made on it.

The absence of fiber, which made it difficult to work on wood engravings, made it possible to do metal engraving strokes in any direction and any thickness. The grid of strokes itself could be as dense as desired. Therefore, despite the labor-intensive nature of this technique, it opened up immeasurably greater possibilities in conveying volumes, light and shade, and perspective compared to wood-edged engraving. And this was one of those conquests that the art the so-called Renaissance.

The greatest master of reproduction engraving on copper was the Italian Marcantonio Raimondi. In his engravings he reproduced paintings of the great Italian artists- Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, as well as other painters.

However, very soon engraving ceased to be just a means of reproducing painting and acquired the character of an independent art form.

The first great artist most Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) devoted his creativity to the art of engraving.

He lived in an era when a widespread movement began in Germany masses, which required art to intervene more actively in public life.

The invention and development of printing contributed to the implementation of this task. Artists now have the opportunity to appeal to wider circles of people.

In his works, Dürer, while preserving traditional religious and allegorical plots, figuratively embodies the phenomena of the reality around him. For example, in the engraving “Rest on the Flight to Egypt,” using the Gospel legend, Dürer depicts a contemporary German village. Maria and Joseph look like simple peasants relaxing among the typical German landscape that is well known to the artist. rural landscape with houses under a high” pointed roof, with a fence made of poles. The whole scene is filled with great lyrical warmth, which is greatly facilitated by the subtle transmission of light, softly enveloping all objects. This engraving is made on wood. But Dürer here significantly enriches the technique of cut engraving. Not limiting himself to contour lines alone, he supplements them here and there with subtle shading, creating the illusion of light and shade. Thanks to this, places left clean are perceived not just as a white sheet surface, but as a transparent and light air environment.

Dürer in his art relies on the unreal properties of nature. He studies anatomy and tries to derive mathematically accurate, perfect proportions of the human body; studies perspective, which helps to depict space and volume with scientific accuracy. Although he was a painter, he worked especially hard as an engraver. He owns the most perfect of woodcut engravings, but his best creations belong to the field of metal engraving. Such are his unrivaled performances of “Saint Jerome” (Appendix 6), “Knight, Death and the Devil” and “Melancholy”.

In the engraving "Saint Jerome" Durer again uses biblical image. But instead of the saint traditionally depicted in the desert, Durer's Hieronymus is a wise and calm old man who sits in a room full of many living details characteristic of a 16th-century German house. However, instead of reading scripture The old man is engaged... in engraving. This work is a wonderful example of the use of all the possibilities of engraving. Here, not only are all objects accurately outlined and executed in volume, but also the warm sunlight (precisely solar!) light flowing through the windows into the room is conveyed with great conviction.

In the engravings “Knight, Death and the Devil” and “Melancholy” the artist speaks a completely different language. During the turbulent period of the beginning of the Reformation, knightly uprisings and the approach Peasant War 1525, Dürer seems to express his thoughts on the fate of Germany in a complex allegorical, sometimes encrypted form.

Chisel engraving is technically very labor-intensive. It requires a lot of work on the board, but it gives especially great accuracy and clarity in conveying the space and volume of objects. Therefore, it is no coincidence that engraving reached its greatest flowering precisely in the Renaissance, when art was faced with the task of understanding and reflecting the real world, when in painting, too, the desire for clear and distinct forms, completeness and definiteness of composition and design prevailed.

Later, starting from XVII century, engraving is increasingly turning into just a means of painting reproduction.

In the 18th century, it was especially successful as an illustration in scientific and art books and albums. In Russia, engraving appeared at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries under Peter I as a technique for creating geographical maps, drawings in scientific books, large sheets with images of battles on land and sea, festivals and portraits. Her recognized masters There were brothers Alexey and Ivan Zubov at that time.

Later, in the 18th century, Russian art nominated remarkable engravers-portraits E. Chemesov and G. Skorodumov. They sought to emphasize the features of a living person, to introduce psychologism, liveliness and simplicity of the image into the portrait. Therefore, their work broke out of the narrow framework of official portraits. This is especially true for the engravings and etchings of E. Chemesov, which are also distinguished by their rare skill and variety of strokes. “Self-Portrait” (Appendix 7) is one of best works Chemesova.