Artistic culture of Rus' 14th - 17th centuries. Topic: Russian culture of the 9th-17th centuries

The war had an extremely Negative influence on inner life states participating in it. The economy was subordinated exclusively to military purposes. For example, 70% of heavy industry and 50% of light industry worked for military needs. At the same time, the war plunged difficult situation and agriculture. Agricultural production fell sharply.

There was a food shortage in almost all countries. As a result, states introduced a rationing regime, i.e., a strictly limited food allowance.
Chauvinism was propagated among the population. The war dealt a powerful blow to parliamentary democracy. Throughout the war, not a single parliament spoke out against the bloody war.

Now states have begun to organize production. State control over banks, the distribution of raw materials and military orders increased.

The population was tired and began to oppose the government, demanding an early end to the war. Thus, the civil unity established in society in the first years of the war was disrupted. On some fronts there was fraternization of soldiers, refusal of enemy sides to shoot at each other because the soldiers were also tired of the war.

Situation in Russia

The war aggravated the economic and political situation in Russia. As a result, a revolution occurred in February 1917. The Emperor of Russia abdicated the throne. Power passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, which created a provisional government.

The Provisional Government decided to continue the war and in the same year even organized an offensive by the Russian army, which ended in failure.

This failure further complicated the already difficult political situation in Russia. As a result, a coup d'état took place on November 7, 1917. The provisional government was overthrown. Power was seized by the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of V.I. Lenin, who created the Soviet government.
On November 8, 1917, the Soviet government adopted the Decree on Peace. The Decree on Peace sharply condemned the war of conquest and declared it greatest crime against humanity.

The Soviet government, under any conditions, tried to conclude a separate peace, because continuing the war when the army had completely lost its morale and the Eastern Front was practically paralyzed was tantamount to disaster.

On December 15, 1917, a peace treaty was signed between Soviet Russia and the Austro-German government. The same agreement was signed with Romania on December 9. Thus, there was no fighting on the Eastern Front.

Situation on other fronts

In April 1917, the armed forces of the Entente Western Front went on the offensive, in which more than 100 divisions took part. However, it was not possible to break through the German defense line. On the contrary, as a result of these hostilities, the Entente troops suffered heavy losses. These actions were called the "Nivelles Massacre" after the Commander-in-Chief of the French Armed Forces, Nivelle.
In 1917 the Italian army failed. Italy was saved only by the fact that England and France urgently sent auxiliary forces to the Italian front. In November 1917, Germany, when repelling the advance of the British army, used another new weapon - a flamethrower.
The actions of the British army intensified on the Mesopotamian and Palestinian fronts. In March 1917, the British occupied Baghdad. By the fall, Türkiye had ceded almost the entire Arabian Peninsula and part of Palestine.

On March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk about peace with the “Alliance of the Four” based on its demands. The terms of the agreement were very difficult for Russia. According to the agreement, Russia had to completely demobilize its army and return its navy to the ports. Russia also abandoned the Baltic states, Poland, Finland and Ukraine. Ukraine and Finland were recognized as independent states. The Caucasian Kars, Ardagan and Batumi were transferred to Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged to pay reparations to Germany in the amount of 6 billion marks.

Woodrow Wilson Peace Program

On January 1918, US President Wilson unveiled the Peace Treaty to be signed after the end of the First World War and a newly drawn up political map of the world from the point of view of the US government. This became known as the Wilson Peace Program.

This program later served as the basis for a peace treaty between the victorious Entente and the losing “Alliance of the Four.”

The last stage of the war

Germany, having concentrated 80 percent of all divisions and 90 percent of artillery on the Western Front, went on the offensive again in March 1918. This was her last attack. However, it did not lead to any significant result. However, both sides lost 300 thousand people. Under these conditions, England and France decided to create a unified command. French General Foch was appointed commander of the combined armed forces. On July 18, French troops launched a counteroffensive. Now it became impossible to stop the Entente.

On September 15, a crushing blow was dealt to Bulgaria. On September 28, Bulgaria suspended hostilities and left the war. On October 29, Austria-Hungary turned to the Entente with a request to sign a peace agreement. On October 30, Türkiye made a similar statement. On November 3, such an agreement was signed.

The war created a revolutionary situation in Germany. On November 9, the German Empire fell. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and fled the country. On November 10, a new government was created headed by the Social Democrat Ebert. On November 11, in the Compeny Forest, in the headquarters of General Foch, an agreement with the Entente on the surrender of Germany was signed. Thus, the first World War ended in complete victory for the Entente.

On June 28, 1919, the Peace Treaty was signed at Versailles. The states of the German bloc were plundered, lost a number of territories, and were obliged to pay 132 billion marks in reparations.

38 countries of the world took part in the First World War. More than 1.5 billion people lived in them. About 74 million people were drafted into the war. In total, 20 million people were killed and 10 million were injured. In addition, many people died from disease and starvation.

The states that were the main participants in the First World War lost a third of their national wealth.

Humanity did not suffer such losses in all the wars that occurred during the 1000 years before the outbreak of the First World War.

From a speech by US President William Wilson in July 1916:

“We can play a big role in the world. Do you take into account the fact that within one or two years we have turned from a debtor state to a creditor state? We have never had such a quantity of surplus world gold in our hands before. From that time on, our business became to lend money, help large international corporations and promote their work. We have to provide the whole world with large funds and manage them according to our skill and desire.”

Decree (lat. decretum) is a resolution of the supreme power on any issue that has the force of law.
Reparation (Latin reparatio - restoration) - in international law - compensation paid by a defeated state to the victorious state for full or partial compensation for losses.
Separatism (lat. seperatus - I will separate) - the desire for separation. Also, in international law, an agreement with the warring party of one of the allied states without the permission of the allies.
Conciliation is an agreement drawn up to end hostilities. Type of international treaties.

The war between two coalitions of powers - the Entente and the countries of the Central Bloc - for the redivision of the world, colonies, spheres of influence and investment of capital.

This is the first military. conflict of the world headquarters, in which 38 of the existing ones at that time were involved 59 non-foreign states (2/3 of the earth's territory).

Cause of war. In the 19th-20th centuries. The USA, Germany and Japan have become ahead in eco-no-mich. development, closeness in the world market of Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and France and pretend to be on their co-lo-nie. The most ag-res-siv-but on the world's arena-you-don't-stu-pa-la Germany. In 1898, she began the construction of a strong Navy in order to strengthen the state dominion of the Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nii on sea. Germany sought to ov-la-de-kol-lo-niya-mi Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, Belgium and the Netherlands, the most more bo-ga-you-mi raw-e-you-mi re-sur-sa-mi, for-to-strengthen-taken-from-France El-zas and Lo-ta -rin-giyu, to trade Poland, Uk-rai-nu and Pri-bal-ti-ku from Russia. empire, under its influence the Ottoman empire and Bulgaria and together with Av-st-ro-Veng- ri-ey establish your control at Bal-ka-nakh.

The slogan "Down with war!" was one of the main slogans under which the overthrow of the monarchy in Russia was carried out. Attempts by the Provisional Government to rouse soldiers to a “revolutionary war”, the goals of which were unclear to them, were unsuccessful. War-exhausted Russia, engulfed in dramatic revolutionary events, could no longer continue to fight. The call of the Bolshevik government, which came to power in October 1917, for a democratic world without annexations and indemnities did not find support among either Russia’s allies or the countries of the German bloc. But at the same time, Russia’s opponents agreed to conclude a truce with it and enter into negotiations, putting forward the most difficult peace conditions. Understanding the impossibility of continuing the war in conditions of complete collapse of the army, in March 1918 the Bolshevik government concluded a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. Anti-war slogans put forward during Russian revolution, found widespread support among the peoples of the warring countries.

US President William Wilson, in turn, put forward a peace plan known as the “14 Points.” The American president was at first a strong opponent of the United States entering the war, but then, in 1917, insisted on his country’s participation in the war on the side of the Entente . He proposed concluding peace on the terms of the withdrawal of troops of the German bloc from all occupied territories. An important point of his proposal was the restoration of the independence of Poland and the granting of autonomy to the peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

The German command, led by generals P. Hindenburg and E. Ludendorff, after the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, freed from the need to fight on two fronts, prepared a new offensive in France in the spring of 1918. Initially, the Germans were successful; in the summer they again found themselves on the Marne, just 70 km from Paris. However, this was their last success. Germany has exhausted its strength. The Entente turned out to be better prepared in military-technical terms, the morale of its armies was higher. Finally, fresh American units arrived on the European front. In July 1918, Entente troops under the command of French General F. Foch launched a counteroffensive. The prospect of transferring hostilities to German territory arose. Hindenburg demanded that Emperor Wilhelm II conclude a truce with the Entente.

The course of the war was influenced by the revolutionary actions of the soldiers. In September 1918, there was an uprising and the Bulgarian army suffered a series of defeats, and Bulgaria left the war. Do it in October Ottoman Empire. National revolutions in Czechoslovakia and Hungary in October 1918 led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and its military collapse. Following its allies, Germany also surrendered. The uprising of military sailors that broke out on November 3 in Kiel, whom the command sent to certain death, became the beginning of the German revolution. The new government, in which the Social Democrats played a key role, agreed to conclude a truce with the Entente. It was signed near Paris, in the Forest of Compiègne, on November 11, 1918. This is how the First World War ended.

The war led to the destruction of industrial production, Agriculture, transport, breaking ties between countries. Mobilization economic resources to meet the needs of the war, it reduced the production of consumer goods and food products. About 75 million people were mobilized in the army. Every day the war claimed thousands of lives, absorbed colossal funds, and created devastation. The situation of the peoples of the warring countries worsened every year of the war. Spontaneous protests began to arise, resulting in “hunger riots” and fraternization of soldiers at the fronts. The strike movement grew, shaking civil peace.

As the war dragged on and unrest among the masses grew, powerful anti-war demonstrations began in the warring countries. On May 1, 1917, anti-war demonstrations took place in major cities Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Anti-war sentiments gripped the armies of both the Entente countries and the German bloc. February Revolution in Russia contributed to the rise of anti-war movements in Western countries. In the spring and summer of 1917, mass anti-war protests swept across Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, and England.

With the outbreak of the war, the United States took a position of neutrality, which gave it the opportunity to enrich itself by selling weapons, goods and food to both blocs of war, and to play the role of an arbiter. They were able to turn European countries in their debtors, concentrated in their hands more than half of the world's gold reserves. The growth of anti-war sentiment and the possible approach of the end of the war aroused fear in the American government that it might be late in redividing the world. Using attacks by German submarines on American merchant ships as a pretext, the United States broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and declared war on it on April 6, 1917. American soldiers were sent to Europe to participate in Allied military operations.

The course of military operations in 1917 The German command in 1917 on the Western Front adhered to defensive tactics. The spring offensive of French troops under the command of General Nivelle in the Arras region ended in their defeat. The offensive of the Russian army in the Lvov direction, launched by the Provisional Government at the request of the Entente in July, ended in failure. The Italian army suffered a crushing defeat in the fall at Caporetto. More than 130 thousand Italian soldiers were killed or wounded, 300 thousand were captured, and the enemy captured many weapons. Military operations in the Balkans developed unsuccessfully for the Entente.

The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia, which had a huge impact on the subsequent development of events, aroused the support of the working people of the West, but at the same time the hatred of its bourgeois circles. Government Soviet Russia called for an end to the war and to make peace without annexations and indemnities. However, the Entente countries refused to negotiate peace and entered into contact with representatives of the overthrown Provisional Government, providing it with support.

In contrast to the Entente, Germany and Austria-Hungary announced their agreement to peace negotiations, which began on December 22 in Brest-Litovsk. Soviet Russia was offered extremely difficult peace conditions, which included the separation of Poland, part of Latvia, Belarus, and all of Lithuania. The Germans, if they were not accepted, began to threaten the outbreak of military action. In February, the German delegation signed a separate peace with the Central Rada of Ukraine. A few days later, the Germans sent their troops into Ukraine and launched an offensive along the entire front. Under these conditions, the Soviet government was forced to sign the predatory Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918, according to which Russia lost about 1 million square meters. km.

Defeat of the German bloc. In March - June 1918, the Germans launched four offensives on the Western Front, seeking to defeat the Anglo-French forces before the arrival of large US forces. Due to heavy losses they reached the river. The Marne was already 70 km from Paris. However, their partial successes could not lead to the achievement of the strategic goal - the defeat of the Entente.

On July 3, 1918, a counteroffensive by French troops began, followed by a general offensive by the combined allied forces, which received fresh reinforcements from the United States. German troops were gradually driven out of French territory. More than 150 thousand German soldiers and officers were captured. In September, Franco-American troops launched a general offensive along the entire front.

Allied victories accelerated the disintegration of the German army and its revolutionization. In September 1918, Germany was formed coalition government Max Badensky, which included both the Social Democrats and the leaders of the center party. It was supposed to save Germany. On October 4, the Badensky government sent a note to American President William Wilson asking for peace. The exchange of notes dragged on for a month, and at this time Germany’s allies were leaving the war one by one.

On September 15, a powerful offensive began on the Balkan front. The Bulgarian army was defeated. On September 29, the Bulgarian government asked for a truce. Bulgaria was dictated by demands to withdraw troops from Serbia, Romania, and Greece. Then it was Turkey's turn. In October, British and French troops defeated the Turkish army in Palestine and Syria. On October 31, Türkiye signed a capitulation in Mudros.

The military collapse of Austria-Hungary coincided with the revolutionary crisis. Powerful protests for national and social liberation swept across the empire. The general political strike in the Czech Republic in October grew into a national liberation revolution. The Czech Republic and Slovakia seceded from Austria-Hungary and proclaimed the creation of an independent Czechoslovak state. Then the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was announced. Northern Bukovina announced its annexation to Ukraine, Galicia - to Poland. On October 31, a democratic revolution began in Austria-Hungary, as a result of which the monarchy was overthrown. On November 3, the Austrian government, on behalf of the no longer existing Austria-Hungary, signed an act of surrender. The Allies blocked the territories of Austria and Hungary, disarmed the army, and half of the military property went to the Entente.

Although the German government expressed a desire to agree to an armistice on the basis of Wilson's 14 Points, announced in January 1918 and representing a skillful counterfeit of Soviet peace terms, it nevertheless undertook a major naval operation, ordering a military squadron based in Kiel harbor go to sea to attack the English fleet. However, the sailors refused to obey the order. On November 3, an uprising broke out in Kiel; the next day it engulfed the entire German fleet. In Kiel, the workers entered the struggle and created the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. On November 9, a revolution began in Germany. Emperor Wilhelm II was forced to leave the country. On November 10, power in the country passed into the hands of the Councils of People's Representatives, led by the right-wing Social Democrat Ebert. Germany was declared a republic and the Hohenzollern monarchy was overthrown.

Under these conditions, the German delegation, which arrived at the headquarters of the commander of the Entente forces, Marshal Foch, signed an armistice agreement on November 11, 1918 in the Compiegne Forest. Germany admitted itself defeated and pledged to withdraw all its troops from the occupied territories and the left bank of the Rhine, withdraw its fleet to the ports of the Allies, and transfer part of the German weapons to the Entente.

First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and described extremely contradictorily in modern history. I specifically quoted Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. On their policies (both foreign and domestic) big influence England provided. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.

The following took part in the war: large countries: Austria-Hungary (27 July 1914 - 3 November 1918), Germany (1 August 1914 - 11 November 1918), Turkey (29 October 1914 - 30 October 1918), Bulgaria (14 October 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

main reason the beginning of the First World War lies in the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see approach. British diplomacy came to the fore. She conveyed her position to Germany through the press and secret diplomacy - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910 a reform ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in heavy weapons. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that decisive role Heavy artillery will play a role in the war.

Weapons and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousands of units).

This table clearly shows the weakness Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

Number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are eloquent. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name German origin- "burg".

Historical reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front in August-September, Russia undertook offensive operation to Galicia, which was occupied by the troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
• No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to terrible mistakes Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany implemented plans in Eastern Europe, and England and France calmly mobilized their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

• The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but they themselves were completely set up.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.

Historical reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies Triple Alliance“Essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
• The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, Entente troops were on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries took part in it, with total number population of more than 1 billion people (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, the participating countries mobilized 74 million people, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war political map Europe has changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918