home-Fashion tips-At what time did the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty take place? Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - conditions, reasons, significance of signing the peace treaty

At what time did the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty take place? Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - conditions, reasons, significance of signing the peace treaty

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is a treaty between Germany and the Soviet government, obliging Russia to withdraw from the First World War. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded on March 3, 1918 and ended after Germany surrendered in the World War.

Before the start of the war, all the countries of Western Europe knew what the position of the Russian Empire was: the country was in a state of economic recovery.

This was evidenced not only by the increase in the standard of living of the population, but also by the rapprochement of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire with the advanced states of that time - Great Britain and France.

Changes in the economy gave impetus to changes in the social sphere, in particular the number of the working class increased, but the majority of the population was still peasants.

It was the country's active foreign policy that led to the final formation of the Entente - an alliance of Russia, France and England. In turn, Germany and Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the main composition of the Triple Alliance, which opposed the Entente. The colonial contradictions of the great powers of that time led to the beginning

For a long time, the Russian Empire was in military decline, which intensified by the beginning of the World War. The reasons for this condition are obvious:

  • untimely completion of the military reform that began after the Russo-Japanese War;
  • slow implementation of the program for the formation of new armed associations;
  • lack of ammunition and provisions;
  • aging military doctrine, including increased numbers of cavalry in Russian forces;
  • lack of automatic weapons and communications equipment to supply the army;
  • insufficient qualifications of the command staff.

These factors contributed to the low combat effectiveness of the Russian army and the increase in the number of deaths during military campaigns. In 1914, the Western and Eastern Fronts were formed - the main battle arenas of the First World War. During 1914-1916, Russia took part in three military campaigns on the Eastern Front.

The first campaign (1914) was marked by the successful Battle of Galicia for the Russian state, during which troops occupied Lviv, the capital of Galicia, as well as the defeat of Turkish troops in the Caucasus.

The second campaign (1915) began with the breakthrough of German troops into the territory of Galicia, during which the Russian Empire suffered significant losses, but at the same time remained capable of providing military support to the territories of the Allies. At the same time, the Quadruple Alliance (a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) was formed in the territories of the Western Front.

During the Third Campaign (1916), Russia manages to improve the military position of France, at which time the United States enters the war against Germany on the Western Front.

In July, the offensive on the territory of Galicia intensified under the command of A.A. Brusilov. The so-called Brusilov breakthrough was able to bring the army of Austria-Hungary to a critical state. Brusilov's troops occupy the territories of Galicia and Bukovina, but due to lack of support from allied countries they are forced to go on the defensive.

During the course of the war, the attitude of soldiers towards military service changes, discipline deteriorates and there is complete demoralization of the Russian army. By the beginning of 1917, when a national crisis overtook Russia, the country’s economy was in significant decline: the value of the ruble was falling, the financial system was being disrupted, due to a lack of fuel energy, the work of about 80 enterprises was stopped, and taxes were increasing.

There is an active increase in high prices and the subsequent collapse of the economy. This was the reason for the introduction of forced grain requisitioning and mass indignation among the civilian population. As economic problems develop, a revolutionary movement is brewing, which brings to power the Bolshevik faction, whose primary task was Russia's exit from the world war.

This is interesting! The main force of the October Revolution was the movement of soldiers, so the Bolsheviks' promise to end hostilities was obvious.

Negotiations between Germany and Russia about the coming peace began back in 1917. They were dealt with by Trotsky, at that time the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs.

At that time there were three main forces in the Bolshevik party:

  • Lenin. He argued that a peace agreement must be signed on any terms.
  • Bukharin. He put forward the idea of ​​war at any cost.
  • Trotsky. It supported uncertainty - an ideal situation for Western European countries.

The idea of ​​signing a peace document was supported most of all by V.I. Lenin. He understood the need to accept Germany’s conditions and demanded that Trotsky sign the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, but the People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs was confident in the further development of the revolution in Germany, as well as in the lack of strength in the Triple Alliance for further offensives.

That is why Trotsky, an ardent left communist, delayed the conclusion of a peace treaty. Contemporaries believe that this behavior of the People's Commissar gave impetus to tightening the terms of the peace document. Germany demanded the separation of the Baltic and Polish territories and some Baltic islands from Russia. It was assumed that the Soviet state would lose up to 160 thousand km2 of territory.

The truce was concluded in December 1917 and was in force until January 1918. In January, both sides were supposed to meet for negotiations, which were eventually canceled by Trotsky. A peace agreement is signed between Germany and Ukraine (thus an attempt was made to pit the UPR government against the Soviet government), and the RSFSR decides to announce its withdrawal from the world war without signing a peace treaty.

Germany begins a large-scale offensive on sections of the Eastern Front, which leads to the threat of the seizure of territories by the Bolshevik power. The result of this tactic was the signing of peace in the city of Brest-Litovsk.

Signing and terms of the agreement

The peace document was signed on March 3, 1918. The terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, as well as the additional agreement concluded in August of the same year, were as follows:

  1. Russia's loss of territory with a total area of ​​about 790 thousand km2.
  2. Withdrawal of troops from the Baltic regions, Finland, Poland, Belarus and Transcaucasia and subsequent abandonment of these territories.
  3. Recognition by the Russian state of the independence of Ukraine, which came under the protectorate of Germany.
  4. Cessions to Turkey of the territories of Eastern Anatolia, Kars and Ardahan.
  5. Germany's indemnity amounted to 6 billion marks (about 3 billion gold rubles).
  6. Entry into force of certain clauses of the 1904 trade agreement.
  7. Cessation of revolutionary propaganda in Austria and Germany.
  8. The Black Sea Fleet came under the command of Austria-Hungary and Germany.

Also in the additional agreement there was a clause that obliged Russia to withdraw Entente troops from its territories and, in the event of the defeat of the Russian army, German-Finnish troops were supposed to eliminate this problem.

Sokolnikov G. Ya., at the head of the delegation and People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G. V. Chicherin, signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty at 17:50 local time, thus trying to correct the mistakes of the one who adhered to the principle of “neither war, nor peace” - L. D. Trotsky.

The Entente states accepted the separate peace with hostility. They openly declared non-recognition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and began landing troops in different parts of Russia. Thus, the imperialist intervention in the Soviet country began.

Note! Despite the conclusion of a peace treaty, the Bolshevik government feared a second offensive by German troops and moved the capital from Petrograd to Moscow.

Already in 1918, Germany was on the verge of collapse, under the influence of which an actively hostile policy towards the RSFSR emerged.

Only the bourgeois-democratic revolution prevented Germany from joining the Entente and organizing the fight against Soviet Russia.

The annulment of the peace treaty gave the Soviet authorities the opportunity not to pay indemnity and to begin the liberation of Russian regions captured by the Germans.

Modern historians argue that the significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. Assessments of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty are diametrically opposed. Many believe that the agreement served as a catalyst for the further development of the Russian state.

According to others, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty pushed the state to the abyss, and the actions of the Bolsheviks should be perceived as a betrayal of the people. The Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty had unfavorable consequences.

The occupation of Ukraine by Germany created a food problem and disrupted ties between the country and regions of grain and raw materials production. Economic devastation worsened, and Russian society split at the political and social level. The results of the split were not long in coming - the civil war began (1917-1922).

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Conclusion

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a forced measure based on the economic and military decline of Russia, as well as the activation of German and Allied troops on the Eastern Front.

The document did not last long - already in November 1918 it was annulled by both sides, but it was it that gave impetus to fundamental changes in the power structures of the RSFSR. Historical assessments of the Brest Peace make it clear: the Russian state lost to the losing side, and this is a unique event in the history of mankind.

Negotiations with Germany on an armistice began in Brest-Litovsk on November 20 (December 3), 1917. On the same day, N.V. Krylenko arrived at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in Mogilev, and assumed the post of Commander-in-Chief. November 21 (December 4), 1917 Soviet The delegation outlined its conditions:

the truce is concluded for 6 months;

military operations are suspended on all fronts;

German troops are withdrawn from Riga and the Moonsund Islands;

any transfer of German troops to the Western Front is prohibited.

As a result of the negotiations, a temporary agreement was reached:

troops remain in their positions;

All troop transfers are stopped, except those that have already begun.

On December 2 (15), 1917, a new stage of negotiations ended with the conclusion of a truce for 28 days, while, in the event of a break, the parties undertook to warn the enemy 7 days in advance; An agreement was also reached that new troop transfers to the Western Front would not be allowed.

First stage

Peace negotiations began on December 9 (22), 1917. The delegations of the states of the Quadruple Alliance were headed by: from Germany - State Secretary of the Foreign Office R. von Kühlmann; from Austria-Hungary - Minister of Foreign Affairs Count O. Chernin; from Bulgaria - Popov; from Turkey - Talaat Bey.

The Soviet delegation proposed to adopt the following program as the basis for negotiations:

1) No forcible annexation of territories captured during the war is allowed; the troops occupying these territories are withdrawn as soon as possible.

2) The full political independence of peoples who were deprived of this independence during the war is restored.

3) National groups that did not have political independence before the war are guaranteed the opportunity to freely decide the issue of belonging to any state or their state independence through a free referendum.

4) Cultural-national and, under certain conditions, administrative autonomy of national minorities is ensured.

5) Refusal of indemnities.

6) Resolving colonial issues based on the above principles.

7) Preventing indirect restrictions on the freedom of weaker nations by stronger nations.

After a three-day discussion by the countries of the German bloc of Soviet proposals, on the evening of December 12 (25), 1917, R. von Kühlmann made a statement that Germany and its allies accepted these proposals. At the same time, a reservation was made that nullified Germany’s consent to peace without annexations and indemnities: “It is necessary, however, to clearly indicate that the proposals of the Russian delegation could be implemented only if all the powers involved in the war , without exception and without reservation, within a certain period of time, pledged to strictly observe the conditions common to all peoples.”

Having noted the adherence of the German bloc to the Soviet peace formula “without annexations and indemnities,” the Soviet delegation proposed declaring a ten-day break, during which they could try to bring the Entente countries to the negotiating table.

During a break in the conference, the NKID again addressed the Entente governments with an invitation to take part in peace negotiations and again received no response.

Second phase

At the second stage of the negotiations, the Soviet side was represented by L. D. Trotsky, A. A. Ioffe, L. M. Karakhan, K. B. Radek, M. N. Pokrovsky, A. A. Bitsenko, V. A. Karelin, E G. Medvedev, V. M. Shakhrai, St. Bobinsky, V. Mitskevich-Kapsukas, V. Terian, V. M. Altfater, A. A. Samoilo, V. V. Lipsky.

Opening the conference, R. von Kühlmann stated that since during the break in the peace negotiations no application had been received from any of the main participants in the war to join them, the delegations of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance were abandoning their previously expressed intention to join the Soviet peace formula “ without annexations and indemnities." Both von Kühlmann and the head of the Austro-Hungarian delegation, Chernin, spoke out against moving the negotiations to Stockholm. In addition, since Russia’s allies did not respond to the offer to take part in the negotiations, the conversation now, in the opinion of the German bloc, will have to be not about universal peace, but about a separate peace between Russia and the powers of the Quadruple Alliance.

On December 28, 1917 (January 10, 1918), von Kühlmann turned to Leon Trotsky, who headed the Soviet delegation at the second stage of negotiations, with the question of whether the Ukrainian delegation should be considered part of the Russian delegation or whether it represented an independent state. Trotsky actually followed the lead of the German bloc, recognizing the Ukrainian delegation as independent, which made it possible for Germany and Austria-Hungary to continue contacts with Ukraine, while negotiations with Russia were marking time.

On January 30, 1918, negotiations in Brest resumed. When the head of Trotsky’s delegation left for Brest, there was a personal agreement between him and Lenin: to delay negotiations until Germany presented an ultimatum, and then immediately sign peace. The situation at the negotiations was very difficult. On February 9-10, the German side negotiated in an ultimatum tone. However, no official ultimatum was presented. On the evening of February 10, Trotsky, on behalf of the Soviet delegation, announced a declaration of withdrawal from the war and refusal to sign the annexation treaty. The calm at the front was short-lived. On February 16, Germany announced the start of hostilities. On February 19, the Germans occupied Dvinsk and Polotsk and moved towards Petrograd. The few detachments of the young Red Army fought heroically, but retreated under the onslaught of the 500,000-strong German army. Pskov and Narva were abandoned. The enemy came close to Petrograd, advancing on Minsk and Kyiv. On February 23, a new German ultimatum was delivered to Petrograd, containing even stricter territorial, economic and military-political conditions under which the Germans agreed to sign a peace treaty. Not only Poland, Lithuania, Courland and part of Belarus were torn away from Russia, but also Estland and Livonia. Russia had to immediately withdraw its troops from the territory of Ukraine and Finland. In total, the country of the Soviets lost about 1 million square meters. km (including Ukraine). 48 hours were given to accept the ultimatum.

On February 3, a meeting of the Central Committee of the RSDLP(b) was held. Lenin demanded the immediate signing of the German peace terms, saying that otherwise he would resign. As a result, Lenin's proposal was accepted (7 for, 4 against, 4 abstained). On February 24, the German peace terms were accepted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars. On March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was signed.

Terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Consisted of 14 articles, various annexes, 2 final protocols and 4 According to the terms of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty:

The Vistula provinces, Ukraine, provinces with a predominant Belarusian population, the Estland, Courland and Livonia provinces, and the Grand Duchy of Finland were torn away from Russia. In the Caucasus: Kars region and Batumi region

The Soviet government stopped the war with the Ukrainian Central Council (Rada) of the Ukrainian People's Republic and made peace with it.

The army and navy were demobilized.

The Baltic Fleet was withdrawn from its bases in Finland and the Baltic states.

The Black Sea Fleet with its entire infrastructure was transferred to the Central Powers. Additional agreements (between Russia and each of the states of the Quadruple Alliance).

Russia paid 6 billion marks of reparations plus payment of losses incurred by Germany during the Russian revolution - 500 million gold rubles.

The Soviet government pledged to stop revolutionary propaganda in the Central Powers and their allied states formed on the territory of the Russian Empire.

The victory of the Entente in World War I and the signing of the Compiegne Armistice on November 11, 1918, according to which all treaties previously concluded with Germany were declared invalid, allowed Soviet Russia to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on November 13, 1918 and return most of the territories. German troops left the territory of Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Belarus.

Consequences

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, as a result of which vast territories were torn away from Russia, cementing the loss of a significant part of the country's agricultural and industrial base, aroused opposition to the Bolsheviks from almost all political forces, both on the right and on the left. The treaty for the betrayal of Russia’s national interests almost immediately received the name “obscene peace.” The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were allied with the Bolsheviks and were part of the “Red” government, as well as the formed faction of “Left Communists” within the RCP (b), spoke of “betrayal of the world revolution,” since the conclusion of peace on the Eastern Front objectively strengthened the conservative Kaiser’s regime in Germany .

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk not only allowed the Central Powers, who were on the verge of defeat in 1917, to continue the war, but also gave them a chance to win, allowing them to concentrate all their forces against the Entente troops in France and Italy, and the liquidation of the Caucasian Front freed Turkey’s hands to act against the British in Middle East and Mesopotamia.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk served as a catalyst for the formation of the “democratic counter-revolution,” which was expressed in the proclamation of the Socialist Revolutionary and Menshevik governments in Siberia and the Volga region, and the uprising of the left Socialist Revolutionaries in July 1918 in Moscow. The suppression of these protests, in turn, led to the formation of a one-party Bolshevik dictatorship and a full-scale civil war.

On July 28, 1914, the First World War began. On the one hand, the states that were part of the Entente participated in it; on the other hand, they were opposed by the Quadruple Alliance led by Germany. The fighting, accompanied by significant destruction, led to the impoverishment of the masses. In many warring countries, a crisis of the political system was brewing. In Russia, this resulted in the October Revolution, which occurred on October 25, 1917 (old style). The Soviet Republic emerged from the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey.

Peace Decree

The war was the reason that the Russian economy was in a deplorable state. The army, exhausted by trench warfare, gradually degenerated . Thousands of losses did not lift the spirits of the Russian people. Tired of trench life, the soldiers of the Russian army threatened to go to the rear and use their own methods to end the war. Russia needed peace.

The Entente countries, on whose side Russia fought, expressed strong protest against the actions of the Bolsheviks. Vice versa , countries of the Quadruple Alliance, interested in the liquidation of the Eastern Front, quickly responded to the proposal of the Council of People's Commissars. On November 21, 1917, armistice negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk. In accordance with the agreements reached, the parties obliged:

  • not to conduct hostilities against each other for 28 days;
  • leave military formations in their positions;
  • do not transfer troops to other sectors of the front.

Peace negotiations

First stage

On December 22, 1917, delegations from Russia and the countries of the Quadruple Alliance began work on developing the provisions of the future peace treaty. The Russian side was led by A.A., a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Joffe, who immediately proposed a rough plan for the document, based on the provisions of the Decree on Peace. The main points were as follows:

For three days the German side considered the Russian proposals. After this, the head of the German delegation, R. von Kühlmann stated that this plan would be accepted subject to the renunciation of indemnities and annexations by all warring parties. Russian representatives proposed taking a break from work so that countries that had not yet joined the negotiations could familiarize themselves with this project.

Second phase

Negotiations resumed only on January 9, 1918. Now the Bolshevik delegation was headed by L.D. Trotsky, whose main goal was to delay negotiations in every possible way. In his opinion, in the near future Central Europe there must be a revolution that will change the balance of political forces, so the war should be stopped without signing peace. Arriving in Brest-Litovsk, he organizes propaganda activities among the military personnel of the German garrison. Here he is actively helped by K.B. Radek, who organized the publication of the newspaper “Fakel” in German.

When the negotiators met, von Kühlmann announced that Germany did not accept the Russian version of the treaty, since none of the participants in the war expressed a desire to join the negotiations. Having rejected Russian initiatives, the German delegation puts forward its own conditions. Refusing to free the lands, occupied by the armies of the Quadruple Alliance, Germany demanded large territorial concessions from Russia. General Hoffman presented a map with new state borders. According to this map, more than 150 thousand square kilometers were torn away from the territory of the former Russian Empire. Soviet representatives demanded a break to analyze the current situation and consult with the government.

A division is taking place in the ranks of the Bolshevik leadership. A group of “left communists” proposed to wage the war to a victorious end, rejecting German proposals. The “revolutionary war,” as Bukharin believed, should provoke a world revolution, without which Soviet power has no chance of surviving for long. Few people believed that Lenin was right, who considered the treaty a peaceful respite and proposed agreeing to German conditions.

While the issue of signing a peace treaty was being discussed in Moscow, Germany and Austria-Hungary were concluding a separate treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic. The central states recognized Ukraine as a sovereign state, and she, in turn, pledged to supply food and raw materials so necessary to the countries of the military bloc.

Growing discontent of the masses , famine in the country, strikes at enterprises force Kaiser Wilhelm to demand that the generals begin military action. On February 9, Russia is presented with an ultimatum. The next day, Trotsky makes a statement in which he announces that the Soviet Republic is withdrawing from the war, disbanding the army, and will not sign the treaty. The Bolsheviks demonstratively left the meeting.

Having announced their withdrawal from the truce, German troops began an offensive along the entire eastern front on February 18. Without encountering any resistance, Wehrmacht units quickly advance into the interior of the country. On February 23, when a real threat of capture loomed over Petrograd, Germany presented an even tougher ultimatum, which was given two days to accept. The city constantly hosts meetings of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party, whose members cannot come to a consensus. Only Lenin's threat to resign, which could lead to the collapse of the party, forces a decision in favor of signing a peace treaty.

Third stage

On March 1, the work of the negotiating group resumed. The Soviet delegation was led by G. Ya. Sokolnikov, who replaced Trotsky in this position. In fact, no negotiations were held anymore. On March 3, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded without any reservations. On behalf of the Soviet Republic, the document was signed by Sokolnikov . On behalf of Germany signed by Richard von Kühlmann. Foreign Minister Hudenitz signed for Austria-Hungary. The agreement also bears the signatures of the Bulgarian Envoy Extraordinary A. Toshev and the Turkish Ambassador Ibrahim Hakki.

Terms of the peace treaty

14 articles defined the specific terms of the peace treaty.

According to a secret agreement, Russia had to pay 6 billion marks in indemnity and 500 million rubles in gold for damage caused to Germany as a result of the October Revolution . Extremely unfavorable customs tariffs were also restored 1904. Russia lost a territory of 780 thousand square meters. km. The country's population decreased by a third. Under the terms of the Brest Peace Treaty, 27% of cultivated land, almost all coal and steel production, and numerous industrial enterprises were lost. The number of workers decreased by 40%.

Consequences of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

After signing peace with Russia, the German army continued to advance east, leaving behind the demarcation line determined by the treaty. Odessa, Nikolaev, Kherson, Rostov-on-Don were occupied, which contributed to the formation of puppet regimes in Crimea and southern Russia . Germany's actions provoked the formation of Socialist Revolutionary and Menshevik governments in the Volga region and the Urals. In response to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the Entente states landed troops in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok.

There was no one to resist foreign intervention. In the fall of 1917, even before negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree on the gradual reduction of the army. After the promulgation of the “Decree on Land,” the soldiers, the backbone of the army being peasants, began to leave their units without permission. The widespread desertion and removal of officers from command and control leads to complete demoralization of the Russian army. In March 1918, by resolutions of the Soviet government, the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command and the position of Supreme Commander-in-Chief were abolished, headquarters at all levels and all military departments were disbanded. The Russian army ceased to exist.

The peace treaty with Germany caused a violent reaction from all political forces in Russia itself. In the Bolshevik camp there is a division into separate groups. “Left communists” consider the agreement a betrayal of the ideas of the international revolutionary movement. leave the Council of People's Commissars. N.V. Krylenko, N.I. Podvoisky and K.I. Shutko, who considered the treaty illegal, left their military posts. Bourgeois experts in the field of international law assessed the work of Bolshevik diplomats as mediocre and barbaric. Patriarch Tikhon sharply condemned the agreement, which placed millions of Orthodox Christians under the yoke of infidels. Consequences of the Brest-Litovsk Peace affected all spheres of life of Russian society.

Significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

It is difficult to overestimate the significance of the Brest Peace. Having carried out the October coup, the Bolsheviks found chaos in the ruins of the Russian Empire. To overcome the crisis and stay in power, they needed the support of the population, which could only be secured by ending the war. By signing the treaty, Russia was leaving the war. In fact, it was capitulation. According to the terms of the agreement the country suffered colossal territorial and economic losses.

The Bolsheviks sought the defeat of Russia in the imperialist war, and they achieved it. They also achieved a Civil War, which was the result of a split in society into two hostile camps. According to modern historians, Lenin showed foresight, considering this agreement short-lived. The Entente countries have defeated the Quadruple Alliance, and now Germany must sign capitulation. On November 13, 1918, the resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee annuls the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant the defeat and withdrawal of Russia from the First World War.

A separate international peace treaty was signed on March 3, 1918 in Brest-Litovsk by representatives of Soviet Russia (on the one hand) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) on the other. Separate peace- a peace treaty concluded by one of the participants in the warring coalition without the knowledge and consent of the allies. Such peace is usually concluded before the general cessation of war.

The signing of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was prepared in 3 stages.

History of the signing of the Brest Peace Treaty

First stage

The Soviet delegation in Brest-Litovsk is met by German officers

The Soviet delegation at the first stage included 5 authorized members of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee: A. A. Ioffe - chairman of the delegation, L. B. Kamenev (Rozenfeld) and G. Ya. Sokolnikov (Brilliant), Socialist Revolutionaries A. A. Bitsenko and S. D. Maslovsky-Mstislavsky, 8 members of the military delegation, 3 translators, 6 technical employees and 5 ordinary members of the delegation (sailor, soldier, Kaluga peasant, worker, naval ensign).

The armistice negotiations were overshadowed by a tragedy in the Russian delegation: during a private meeting of the Soviet delegation, a representative of the Headquarters in the group of military consultants, Major General V. E. Skalon, shot himself. Many Russian officers believed that he was depressed due to the humiliating defeat, the collapse of the army and the fall of the country.

Based on the general principles of the Peace Decree, the Soviet delegation immediately proposed adopting the following program as the basis for negotiations:

  1. No forcible annexation of territories captured during the war is allowed; the troops occupying these territories are withdrawn as soon as possible.
  2. The full political independence of peoples who were deprived of this independence during the war is being restored.
  3. National groups that did not have political independence before the war are guaranteed the opportunity to freely resolve the issue of belonging to any state or their state independence through a free referendum.
  4. Cultural-national and, under certain conditions, administrative autonomy of national minorities is ensured.
  5. Waiver of indemnities.
  6. Solving colonial issues based on the above principles.
  7. Preventing indirect restrictions on the freedom of weaker nations by stronger nations.

On December 28, the Soviet delegation left for Petrograd. The current state of affairs was discussed at a meeting of the Central Committee of the RSDLP(b). By majority vote, it was decided to delay peace negotiations as long as possible, in the hope of an early revolution in Germany itself.

The Entente governments did not respond to the invitation to take part in peace negotiations.

Second phase

At the second stage of negotiations, the Soviet Delegation was headed by L.D. Trotsky. The German high command expressed extreme dissatisfaction with the delay in peace negotiations, fearing the disintegration of the army. The Soviet delegation demanded that the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary confirm their lack of intentions to annex any territories of the former Russian Empire - in the opinion of the Soviet delegation, the decision on the future fate of self-determining territories should be carried out through a popular referendum, after the withdrawal of foreign troops and return refugees and displaced persons. General Hoffmann, in a response speech, stated that the German government refuses to clear the occupied territories of Courland, Lithuania, Riga and the islands of the Gulf of Riga.

On January 18, 1918, General Hoffmann, at a meeting of the political commission, presented the conditions of the Central Powers: Poland, Lithuania, part of Belarus and Ukraine, Estonia and Latvia, the Moonsund Islands and the Gulf of Riga went in favor of Germany and Austria-Hungary. This allowed Germany to control the sea routes to the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, as well as develop an offensive against Petrograd. Russian Baltic ports passed into German hands. The proposed border was extremely unfavorable for Russia: the absence of natural boundaries and the preservation of a bridgehead for Germany on the banks of the Western Dvina near Riga in the event of war threatened the occupation of all of Latvia and Estonia, and threatened Petrograd. The Soviet delegation demanded a new break in the peace conference for another ten days to familiarize its government with German demands. The German delegation's self-confidence increased after the Bolsheviks dispersed the Constituent Assembly on January 19, 1918.

By mid-January 1918, a split was forming in the RSDLP (b): a group of “left communists” led by N.I. Bukharin insists on rejecting German demands, and Lenin insists on their acceptance, publishing “Theses on Peace” on January 20. The main argument of the “left communists”: without an immediate revolution in Western European countries, the socialist revolution in Russia will die. They did not allow any agreements with the imperialist states and demanded that a “revolutionary war” be declared against international imperialism. They declared their readiness to “accept the possibility of losing Soviet power” in the name of “the interests of the international revolution.” The conditions proposed by the Germans, shameful for Russia, were opposed by: N. I. Bukharin, F. E. Dzerzhinsky, M. S. Uritsky, A. S. Bubnov, K. B. Radek, A. A. Ioffe, N. N. Krestinsky , N.V. Krylenko, N.I. Podvoisky and others. The views of the “left communists” were supported by a number of party organizations in Moscow, Petrograd, the Urals, etc. Trotsky preferred to maneuver between the two factions, putting forward an “intermediate” platform of “neither peace nor war - “We are stopping the war, we are not making peace, we are demobilizing the army.”

On January 21, Lenin provided a detailed justification for the need to sign peace, announcing his “Theses on the issue of the immediate conclusion of a separate and annexationist peace” (they were published only on February 24). 15 meeting participants voted for Lenin’s theses, 32 people supported the position of the “left communists” and 16 supported the position of Trotsky.

Before the departure of the Soviet delegation to Brest-Litovsk to continue negotiations, Lenin instructed Trotsky to delay the negotiations in every possible way, but if the Germans presented an ultimatum, to sign peace.

IN AND. Lenin

On March 6-8, 1918, at the VII emergency congress of the RSDLP(b), Lenin managed to persuade everyone to ratify the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. Voting: 30 for ratification, 12 against, 4 abstained. Following the results of the congress, the party was, at Lenin’s suggestion, renamed the RCP(b). The congress delegates were not familiar with the text of the treaty. However, on March 14-16, 1918, the IV Extraordinary All-Russian Congress of Soviets finally ratified the peace treaty, which was adopted by a majority of 784 votes against 261 with 115 abstentions and decided to move the capital from Petrograd to Moscow due to the danger of a German offensive. As a result, representatives of the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party left the Council of People's Commissars. Trotsky resigned.

L.D. Trotsky

Third stage

None of the Bolshevik leaders wanted to put their signature on the treaty, shameful for Russia: Trotsky had resigned by the time of signing, Joffe refused to go as part of the delegation to Brest-Litovsk. Sokolnikov and Zinoviev nominated each other; Sokolnikov also refused the appointment, threatening to resign. But after long negotiations, Sokolnikov still agreed to lead the Soviet delegation. The new composition of the delegation: Sokolnikov G. Ya., Petrovsky L. M., Chicherin G. V., Karakhan G. I. and a group of 8 consultants (among them the former chairman of the delegation Ioffe A. A.). The delegation arrived in Brest-Litovsk on March 1 and two days later signed an agreement without any discussion. The official signing ceremony of the agreement took place in the White Palace (the Nemtsevichs’ house in the village of Skoki, Brest region) and ended at 5 o’clock in the afternoon on March 3, 1918. And the German-Austrian offensive, which began in February 1918, continued until March 4, 1918.

The signing of the Brest Peace Treaty took place in this palace.

Terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Richard Pipes, An American scientist, Doctor of Historical Sciences, professor of Russian history at Harvard University described the terms of this agreement as follows: “The terms of the agreement were extremely onerous. They made it possible to imagine what kind of peace the countries of the Quadruple Entente would have to sign if they had lost the war … " According to this treaty, Russia pledged to make many territorial concessions by demobilizing its army and navy.

  • The Vistula provinces, Ukraine, provinces with a predominant Belarusian population, the Estland, Courland and Livonia provinces, and the Grand Duchy of Finland were torn away from Russia. Most of these territories were to become German protectorates or become part of Germany. Russia pledged to recognize the independence of Ukraine represented by the UPR government.
  • In the Caucasus, Russia ceded the Kars region and the Batumi region.
  • The Soviet government stopped the war with the Ukrainian Central Council (Rada) of the Ukrainian People's Republic and made peace with it.
  • The army and navy were demobilized.
  • The Baltic Fleet was withdrawn from its bases in Finland and the Baltic states.
  • The Black Sea Fleet with its entire infrastructure was transferred to the Central Powers.
  • Russia paid 6 billion marks of reparations plus payment of losses incurred by Germany during the Russian revolution - 500 million gold rubles.
  • The Soviet government pledged to stop revolutionary propaganda in the Central Powers and their allied states formed on the territory of the Russian Empire.

If the results of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty are translated into numbers, it will look like this: a territory with an area of ​​780 thousand square meters was torn away from Russia. km with a population of 56 million people (a third of the population of the Russian Empire), on which, before the revolution, 27% of cultivated agricultural land, 26% of the entire railway network, 33% of the textile industry were located, 73% of iron and steel were smelted, 89% of coal was mined and manufactured 90% sugar; There were 918 textile factories, 574 breweries, 133 tobacco factories, 1,685 distilleries, 244 chemical plants, 615 pulp mills, 1,073 engineering factories and home to 40% of the industrial workers.

Russia withdrew all its troops from these territories, and Germany, on the contrary, sent them there.

Consequences of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty

German troops occupied Kyiv

The advance of the German army was not limited to the occupation zone defined by the peace treaty. Under the pretext of ensuring the power of the “legitimate government” of Ukraine, the Germans continued their offensive. On March 12, the Austrians occupied Odessa, on March 17 - Nikolaev, on March 20 - Kherson, then Kharkov, Crimea and the southern part of the Don region, Taganrog, Rostov-on-Don. The movement of the “democratic counter-revolution” began, which proclaimed Socialist Revolutionary and Menshevik governments in Siberia and the Volga region, the uprising of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries in July 1918 in Moscow and the transition of the civil war to large-scale battles.

The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, as well as the resulting faction of “left communists” within the RCP (b), spoke of “betrayal of the world revolution,” since the conclusion of peace on the Eastern Front objectively strengthened the conservative Kaiser’s regime in Germany. The Left Socialist-Revolutionaries resigned from the Council of People's Commissars in protest. The opposition rejected Lenin's arguments that Russia could not refuse to accept German conditions in connection with the collapse of its army, putting forward a plan to transition to a mass popular uprising against the German-Austrian occupiers.

Patriarch Tikhon

The Entente powers perceived the concluded separate peace with hostility. On March 6, British troops landed in Murmansk. On March 15, the Entente declared non-recognition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, on April 5, Japanese troops landed in Vladivostok, and on August 2, British troops landed in Arkhangelsk.

But on August 27, 1918, in Berlin, in the strictest secrecy, the Russian-German additional treaty to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the Russian-German financial agreement were concluded, which were signed by plenipotentiary A. A. Ioffe on behalf of the government of the RSFSR, and by von P. on behalf of Germany. Ginze and I. Kriege.

Soviet Russia undertook to pay Germany, as compensation for damage and expenses for maintaining Russian prisoners of war, a huge indemnity of 6 billion marks (2.75 billion rubles), including 1.5 billion in gold (245.5 tons of pure gold) and credit obligations, 1 billion in supplies of goods. In September 1918, two “gold trains” (93.5 tons of “pure gold” worth over 120 million gold rubles) were sent to Germany. Almost all of the Russian gold that arrived in Germany was subsequently transferred to France as indemnity under the Treaty of Versailles.

According to the additional agreement concluded, Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine and Georgia, renounced Estonia and Livonia, which, according to the original agreement, were formally recognized as part of the Russian state, having negotiated for itself the right of access to the Baltic ports (Revel, Riga and Windau) and retaining Crimea and control over Baku , losing to Germany a quarter of the products produced there. Germany agreed to withdraw its troops from Belarus, from the Black Sea coast, from Rostov and part of the Don Basin, and also not to occupy any more Russian territory and not to support separatist movements on Russian soil.

On November 13, after the Allied victory in the war, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was annulled by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. But Russia could no longer take advantage of the fruits of the common victory and take a place among the winners.

Soon the withdrawal of German troops from the occupied territories of the former Russian Empire began. After the annulment of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, Lenin’s authority became unquestioned among the Bolshevik leaders: “By shrewdly agreeing to a humiliating peace, which allowed him to gain the necessary time, and then collapsed under the influence of its own gravity, Lenin earned the widespread trust of the Bolsheviks. When they tore up the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on November 13, 1918, following which Germany capitulated to the Western allies, Lenin's authority was elevated to unprecedented heights in the Bolshevik movement. Nothing better served his reputation as a man who made no political mistakes; never again did he have to threaten to resign in order to insist on his own,” wrote R. Pipes in his work “Bolsheviks in the Struggle for Power.”

The civil war in Russia lasted until 1922 and ended with the establishment of Soviet power in most of the territory of the former Russia, with the exception of Finland, Bessarabia, the Baltic states, and Poland (including the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus that were part of it).

(Dates, except where otherwise specified, are given before February 1, 1918 according to the old style, and after this date according to the new style.) See also the article Peace of Brest-Litovsk.

1917

Night of November 8, 1917 – Council of People's Commissars sends to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army Dukhonin order: immediately contact the commanders of the enemy armies with a proposal to immediately suspend hostilities and open peace negotiations.

November 8 - in response to Dukhonin’s statement that it is not the Commander-in-Chief, but the government, who is authorized to begin peace negotiations, Lenin removes him from his post, replacing him with an ensign Krylenko. Note from the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs to all ambassadors of the Allied powers with a proposal to declare a truce and begin peace negotiations. Lenin's radiogram: “To all soldiers and sailors. Elect representatives and enter into negotiations on a truce with the enemy yourself.”

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

November 10 - the heads of the military missions of the allied countries at the headquarters of the Russian Supreme Commander-in-Chief present General Dukhonin with a collective note protesting against the violation of the treaty of September 5, 1914, which prohibited allies conclusion of a separate peace or truce.

November 14 - Germany announces its agreement to begin peace negotiations with the Soviet government. On the same day, Lenin sent a note to the allies: “On December 1, we will begin peace negotiations. If the allied peoples do not send their representatives, we will negotiate with the Germans alone.”

November 20 – start of negotiations on truce in Brest. Arrival of Krylenka at Mogilev Headquarters. The murder of Dukhonin by militants from his detachment.

November 21 - The Soviet delegation in Brest sets out its conditions: a truce is concluded on all fronts for 6 months; the Germans are withdrawing troops from Riga and Moonzunda; the transfer of German troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front is prohibited. The Germans reject these proposals and force the Bolsheviks to another agreement: an armistice for 10 days(from 24.11 to 4.12) and only on the Eastern Front; troops remain in their positions; all troop transfers are stopped, except those that have already begun ( and you can’t check what started).

December 2 – conclusion of a truce agreement in Brest for 28 days from December 4, with the possibility of further extension (in case of a break, warn the enemy 7 days in advance).

December 5 – Trotsky’s appeal “To the oppressed and bloodless peoples of Europe”: he tries to convince them that “the truce in Brest-Litovsk is a huge conquest for humanity”; “the reactionary governments of the Central Powers are forced to negotiate with Soviet power,” but complete peace will only be ensured by the proletarian revolution in all countries.

December 9 – the beginning of the 1st stage of negotiations on world. The delegations of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance are headed by: from Germany - State Secretary of the Foreign Office R. von Kühlmann; from Austria-Hungary - Minister of Foreign Affairs Count O. Chernin; from Bulgaria – Minister of Justice Popov; from Turkey - Grand Vizier Talaat Bey. Soviet delegation: Ioffe, Kamenev(Rosenfeld), Sokolnikov(Girsh Brilliant), Socialist-Revolutionary terrorist Bitsenko (Kamoristaya) and writer-librarian Maslovsky-Mstislavsky + 8 military consultants + 5 delegates “from the people” - sailor Olich, soldier Belyakov, Kaluga peasant Stashkov (at diplomatic dinners he constantly gets completely drunk), worker Obukhov , Ensign of the Navy Zedin. The Soviet delegation puts forward “principles Peace Decree"(peace without annexations and indemnities + self-determination of peoples).

December 11 – Lithuanian Tariba announces the restoration of Lithuania’s independence in an “eternal union” with Germany.

December 12 - Kühlmann’s statement that Germany agrees to accept the principles put forward by the Soviets, but only if the Entente countries also accept them. The Soviet delegation proposes a 10-day break in order to again try to attract the Entente to negotiations. It soon becomes clear: the Germans believe that Poland, Lithuania and Courland have already spoken in the order of “self-determination” for secession from Russia and can, without violating the principle of “non-annexation,” voluntarily enter into negotiations on joining Germany.

December 14 - proposal of the Soviet delegation: Russia will withdraw its troops from the parts of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Persia it occupies, and let the powers of the Quadruple Alliance withdraw from Poland, Lithuania, Courland and other regions that belonged to Russia. The Germans reject: Poland and Lithuania have “already expressed their popular will,” and now the Soviet government must withdraw Russian troops from Livonia and Courland to give the population the opportunity to express themselves freely there too. This ends the first stage of negotiations.

December 15 - The Soviet delegation leaves for Petrograd. The Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) decides to delay peace negotiations as long as possible, in the hope of a revolution in Germany - and adopts the formula: “We hold on until the German ultimatum, then we surrender.” The People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs again invites the Entente to join the negotiations, but again receives no response.

December 20 - The Soviet government invites the countries of the Quadruple Alliance to move negotiations to Stockholm (in the hope of attracting European socialists there - Zimmerwaldists). It is rejected.

December 22 – arrival in Brest of the Ukrainian delegation Central Rada. She intends to negotiate separately from Russia and demands that the Kholm region, Bukovina and Eastern Galicia be transferred to Ukraine (later limited to the Kholm region).

December 25 – arrival of the Soviet delegation of Trotsky - Joffe in Brest. Trotsky’s main goal is to drag out negotiations as long as possible.

December 27 – the beginning of the 2nd stage of peace negotiations. Kühlmann's statement: since the Entente did not accept the formula “without annexations and indemnities,” Germany will not accept it either.

December 28 – joint meeting with the participation of the Central Rada delegation. Its head, V. Golubovich, announces a declaration that the power of Soviet Russia does not extend to Ukraine, and the Rada will negotiate independently. The Moscow regional bureau of the RSDLP(b), in contrast to the position of the Central Committee, demands a break in negotiations with Germany.

December 30 - Soviet statement that expression of will on self-determination of national territories is possible only after the withdrawal of foreign troops from them. Rejected by Germany.

1918

January 5 - General Hoffmann presents the conditions of the Central Powers: Poland, Lithuania, part of Belarus and Ukraine, Estonia and Latvia, the Moonsund Islands and the Gulf of Riga must go to Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Soviet delegation requests a break of ten days to consider these conditions.

January 6 – Bolsheviks disperse the Constituent Assembly, which could reject peace with Germany.

January 8 – discussion of Lenin’s “Theses” at a meeting of Central Committee members with party workers. Result: 15 votes for them, for “ left communists“(to continue the war, but not for the sake of protecting Russia, but so as not to disappoint the international proletariat by capitulation to the Germans) - 32 votes, for Trotsky’s slogan “neither war, nor peace” (not to wage war, but not to formally conclude peace either - again with that the same goal not to disappoint the European proletariat) - 16 votes.

January 9 - IV Station Wagon Central Rada: in view of what has begun Bolshevik attack on Kyiv it finally proclaims Ukraine an independent state.

January 11 – meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee on the issue of peace. It was decided by 12 votes against one Zinoviev to delay negotiations with the Germans in every possible way. When voting on what to do in the event of a German ultimatum, the left communists side with Trotsky, and his “no war, no peace” formula defeats Lenin’s by 9 votes to 7.

January 17 – the beginning of the 3rd stage of the Brest negotiations. Trotsky arrives at them, accompanied by delegates from Soviet Ukraine, but the Germans refuse to recognize them. Trotsky responds by stating that the Council of People's Commissars "does not recognize separate agreements between the Rada and the Central Powers."

January 27 – signing of peace between the German coalition and delegates of the Central Rada. In exchange for military assistance against the Soviet troops, the UPR undertakes to supply Germany and Austria-Hungary by July 31, 1918, a million tons of grain, 400 million eggs, up to 50 thousand tons of cattle meat, lard, sugar, hemp, manganese ore, etc. German ultimatum to the Soviets to accept peace terms with the abandonment of the Baltic regions to the line Narva - Pskov - Dvinsk (Daugavpils).

January 28 (February 10, new style) - in response to the German ultimatum, Trotsky officially proclaims the formula “neither peace, nor war” at the negotiations: The Soviets cease both hostile actions against the Central Powers and peaceful negotiations with them. The Soviet delegation leaves the negotiations. Subsequently, Soviet historians falsely present this act as Trotsky’s “treacherous arbitrariness,” but it is entirely based on the decision of the Central Committee on January 11.

January 31 – Krylenko’s order to the army to cease hostilities and demobilize (later, Soviet historians wrongfully claim that it was allegedly issued without the consent of the Council of People’s Commissars). An official request from the Rada to the Germans for help against the Soviets. The Germans accept it.

February 16 (February 3, Old Style) - at half past seven in the evening, the Germans notify that at 12 noon on February 18, the Soviet-German truce ends. (Some historians argue that the Germans thereby violated the previous condition of notifying about the breaking of the truce in 7 days, however, the departure of the Soviet delegation from the negotiations on January 28 is already tantamount to a unilateral announcement of the severance of all previous conditions.)

February 18 – the beginning of the German offensive on the Eastern Front. Two meetings of the Bolshevik Central Committee on this issue: at the morning Lenin’s proposal to immediately send a request for peace to the Germans was rejected by 7 votes to 6, at the evening it wins by 7 votes to 5 with one abstention.

February 19 – Lenin’s telegram to the Germans: “In view of the current situation, the Council of People’s Commissars sees itself forced to sign the peace terms proposed in Brest-Litovsk by the delegations of the Quadruple Alliance...”

February 21 – Occupation of Minsk by the Germans. Council of People's Commissars adopts a decree " The socialist fatherland is in danger"(listing not so much defensive measures against the enemy, but rather terrorist threats to opponents of Soviet power: all able-bodied members of the bourgeois class, men and women, are mobilized to dig trenches under the supervision of the Red Guards and under the threat of execution, "enemy agents, speculators, thugs, hooligans, counter-revolutionary agitators and German spies are shot at the scene of the crime"). Formation of the “Committee for the Revolutionary Defense of Petrograd.”

February 22 – the German government’s response to the request for peace: it sets even more difficult conditions (immediately clear Livonia, Estonia, Finland and Ukraine, return the Anatolian provinces to Turkey, immediately demobilize the army, withdraw the fleet in the Black and Baltic Seas and the Arctic Ocean to Russian ports and disarm him, plus “trade and economic demands”). You have 48 hours to accept the ultimatum. Trotsky's resignation from the post of People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs. Since none of the prominent Bolsheviks is eager to sign a shameful peace with the Germans, Joffe, Zinoviev and Sokolnikov refuse the offer to become the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs.

February 23 – Central Committee meeting on the issue of the German ultimatum: 7 votes for its adoption, 4 against and 4 abstentions.

February 24 – German troops occupy Zhitomir, and the Turks occupy Trebizond. Adoption All-Russian Central Executive Committee German peace terms after an open, roll-call vote. Radiogram to Berlin about the acceptance of German conditions. “Left communists” leave the Council of People’s Commissars in protest.

February 25 – occupation of Revel and Pskov by the Germans. Admiral Shchastny at the last moment takes the Revel squadron of the Baltic Fleet to Helsingfors (later shot at the insistence of Trotsky for failure to hand over the Baltic Fleet to the Germans).

March 1 – occupation of Kyiv and Gomel by the Germans. Arrival of the new Soviet delegation (Sokolnikov, Petrovsky, Chicherin, Karakhan) to Brest-Litovsk.

March 4 – the occupation of Narva by the Germans (after the signing of peace). Appointment of Trotsky as chairman (formed on the same day) of the Supreme Military Council (13.03 - and People's Commissar for Military Affairs).

March 6-8 – The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was approved by the VII Congress of the RCP(b) (30 for ratification, 12 against, 4 abstained).

March 10 – move (flight) of the Bolshevik Council of People's Commissars from Petrograd, threatened by the Germans, to Moscow.

March 14-16 – The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is approved IV Extraordinary Congress of Soviets(for – 784 votes, against – 261, 115 abstentions).



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