The Middle Ages, the decline of culture. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

6. Features of Medieval culture.

Culture of the Middle Ages.

The term "Middle" arose during the Renaissance. Time of decline. Conflicting culture.

Western European medieval culture spans more than a thousand years. The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was caused by the collapse of the Roman Empire and the great migration of peoples. With the fall of Western Roman history, the beginning of the Western Middle Ages emerged.

Formally, the Middle Ages arose from the collision of Roman history and barbarian history (Germanic beginning). Christianity became the spiritual basis. Medieval culture is the result of a complex contradictory principle of barbarian peoples.

INTRODUCTION

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) - the era of dominance in Western and Central Europe of the feudal economic and political system and the Christian religious worldview, which came after the collapse of antiquity. Replaced by the Renaissance. Covers the period from the 4th to the 14th centuries. In some regions it persisted even at a much later time. The Middle Ages are conventionally divided into the Early Middle Ages (IV–1st half of the 10th century), the High Middle Ages (2nd half of the 10th–13th centuries) and the Late Middle Ages (XIV–XV centuries).

The beginning of the Middle Ages is most often considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. However, some historians proposed to consider the beginning of the Middle Ages to be the Edict of Milan in 313, which meant the end of the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the defining cultural movement for the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, and after several centuries it began to dominate in the states of the barbarian tribes that formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

There is no consensus among historians regarding the end of the Middle Ages. It was proposed to consider it as such: the fall of Constantinople (1453), the discovery of America (1492), the beginning of the Reformation (1517), the beginning of the English Revolution (1640) or the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789).

The term “Middle Ages” (lat. medium ?vum) was first introduced by the Italian humanist Flavio Biondo in his work “Decades of History, Beginning with the Decline of the Roman Empire” (1483). Before Biondo, the dominant term for the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance was Petrarch's concept of the "Dark Ages", which in modern historiography refers to a narrower period of time.

In the narrow sense of the word, the term “Middle Ages” applies only to the Western European Middle Ages. In this case, this term implies a number of specific features of religious, economic and political life: the feudal system of land tenure (feudal landowners and semi-dependent peasants), the vassalage system (the relationship between feudal lord and vassal), the unconditional dominance of the Church in religious life, the political power of the Church ( the Inquisition, church courts, the existence of feudal bishops), the ideals of monasticism and chivalry (a combination of spiritual practice of ascetic self-improvement and altruistic service to society), the flourishing of medieval architecture - Romanesque and Gothic.

Many modern states arose precisely in the Middle Ages: England, Spain, Poland, Russia, France, etc.

1. CHRISTIAN CONSCIOUSNESS - THE BASIS OF THE MEDIEVAL MENTALITY

This picture of the world, which completely determined the mentality of believing villagers and city dwellers, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.

The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

Monasticism played a huge role in the life of society at that time: monks took upon themselves the obligations of “leaving the world,” celibacy, and renunciation of property. However, already in the 6th century, monasteries turned into strong, often very rich centers, owning movable and immovable property. Many monasteries were centers of education and culture.

However, one should not think that the formation of the Christian religion in the countries of Western Europe went smoothly, without difficulties and confrontation in the minds of people with old pagan beliefs.

The population was traditionally committed to pagan cults, and sermons and descriptions of the lives of saints were not enough to convert them to the true faith. People were converted to a new religion with the help of state power. However, long after the official recognition of a single religion, the clergy had to fight persistent remnants of paganism among the peasantry.

The Church destroyed idols, forbade worshiping gods and making sacrifices, and organizing pagan holidays and rituals. Severe punishments were threatened for those who engaged in fortune telling, divination, spells, or simply believed in them.

The formation of the process of Christianization was one of the sources of sharp clashes, since the people often associated the concepts of popular freedom with the old faith, while the connection of the Christian Church with state power and oppression appeared quite clearly.

In the minds of the masses of the rural population, regardless of belief in certain gods, behavioral attitudes remained in which people felt directly included in the cycle of natural phenomena.

The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. In his mind, the world was seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely confident in the possibility of miracles and perceived everything that the Bible reported literally.

In the very in general terms The world was then seen in accordance with a certain hierarchical ladder, like a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the Apostles, those closest to God, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and cardinals, then clergy of lower levels, and below them ordinary laymen. Then, even further from God and closer to the earth, animals are placed, then plants, and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a minus sign, in a seemingly underground world, according to the increase in evil and proximity to Satan. He is placed at the top of this second, atonic pyramid, acting as symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with opposite sign(reflective like a mirror) being. If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

Medieval Europeans, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings and emperors, were illiterate. The level of literacy and education even of the clergy in the parishes was terribly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have educated personnel and began to open theological seminaries, etc. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The masses of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only clergy were allowed to interpret it. However, both their education and literacy were, as has been said, very low. Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells.

2. EARLY MIDDLE AGES

The Early Middle Ages in Europe is the period from the end of the 4th century. until the middle of the 10th century. In general, the early Middle Ages were a time of deep decline in European civilization compared to ancient times. This decline was expressed in the dominance of subsistence farming, in the decline of handicraft production and, accordingly, urban life, in the destruction of ancient culture under the onslaught of the unliterate pagan world. In Europe during this period, turbulent and very important processes took place, such as the barbarian invasion, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.

At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, accepted Christianity, which by the end of Rome’s existence became its state religion. Christianity in its various forms replaced pagan beliefs, and this process only accelerated after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.

A characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages were constant wars, robberies and raids, which significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.

During the early Middle Ages, the ideological positions of feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape, and the peasantry, just emerging as a special class of society, was dissolved in ideological terms into broader and more uncertain layers. The bulk of the population of Europe at that time were rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and whose horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an integral feature of this environment.

In the period from V to X centuries. Against the background of a general lull in construction, architecture and fine arts, two striking phenomena stand out, important for subsequent events. This is the Merovingian period (V -VIII centuries) and the "Carolingian Renaissance" (VIII - IX centuries) on the territory of the Frankish state.

2.1. Merovingian art

Merovingian art is the conventional name for the art of the Merovingian state. It was based on the traditions of late antique, Halo-Roman art, as well as the art of barbarian peoples. The architecture of the Merovingian era, although it reflected the decline of construction technology caused by the collapse of the ancient world, at the same time prepared the ground for the flourishing of pre-Romanesque architecture during the Carolingian Renaissance. In the decorative and applied arts, late antique motifs were combined with elements of the “animal style” (the “animal style” of Eurasian art dates back to the Iron Age and combines various forms of veneration of the sacred beast and stylization of the image of various animals); Particularly widespread were flat-relief stone carvings (sarcophagi), baked clay reliefs for decorating churches, and the manufacture of church utensils and weapons, richly decorated with gold and silver inserts and precious stones. Book miniatures were widespread, in which the main attention was paid to the decoration of initials and frontispieces; at the same time, figurative motifs of an ornamental and decorative nature predominated; Bright, laconic color combinations were used in the coloring.

2.2. "Carolingian Renaissance"

"Carolingian Renaissance" is the conventional name for the era of the rise of early medieval culture in the empire of Charlemagne and the kingdoms of the Carolingian dynasty. The "Carolingian Renaissance" was expressed in the organization of new schools for the training of service and administrative personnel and the clergy, the attraction of educated figures to the royal court, attention to ancient literature and secular knowledge, and the flourishing of fine arts and architecture. In Carolingian art, which adopted both late antique solemnity and Byzantine imposingness, and local barbarian traditions, the foundations of European medieval artistic culture were formed.

From literary sources we know about the intensive construction of monastic complexes, fortifications, churches and residences during this period (among the surviving buildings are the centric chapel of the imperial residence in Aachen, the chapel-rotunda of St. Michael in Fulda, the church in Corvey, 822 - 885, the gatehouse building in Lorsch, around 774). Temples and palaces were decorated with multi-colored mosaics and frescoes.

3. HIGH MIDDLE AGES

During the classical, or high, Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and be reborn. Since the 10th century, state structures have been consolidated, which made it possible to assemble larger armies and, to some extent, stop raids and robberies. Missionaries brought Christianity to the countries of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, so that these states also entered the orbit of Western culture.

The relative stability that ensued provided the opportunity for rapid growth of cities and economies. Life began to change for the better; cities began to have their own culture and spiritual life. The church played a big role in this, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization.

The economic and social rise after 1000 began with construction. As contemporaries said: “Europe has become covered with a new white dress of churches.” On the base artistic traditions Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque and later brilliant Gothic art arose, and not only architecture and literature developed, but also other types of art - painting, theater, music, sculpture.

At this time, feudal relations finally took shape, and the process of personality formation was already completed (XII century). The horizons of Europeans expanded significantly due to a number of circumstances (this is the era of the Crusades beyond Western Europe: acquaintance with the life of Muslims, the East, with a higher level of development). These new impressions enriched the Europeans, their horizons expanded as a result of the merchants’ travels (Marco Polo traveled to China and upon his return wrote a book introducing Chinese life and traditions). Expanding your horizons leads to the formation of a new worldview. Thanks to new acquaintances and impressions, people began to understand that earthly life is not aimless, it has great significance, the natural world is rich, interesting, does not create anything bad, it is divine, worthy of study. Therefore, science began to develop.

3.1 Literature

Features of the literature of this time:

1) The relationship between church and secular literature is decisively changing in favor of secular literature. New class trends are being formed and flourishing: knightly and urban literature.

2) The sphere of literary use of vernacular languages has expanded: in urban literature the vernacular language is preferred, even church literature turns to vernacular languages.

3) Literature acquires absolute independence in relation to folklore.

4) Drama emerges and successfully develops.

5) The genre of heroic epic continues to develop. A number of pearls of the heroic epic emerge: “The Song of Roland”, “The Song of My Sid”, “The Song of Nebelunga”.

3.1.1. Heroic epic.

The heroic epic is one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the European Middle Ages. In France, it existed in the form of poems called gestures, that is, songs about deeds and exploits. The thematic basis of the gesture is made up of real historical events, most of which date back to the 8th - 10th centuries. Probably, immediately after these events, traditions and legends about them arose. It is also possible that these legends originally existed in the form of short episodic songs or prose stories that developed in the pre-knight milieu. However, very early, episodic tales went beyond this environment and spread to the masses and became the property of the whole society: they were listened to with equal delight not only by the military class, but also by the clergy, merchants, artisans, and peasants.

Since these folk tales were originally intended for oral chanting performance by jugglers, the latter subjected them to intensive processing, which consisted of expanding the plots, cyclizing them, introducing inserted episodes, sometimes very large ones, conversational scenes, etc. As a result, short episodic songs became gradually the appearance of plot- and stylistically-organized poems is a gesture. In addition, in the process of complex development, some of these poems were noticeably influenced by church ideology and, without exception, by the influence of knightly ideology. Since chivalry had high prestige for all levels of society, the heroic epic gained wide popularity. Unlike Latin poetry, which was practically intended only for clergy, gestures were created in French and were understandable to everyone. Originating from the early Middle Ages, the heroic epic took a classical form and experienced a period of active existence in the 12th, 13th and partly 14th centuries. Its written recording dates back to the same time.

Gestures are usually divided into three cycles:

1) the cycle of Guillaume d'Orange (otherwise: the cycle of Garin de Monglane - named after Guillaume's great-grandfather);

2) the cycle of “rebel barons” (otherwise: the Doon de Mayans cycle);

3) cycle of Charlemagne, King of France. The theme of the first cycle is the selfless service of loyal vassals from the Guillaume family to the weak, hesitant, often ungrateful king, who is constantly threatened by either internal or external enemies, driven only by love for the homeland.

The theme of the second cycle is the rebellion of proud and independent barons against the unjust king, as well as the brutal feuds of the barons among themselves. Finally, in the poems of the third cycle (“Pilgrimage of Charlemagne”, “Board of the Big Legs”, etc.) the sacred struggle of the Franks against the “pagans” - Muslims is glorified and the figure of Charlemagne is glorified, appearing as the focus of virtues and the stronghold of the entire Christian world. The most remarkable poem of the royal cycle and the entire French epic is “The Song of Roland,” the recording of which dates back to the beginning of the 12th century.

Features of the heroic epic:

1) The epic was created in the conditions of the development of feudal relations.

2) The epic picture of the world reproduces feudal relations, idealizes a strong feudal state and reflects Christian beliefs and Christian ideals.

3) With regard to history, the historical basis is clearly visible, but at the same time it is idealized and hyperbolized.

4) Bogatyrs are defenders of the state, the king, the independence of the country and the Christian faith. All this is interpreted in the epic as a national matter.

5) The epic is associated with a folk tale, with historical chronicles, and sometimes with a chivalric romance.

6) The epic was preserved in the countries of continental Europe (Germany, France).

3.1.2. Chivalric literature

Troubadour poetry, which emerged at the end of the 11th century, appears to have been strongly influenced by Arabic literature. In any case, the form of stanzas in the songs of the “first troubadour”, which is traditionally considered to be William IX of Aquitaine, is very similar to zajal - a new poetic form invented by the poet of Arab Spain I bn Kuzman.

In addition, the poetry of the troubadours is famous for its sophisticated rhyming, and Arabic poetry was also distinguished by such rhyming. And the themes were in many ways common: especially popular, for example, the troubadours had the theme of “fin” amor” (ideal love), which appeared in Arab poetry back in the 10th century, and in the 11th century was developed in Arab Spain by Ibn Hazm in the famous philosophical treatise “The Necklace of the Dove”, in the chapter “On the Advantages of Chastity”: “The best thing a person can do in his love is to be chaste...”

The poetry of troubadours and the culture inherited from Ancient Rome had a significant influence: the deity Amor is very often found in the songs of South French poets, and Pyramus and Thisbe are mentioned in the song of Raimbaut de Vaqueiras.

And, of course, the poetry of the troubadours is replete with Christian motifs; William of Aquitaine addresses his later poem to God, and many songs even parody debates on religious topics: for example, the famous troubadours de Ussely argue about what is preferable, to be the husband or lover of a Lady. (Similar “disputes” at the most different topics took shape in specific poetic forms - partimen and tenson.)

Thus, the poetry of the troubadours absorbed the spiritual and secular heritage of antiquity, Christian and Islamic philosophy and poetry. And the poetry of the troubadours became incredibly diverse. The word itself - troubadour (trobador) means “inventor, finder” (from “trobar” - “invent, find”). And indeed, the poets of Occitania were famous for their love of creating new poetic forms, skillful rhyming, wordplay and alliteration.

3.1.3. Urban literature of the Middle Ages

Urban literature developed simultaneously with knightly literature (from the end of the 11th century). XIII century - flourishing of urban literature. In the 13th century chivalric literature begins to decline. The consequence of this is the beginning of crisis and degradation. And urban literature, unlike knightly literature, begins an intensive search for new ideas, values, new artistic possibilities for expressing these values. Urban literature is created by citizens. And in the cities in the Middle Ages lived, first of all, artisans and traders. People of intellectual work also live and work in the city: teachers, doctors, students. Representatives of the clergy class also live in cities and serve in cathedrals and monasteries. In addition, feudal lords who were left without castles are moving to cities.

In the city, classes meet and begin to interact. Due to the fact that in the city the line between feudal lords and classes is erased, development and cultural communication take place - all this becomes more natural. Therefore, literature absorbs the rich traditions of folklore (from peasants), traditions of church books, scholarship, elements of knightly aristocratic literature, traditions of culture and art of foreign countries, which were brought by trade people and merchants. Urban literature expressed the tastes and interests of the democratic 3rd estate, to which most of the townspeople belonged. Their interests were determined in society - they did not have privileges, but the townspeople had their own independence: economic and political. secular feudal lords wanted to take over the prosperity of the city. This struggle of the townspeople for independence determined the main ideological direction of urban literature - an anti-feudal orientation. The townspeople clearly saw many of the shortcomings of the feudal lords and the inequality between classes. This is expressed in urban literature in the form of satire. The townspeople, unlike the knights, did not try to idealize the surrounding reality. On the contrary, the world as illuminated by the townspeople is presented in a grotesque and satirical form. They deliberately exaggerate the negative: stupidity, super-stupidity, greed, super-greed.

Features of urban literature:

1) Urban literature is distinguished by its attention to everyday human life, to everyday life.

2) The pathos of urban literature is didactic and satirical (in contrast to knightly literature).

3) The style is also the opposite of chivalric literature. The townspeople do not strive for decoration or elegance of works; for them the most important thing is to convey the idea, to give a demonstrative example. Therefore, townspeople use not only poetic speech, but also prose. Style: everyday details, rough details, many words and expressions of craft, folk, slang origin.

4) The townspeople began to make the first prose retellings of chivalric romances. This is where prose literature begins.

5) The type of hero is very general. This is not an individualized ordinary person. This hero is shown in struggle: a clash with priests, feudal lords, where privilege is not on his side. Cunning, resourcefulness, life experience are the traits of a hero.

6) Genre and generic composition.

All 3 types develop in urban literature.

Lyric poetry is developing, non-competitive with knightly poetry; you will not find love experiences here. The creativity of the vagants, whose demands were much higher, due to their education, nevertheless had a synthesis on urban lyrics.

In the epic genre of literature, as opposed to voluminous knightly novels, the townspeople worked in the small genre of everyday, comic stories. The reason is also that the townspeople do not have time to work on voluminous works, and what is the point of talking about the little things in life for a long time, they should be depicted in short anecdotal stories. This is what attracted people's attention

In the urban environment, the dramatic genre of literature begins to develop and flourish. The dramatic family developed along two lines:

1. Church drama.

Goes back to class literature. The formation of dramaturgy as a literary genre. Some similarity with Greek drama: in the Dionysian cult all the elements of drama were created. In the same way, all the elements of drama converged in the Christian church service: poetry, song, dialogue between the priest and parishioners, the choir; priests' disguises, synthesis of various types of art (poetry, music, painting, sculpture, pantomime). All these elements of drama were in the Christian service - the liturgy. A push was needed that would force these elements to develop intensively. This meant that the church service was conducted in an incomprehensible Latin language. Therefore, the idea arises of accompanying a church service with pantomime, scenes related to the content of the church service. Such pantomimes were performed only by priests, then these inserted scenes acquired independence and breadth, they began to be performed before and after the service, then went beyond the walls of the temple, and performances were held in the market square. And outside the temple, a word in an understandable language could sound.

2. Secular farce theater, traveling theater.

Together with secular actors, elements of secular drama, everyday life and comic scenes penetrate into church drama. This is how the first and second dramatic traditions meet.

Drama genres:

A mystery is a dramatization of a certain episode of Holy Scripture, the mysteries are anonymous ("The Game of Adam", "The Mystery of the Passion of the Lord" - depicted the suffering and death of Christ).

Miracle - an image of miracles performed by saints or the Virgin Mary. This genre can be classified as a poetic genre. “The Miracle of Theophilus” is based on the plot of the relationship between man and evil spirits.

A farce is a small poetic comic scene on an everyday theme. In the center is an amazing, absurd incident. The earliest farces date back to the 13th century. Developed until the 17th century. The farce is staged in folk theaters and squares.

Morality. The main purpose is edification, a moral lesson to the audience in the form of an allegorical action. The main characters are allegorical figures (vice, virtue, power).

Urban literature in the Middle Ages turned out to be a very rich and diverse phenomenon. This variety of genres, the development of three types of literature, the versatility of style, the richness of traditions - all this provided this class direction with great opportunities and prospects. In addition to her, history itself was revealed to the townspeople. It was in the city in the Middle Ages that new forms for the feudal world began to form. commodity-money relations, which will become the basis of the future capital world. It is in the depths of the third estate that the future bourgeoisie and intelligentsia will begin to form. The townspeople feel that the future is theirs and look confidently into the future. Therefore, in the 13th century, the century of intellectual education, science, broadening of horizons, urban development, the spiritual life of citizens will begin to change significantly.

The term “Middle Ages” was introduced by humanists around 1500. This is how they designated the millennium that separated them from the “golden age” of antiquity.

Medieval culture is divided into periods:

1. V century AD - XI century n. e. - early Middle Ages.

2. End of the 8th century. AD - beginning of the 9th century AD - Carolingian revival.

Z. XI - XIII centuries. - culture of the mature Middle Ages.

4. XIV-XV centuries. - culture of the late Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages is a period the beginning of which coincided with the withering away of ancient culture, and the end with its revival in modern times. The early Middle Ages include two outstanding cultures - the culture of the Carolingian Renaissance and Byzantium. They gave rise to two great cultures - Catholic (Western Christian) and Orthodox (Eastern Christian).

Medieval culture spans more than a millennium and, in socio-economic terms, corresponds to the origin, development and decay of feudalism. In this historically long socio-cultural process of development of feudal society, a unique type of human relationship to the world was developed, qualitatively distinguishing it both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of modern times.

The term "Carolingian Renaissance" describes the cultural upsurge in the empire of Charlemagne and the kingdoms of the Carolingian dynasty in the 8th-9th centuries. (mainly in France and Germany). He expressed himself in the organization of schools, the attraction of educated figures to the royal court, and the development of literature, fine arts, and architecture. Scholasticism (“school theology”) became the dominant direction of medieval philosophy.

The origins of medieval culture should be outlined:

The culture of the “barbarian” peoples of Western Europe (the so-called German origin);

Cultural traditions of the Western Roman Empire (Romanesque beginning: powerful statehood, law, science and art);

The Crusades significantly expanded not only economic, trade contacts and exchanges, but also contributed to the penetration of a more developed culture into barbarian Europe Arab East and Byzantium. At the height of the Crusades, Arab science began to play a huge role in the Christian world, contributing to the rise of medieval culture in 12th-century Europe. The Arabs passed on to Christian scholars Greek science, accumulated and preserved in eastern libraries, which was greedily absorbed by enlightened Christians. The authority of pagan and Arab scientists was so strong that references to them were almost obligatory in medieval science; Christian philosophers sometimes attributed their original thoughts and conclusions to them.

As a result of long-term communication with the population of the more cultured East, Europeans adopted many of the cultural and technological achievements of the Byzantine and Muslim world. This gave a strong impetus to the further development of Western European civilization, which was reflected primarily in the growth of cities and the strengthening of their economic and spiritual potential. Between the X and XIII centuries. There was a rise in the development of Western cities, and their image changed.

One function prevailed - trade, which revived the old cities and created a little later the craft function. The city became a hotbed of economic activity hated by the lords, which led, to a certain extent, to population migration. From various social elements, the city created a new society, contributed to the formation of a new mentality, which consisted in choosing an active, rational life, rather than a contemplative one. The flourishing of the urban mentality was favored by the emergence of urban patriotism. Urban society was able to create aesthetic, cultural, and spiritual values, which gave new impetus to the development of the medieval West.

Romanesque art, which was an expressive manifestation of early Christian architecture, throughout the 12th century. began to transform. The old Romanesque churches became too crowded for the growing population of the cities. It was necessary to make the church spacious, full of air, while saving expensive space inside the city walls. Therefore, cathedrals stretch upward, often hundreds or more meters. For the townspeople, the cathedral was not just a decoration, but also an impressive testimony to the power and wealth of the city. Along with the town hall, the cathedral was the center and focus of all public life.

The town hall housed the business and practical part related to city government, and in the cathedral, in addition to divine services, university lectures were given, theatrical performances (mysteries) took place, and sometimes parliament met there. Many city cathedrals were so large that the entire population of the then city could not fill it. Cathedrals and town halls were erected by order of city communes. Due to the high cost of building materials and the complexity of the work itself, temples were sometimes built over several centuries. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture.

In her, active and contemplative life sought balance. Huge windows with colored glass (stained glass) created a flickering twilight. Massive semicircular vaults gave way to pointed, rib vaults. In combination with a complex support system, this made it possible to make the walls light and openwork. The evangelical characters in the sculptures of the Gothic temple acquire the grace of courtly heroes, smiling coquettishly and suffering “subtly.”

Gothic - artistic style, predominantly architectural, which reached its greatest development in the construction of light, pointed, skyward cathedrals with pointed vaults and rich decorative decoration, became the pinnacle of medieval culture. Overall, it was a triumph of engineering and the dexterity of guild artisans, an invasion of the Catholic church by the secular spirit of urban culture. Gothic is associated with the life of a medieval city-commune, with the struggle of cities for independence from the feudal lord. Like Romanesque art, Gothic art spread throughout Europe, and its best creations were created in the cities of France.

Changes in architecture led to changes in monumental painting. The place of the frescoes was taken stained glass. The Church established canons in the image, but even through them the creative individuality of the masters made itself felt. In terms of their emotional impact, the subjects of stained glass paintings, conveyed through drawing, are in last place, and in the first place are color and, along with it, light. The design of the book has achieved great skill. In the XII-XIII centuries. manuscripts of religious, historical, scientific or poetic content are elegantly illustrated color miniature.

Of the liturgical books, the most common are books of hours and psalms, intended mainly for the laity. The artist had no concept of space and perspective, so the drawing is schematic and the composition is static. Beauty human body V medieval painting no importance was attached. Spiritual beauty, the moral character of a person, came first. The sight of a naked body was considered sinful. Of particular importance in appearance medieval man was given the face. The medieval era created grandiose artistic ensembles, solved gigantic architectural problems, created new forms of monumental painting and plastic arts, and most importantly, it was a synthesis of these monumental arts, in which it sought to convey a complete picture of the world .

The shift in the center of gravity of culture from monasteries to cities was especially clearly evident in the field of education. During the 12th century. City schools are decisively ahead of monastery schools. New training centers, thanks to their programs and methodology, and most importantly - the recruitment of teachers and students, they are very quickly coming out ahead.

Students from other cities and countries gathered around the most brilliant teachers. As a result, it begins to create high school - university. In the 11th century The first university was opened in Italy (Bologna, 1088). In the 12th century. Universities are also emerging in other Western European countries. In England, the first was the university in Oxford (1167), then the university in Cambridge (1209). The largest and first of the universities in France was Paris (1160).

Studying and teaching science becomes a craft, one of the many activities that have been specialized in urban life. The name university itself comes from the Latin “corporation”. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students. The development of universities with their traditions of debate, as the main form of education and the movement of scientific thought, appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. large quantity translated literature from Arabic and Greek became a stimulus for the intellectual development of Europe.

Universities represented the concentration of medieval philosophy - scholastics. The method of scholasticism consisted in the consideration and collision of all arguments and counterarguments of any position and in the logical development of this position. The old dialectics, the art of debate and argumentation, are receiving extraordinary development. A scholastic ideal of knowledge is emerging, where rational knowledge and logical proof, based on the teachings of the church and on authorities in various branches of knowledge, acquire a high status.

Mysticism, which had a significant influence in the culture as a whole, is accepted very cautiously in scholasticism, only in connection with alchemy and astrology. Until the 13th century. scholasticism was the only possible way to improve the intellect because science was subordinate to theology and served it. The scholastics were credited with developing formal logic and a deductive way of thinking, and their method of knowledge was nothing more than the fruit of medieval rationalism. The most recognized of the scholastics, Thomas Aquinas, considered science to be the “handmaiden of theology.” Despite the development of scholasticism, it was universities that became centers of a new, non-religious culture.

At the same time, there was a process of accumulation of practical knowledge, which was transferred in the form of production experience in craft workshops and workshops. Many discoveries and finds were made here, mixed with mysticism and magic. The process of technical development was expressed in the appearance and use of windmills and lifts for the construction of temples.

New and extremely important phenomenon There was the creation of non-church schools in cities: these were private schools, financially independent of the church. From now on it's going fast spreading literacy among the urban population. Urban non-church schools became centers of free thought. Poetry became the mouthpiece of such sentiments vagrants- wandering school poets, people from the lower classes. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy, and ignorance. The Vagantes believed that these qualities, common to the common man, should not be inherent in the holy church. The Church, in turn, persecuted and condemned the vagants.

The most important monument of English literature of the 12th century. - famous Ballads of Robin Hood, who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

Developed urban culture. The poetic short stories depicted dissolute and selfish monks, dull peasant villans, and cunning burghers (“The Romance of the Fox”). Urban art was nourished by peasant folklore and was distinguished by great integrity and organicity. It was on urban soil that they appeared music and theater with their touching dramatizations of church legends and instructive allegories.

The city contributed to the growth of productive forces, which gave impetus to development natural sciences. English encyclopedist R. Bacon(XIII century) believed that knowledge should be based on experience, and not on authorities. But the emerging rationalistic ideas were combined with the search by alchemical scientists for the “elixir of life”, the “philosopher’s stone”, and with the aspirations of astrologers to predict the future by the movement of the planets. At the same time, they made discoveries in the field of natural sciences, medicine, and astronomy. Scientific research gradually contributed to changes in all aspects of the life of medieval society and prepared the emergence of a “new” Europe.

The culture of the Middle Ages is characterized by:

Theocentrism and creationism;

Dogmatism;

Ideological intolerance;

Suffering renunciation of the world and craving for a violent worldwide transformation of the world in accordance with the idea (crusades)

The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe span more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.

Until recently, the Middle Ages was often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.

Creating an image "Dark Middle Ages" The representatives of this era themselves contributed in many ways, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and statesmen. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often painted a rather gloomy picture of their contemporary life. Their descriptions lack optimism and joy of being, no satisfaction from life, no desire for improvement existing world, there is no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and well-being in it.

On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, complaints are constantly heard about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. From here Special attention To the theme of death, which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to leave this mortal coil as quickly as possible. earthly world and go to the other world, where only it is possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.

To an even greater extent, poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the “dark Middle Ages” . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a “dark night” in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it as a “dawn”, a “bright day”, an awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.

The Middle Ages for them appeared as completely fruitless, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and not preserving anything of the great achievements of ancient culture. From here followed the logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, about the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.

In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. Recently, views and assessments of the Middle Ages have become more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, European continent complex and contradictory processes took place, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not the Western world, but semi-eastern Byzantium and eastern China, however, important events also took place in the Western world. As for the relationship between ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but overall it meant undoubted progress.

It turned out to be the most difficult and stormy stage of the early Middle Ages, when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, etc. From IV to IX centuries. there was a transition from the “Roman world” to the “Christian world”, with which Western Europe arose.

Western, " christian world"was born not as a result of the destruction of the "Roman world", but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously damaged, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.

The most powerful of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and transformed under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries) all the main European states took shape - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - in their modern form.

Many were also seriously injured ancient cities: some of them were destroyed, while others died out due to the decline of trade or due to changes in the directions of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts dropped noticeably, and the entire economy became agrarian, in which the subsistence type of economy predominated. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.

At the same time, in some areas of life, already at the early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development The main positive change was the abolition of slavery, which eliminated the unnatural situation in which a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.

If theoretical knowledge successfully developed in Antiquity, the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular power of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose about searching for other sources. Therefore, already in the 6th century. Water energy begins to be used thanks to the use of a water wheel, and in the 12th century. A windmill using wind energy appears.

Water and windmills made it possible to carry out the most different types works: grinding grain, sifting flour, raising water for irrigation, felting and beating cloth in water, sawing logs, using a mechanical hammer in a forge, drawing wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of sluices with gates.

Positive changes occurred in other areas of culture. Most of them were somehow related to , which formed the foundation of the entire way of medieval life and permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.

Antiquity strove for the ideal of a person in which soul and body would be in harmony. However, the body was much more fortunate in realizing this ideal, especially if we keep in mind Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a peculiar cult of physical pleasures and pleasures had developed, Christianity gave clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to suppress the sensual, physical attractions of the body.

Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the physical, placing emphasis on the inner world of man, Christianity did a lot to form a person’s deep spirituality and his moral elevation.

The basic moral values of Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and transform into one another. However, the main one among them is Love, which means, first of all, a spiritual connection and love for God and which is opposed to physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and base. At the same time, Christian love extends to all “neighbors,” including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you.”

Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, not requiring any effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally turns into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of salvation, which is central to many religions.

In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell at the future Last Judgment, stay in paradise in the other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be worthy of salvation, but only the righteous. who strictly follows the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take what belongs to others, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torment of hell.

The dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence in it of very specific subcultures, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.

Clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.

Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.

On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this contradicts the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.

The second most important layer was aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly matters,” and, above all, state tasks to preserve and strengthen peace, protect the people from oppression, maintain the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.

Like monastics, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. The knights also carried out other duties related to faith to one degree or another.

However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory, performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments for the sake of this. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for the Beautiful Lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.

The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the trading and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.

Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; quite often they mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.

Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.

Philosophy was declared the handmaiden of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.

The first sought to bring together as much as possible and even dissolve philosophy in theology. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the “school” development of what had already been accumulated. However, this approach also brought tangible benefits; thanks to it, the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening of logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself became more and more rational: it was not content with simple faith in the dogmas of religion, but sought to logically substantiate and prove them. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (13th century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.

The second tendency, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to assert the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A prominent representative of this trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (13th century). who made significant contributions to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural science. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder of modern science and philosophy.

Fine artistic culture achieved greater success in the Middle Ages, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.

The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early Middle Ages The leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupied almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often called Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.

By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. The greatest development during this period was naturalart, associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other products decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animalistic, since its peculiarity is that images of strange animals are woven into intricate patterns.

Also becoming widespread miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - “scriptoria”, where books - liturgical books and Gospels - were written and decorated. Books of secular content were rare. The miniatures were primarily ornamental rather than pictorial in nature.

As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building in which laconicism and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.

The art of the early Middle Ages reached its greatest flowering under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland.”

In this period medieval art actively turns to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That's why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian Revival". Special role Charlemagne played a role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy, surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Karl contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.

A significant number of architectural monuments have been preserved from the Carolingian era. One of them is the wonderful Charlemagne Cathedral in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal structure covered with an octagonal dome.

In this era, book miniatures continue to develop successfully. which is distinguished by decorative pomp and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages narrative subjects are increasingly encountered: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of England and France. In Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art entered a new era.

Start mature period Middle Ages- The 10th century turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.

In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.

In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name "Romanesque period". It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also extends to the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becoming the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.

The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest geometric figures in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. The appearance of the building is distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also perform a decorative rather than constructive function.

The Romanesque style was most widespread in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny (11th century), as well as the Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (12th century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.

Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. She has too simple shapes, almost no decorative decorations. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.

In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptisms. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.

IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, their appearance has many common features, and above all, the upward direction created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more tall towers.

By the beginning of the 13th century. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.

In the 13th century the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, began to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity is moving from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.

Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - design and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape; 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.

The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for decoration, it took a variety of forms. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.

Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, and floral patterns. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful items of applied art donated by wealthy townspeople. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.

Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century she has reached her true peak. In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.

Notre Dame Cathedral(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in the Cathedral of Notre Dame is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by rare perfection of forms.

IN Germany Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.

English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.

Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.

The culture of the Middle Ages - with all the ambiguity of its content - occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, again and again to solve the eternal problem of the relationship between spirit and flesh.

Introduction.

Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period spans more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.

Within a millennium, it is customary to distinguish at least three periods:

· Early Middle Ages, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 (until the X - XI centuries);

· High (Classical) Middle Ages - from the X-XI centuries to approximately the XIV century;

· Late Middle Ages, XIV-XV centuries.

Some authors, in the context of the Middle Ages, also consider the so-called transition period from the Middle Ages to the New Time (XVI-XVII centuries), however, it seems more reasonable to consider the period of the Reformation and Con-Reformation as a separate period of history and culture, which had an impact big influence for the further formation of the cultural consciousness of the masses.

The folk culture of this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of recording their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absentee”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is what modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of written recording of cultural values was closed to them.

The folk culture of the Middle Ages was unlucky in science. Usually, when they talk about it, they mention at most the remnants of the ancient world and epic, the remnants of paganism. In those relatively rare cases when a modern specialist turns to the folk religiosity of the Middle Ages, he does not find any other characteristics for it such as “naive”, “primitive”, “uncouth”, “rude”, “superficial”, “pre-logical”, “childish” ”; This is the religion of the “child people”, overflowing with superstitions and focused on the fabulous and fabulous.

The criteria for such value judgments are taken from the “high” religion of the enlightened and it is from their position that consciousness and emotional life commoners, without setting themselves the task of considering it “from the inside,” guided by its own logic.

1. Early Middle Ages.

The Early Middle Ages was a time when turbulent and very important processes took place in Europe, such as the barbarian invasion, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.

The third significant process was the formation of new state formations on the territory of the former Roman Empire, created by the same “barbarians”. Tribal leaders proclaimed themselves kings, dukes, counts, constantly fighting with each other and subjugating their weaker neighbors. Characteristic feature Life in the early Middle Ages was constant wars, robberies and raids, which significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.

During the early Middle Ages, the ideological positions of feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape and the peasantry, which was just being born as a special class of society, was dissolved in ideological terms into broader and more uncertain layers.

The bulk of the population of Europe at that time were rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and whose horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an integral feature of this environment.

The peasantry and its life are almost not reflected at all in the social picture of the world, as it was thought at that time, and this fact in itself is very symptomatic. The society, agrarian in nature, built on the exploitation and subjugation of broad sections of the rural population, seemed to allow itself to ideologically ignore its own majority.

Paradox: ordinary people, first of all, the peasantry, despised and ignored by the ruling class, at the same time in a certain sense, dominated the spiritual life of the early Middle Ages. Rural life, with its leisurely pace and periodic change of production seasons, was the main regulator of the social rhythm of society ([1], p. 63)

2. High (classical) Middle Ages.

The relative stability that ensued provided the opportunity for rapid growth of cities and economies. Life began to change for the better; cities began to have their own culture and spiritual life. A big role in this was played by the same church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization.

On the basis of the artistic traditions of Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque and later brilliant Gothic art arose, and not only architecture and literature developed, but also other types of art - painting, theater, music, sculpture... It was during this era that masterpieces were created literature “The Song of Roland”, “The Romance of the Rose”.

The so-called knightly literature emerges and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - “The Song of Roland”. In the 12th century, romances of chivalry appeared. Among the most popular was a poetic novel about the British King Arthur.

An important monument to the German folk literature XII-XIII centuries - “The Song of the Nibelungs”, which tells about the invasion of the Huns on the Kingdom of Burgundy at the beginning of the 5th century. The “Song of the Nibelungs” is based on ancient Germanic legends.

Vagantes and their poetry were a significant phenomenon in the literature of France in the 12th-13th centuries. Vagants (from the Latin vagantes - wandering) were called wandering poets. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. The Church, in turn, persecuted the vagants.

The most important monument of English literature of the 13th century is the famous “Ballad of Robin Hood,” who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

2.1 The emergence of “urban culture”.

During this period, the so-called “urban literature” rapidly developed, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the appearance of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri and Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).

The development of urban literature testified to a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western European society - urban culture, which played a very large role in the formation Western civilization generally. The essence of urban culture boiled down to the constant strengthening of secular elements in all spheres of human existence.

Urban culture originated in France in the 11th-12th centuries. During this period, it was represented, in particular, by the work of “jugglers” who performed in city squares as actors, acrobats, trainers, musicians and singers. They performed at fairs, folk festivals, weddings, christenings, etc. and enjoyed great popularity among the people.

A new and extremely important phenomenon, testifying to the deepening process of development of urban culture, was the creation of non-church schools in cities - these were private schools, financially independent of the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees collected from the students, and anyone who could afford to pay the fees could teach their children in them. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population.

2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.

European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church for a long period that determined educational policy. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

An important layer in the formation of folk culture during the classical Middle Ages was sermons.

The bulk of society remained illiterate. In order for the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite to become the dominant thoughts of all parishioners, they had to be “translated” into a language understandable to all people. This is what preachers did. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking.

The sermon assumed any person as its listener - literate and illiterate, noble and commoner, city dweller and peasant, rich and poor.

The most famous preachers structured their sermons in such a way as to hold the attention of the public for a long time and convey to them the ideas of church teaching in the form of simple examples.

Some used for this purpose so-called “examples” (exempla) - short stories written in the form of parables on everyday topics.

These “examples” are one of the earliest literary genres and are of particular interest for a more complete understanding of the worldview of ordinary believers. “Example” was one of the most effective means of didactic influence on parishioners.

In these “cases from life” the original world of medieval man is visible, with his ideas about saints and evil spirits as real participants in everyday human life.

However, the most famous preachers, such as Bertold of Regenburg (XIII century), did not use “Examples” in their sermons, building them mainly on biblical texts. This preacher structured his sermons in the form of dialogues, addressing calls and statements to a certain part of the audience or professional categories. He widely used the method of enumeration, riddles and other techniques that made his sermons into small performances. (, page 265)

Church ministers, as a rule, did not introduce any original ideas and statements, this was not expected of them and the parishioners would be unable to appreciate it. The audience received satisfaction from listening to things that were familiar and familiar.

3. Late Middle Ages.

The later Middle Ages continued the formation processes European culture, which began during the classical period. However, their progress was far from smooth. In the XIV-XV centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced great famines. Numerous epidemics, especially the plague, caused innumerable human casualties. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down the development of culture.

During these periods, uncertainty and fear ruled the masses. Economic growth is followed by long periods of recession and stagnation. Among the masses, complexes of fear of death and the afterlife intensified, and fears of evil spirits intensified.

At the end of the Middle Ages, in the minds of the common people, Satan was transformed from, in general, not a terrible and sometimes funny devil into an omnipotent ruler of dark forces, who at the end of earthly history would act as the Antichrist.

Another cause of fear is hunger, as a consequence of low yields and several years of drought.

The sources of fears are best highlighted in the prayer of a peasant of that time: “Deliver us, Lord, from plague, famine and war.” (, page 330)

The dominance of oral culture powerfully contributed to the proliferation of superstitions, fears and collective panics.

However, in the end, the cities were revived, people who survived the pestilence and war were able to organize their lives better than in previous eras. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, and art. This rise necessarily led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.

Conclusion.

So. Now we can draw a conclusion from my essay, which is called “Culture of the Middle Ages.” It is clear from the work that since the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conditionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” was in one way or another the property of all members of society (p. 356 ).

The thinking of the Middle Ages was predominantly theological.

The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practices of the common people, was influenced by them. As an example, we can cite the sanctioning by the church of the cult of saints in its popular interpretation.

The magical approach to nature extended to Christian rituals, and belief in miracles was widespread.

The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The higher clergy was the only educated class, but the medieval European, including the upper strata of society, was illiterate. The level of literacy even for priests in parishes was appallingly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century the church realized the need to have educated personnel and began to open theological seminaries.

Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths and magic spells.

Sermons, which represent a significant layer of medieval culture, became the “translation” of the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite into a language accessible to all people. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking. Special literature was created that popularly presented the fundamentals of Christian teaching, giving the flock models to follow. This literature was mainly intended for priests to use in their daily activities.

Bibliography.

1. Gurevich A.Ya. “The Medieval World: The Culture of the Silent Majority.” M., 1990

2. Gurevich A.Ya. “Problems of medieval folk culture.” M., 1981

· Introduction……………………………………………………2

· Christian consciousness is the basis of the medieval mentality………….4

· Scientific culture in the Middle Ages………….……7

· Artistic culture of medieval Europe…….….10

· Medieval music and theater………………16

· Conclusion…………………………………………..21

· List of references……………….22

INTRODUCTION

Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period covers more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.

Within the thousand-year period of the Middle Ages, it is customary to distinguish at least three periods. This:

Early Middle Ages, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 (until the X - XI centuries);

High (Classical) Middle Ages. From the X-XI centuries to approximately the XIV century;

Late Middle Ages, XIV and XV centuries.

The Early Middle Ages was a time when turbulent and very important processes took place in Europe. First of all, these are the invasions of the so-called barbarians (from the Latin barba - beard), who, already from the 2nd century AD, constantly attacked the Roman Empire and settled on the lands of its provinces. These invasions ended with the fall of Rome.

New Western Europeans, as a rule, adopted Christianity , which in Rome towards the end of its existence was the state religion. Christianity in its various forms gradually replaced pagan beliefs throughout the Roman Empire, and this process did not stop after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.

The third significant process was the formation of new state entities on the territory of the former Roman Empire , created by the same “barbarians”. Numerous Frankish, Germanic, Gothic and other tribes were in fact not so wild. Most of them already had the beginnings of statehood, mastered crafts, including agriculture and metallurgy, and were organized on the principles of military democracy. Tribal leaders began to proclaim themselves kings, dukes, etc., constantly fighting with each other and subjugating their weaker neighbors. At Christmas 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned Catholic in Rome and as Emperor of the entire European west. Later (900) the Holy Roman Empire broke up into countless duchies, counties, margraviates, bishoprics, abbeys and other fiefs. Their rulers behaved like completely sovereign masters, not considering it necessary to obey any emperors or kings. However, the processes of formation of state entities continued in subsequent periods. A characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages was the constant looting and devastation to which the inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire were subjected. And these robberies and raids significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.

During the classical, or high, Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome these difficulties and revive. Since the 10th century, cooperation under the laws of feudalism made it possible to create larger state structures and gather fairly strong armies. Thanks to this, it was possible to stop the invasions, significantly limit robberies, and then gradually go on the offensive. In 1024, the Crusaders took the Eastern Roman Empire from the Byzantines, and in 1099 they captured the Holy Land from the Muslims. True, in 1291 both were lost again. However, the Moors were expelled from Spain forever. Eventually Western Christians gained dominance over the Mediterranean Sea and it. islands. Numerous missionaries brought Christianity to the kingdoms of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, so that these states entered the orbit of Western culture.

The relative stability that ensued provided the opportunity for rapid growth of cities and the pan-European economy. Life in Western Europe changed greatly, society quickly lost its barbaric features, and spiritual life flourished in the cities. In general, European society has become much richer and more civilized than during the ancient Roman Empire. An outstanding role in this was played by the Christian Church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization. On the basis of the artistic traditions of Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque and then brilliant Gothic art arose, and along with architecture and literature, all other types of it developed - theater, music, sculpture, painting, literature. It was during this era that, for example, such literary masterpieces as “The Song of Roland” and “The Romance of the Rose” were created. Of particular importance was the fact that during this period Western European scientists had the opportunity to read the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, primarily Aristotle. On this basis the great philosophical system Middle Ages - scholasticism.

The later Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. However, their progress was far from smooth. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced great famines. Numerous epidemics, especially the bubonic plague (“Black Death”), also brought inexhaustible human casualties. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down the development of culture. However, in the end the cities were revived, crafts were established, Agriculture and trade. People who survived pestilence and war were given the opportunity to organize their lives better than in previous eras. The feudal nobility, the aristocrats, began to build magnificent palaces for themselves, both on their estates and in cities, instead of castles. The new rich from the “low” classes imitated them in this, creating everyday comfort and an appropriate lifestyle. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, and art, especially in Northern Italy. This rise necessarily led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.

Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. In conditions of difficult and meager life, against the backdrop of extremely limited and most often unreliable knowledge about the world, Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, about its structure, about the forces and laws operating in it. Let's add to this the emotional appeal of Christianity with its warmth, universally significant preaching of love and understandable norms of social coexistence (Decalogue), with the romantic elation and ecstasy of the plot about the redemptive sacrifice, and finally, with the affirmation of the equality of all people without exception in the highest authority, so that to at least approximately assess the contribution of Christianity to the worldview, to the worldview of medieval Europeans.

This picture of the world, which completely determined the mentality of believing villagers and townspeople, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.

In the most general terms, the world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical logic, as a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the Apostles, those closest to God, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and cardinals, then clerics at lower levels, and below them ordinary laypeople. Then animals are placed even further from God and closer to the earth, then plants and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a “minus” sign, in a seemingly underground world, with increasing evil and proximity to Satan. He is placed at the top of this second, chthonic pyramid, acting as a being symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with the opposite sign (reflecting like a mirror). If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

Medieval Europeans, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings and emperors, were illiterate. The level of literacy and education even of the clergy in the parishes was terribly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have educated personnel, began to open theological seminaries, etc. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The masses of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only clergy were allowed to interpret it. However, their education and literacy were, as has been said, very low. Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells.

At the same time, the meaning of the word, written and especially sounded, in medieval culture was unusually great. Prayers, perceived functionally as spells, sermons, biblical stories, magical formulas - all this also shaped the medieval mentality. People are accustomed to intensely peering into the surrounding reality, perceiving it as a kind of text, as a system of symbols containing a certain higher meaning. These word symbols had to be able to recognize and extract divine meaning from them. This, in particular, explains many of the features of medieval artistic culture, designed for the perception in space of just such a deeply religious and symbolic, verbally armed mentality. Even painting there was primarily a revealed word, like the Bible itself. The word was universal, approached everything, explained everything, was hidden behind all phenomena as their hidden meaning. Therefore, for the medieval consciousness, the medieval mentality, culture first of all expressed the meanings, the soul of a person, brought a person closer to God, as if transported to another world, to a space different from earthly existence. And this space looked the way it was described in the Bible, the lives of saints, the writings of the church fathers and the sermons of priests. Accordingly, the behavior of the medieval European and all his activities were determined.

Scientific culture in the Middle Ages

The Christian Church in the Middle Ages was completely indifferent to Greek and generally to pagan science and philosophy. The main problem that the church fathers tried to solve was to master the knowledge of the “pagans”, while defining the boundaries between reason and faith. Christianity was forced to compete with the minds of pagans, such as the Hellenists, Romans, and with Jewish learning. But in this competition it had to remain strictly on a biblical basis. We may recall here that many church fathers had an education in the field of classical philosophy, which was essentially non-Christian. The church fathers were well aware that the many rational and mystical systems contained in the works of pagan philosophers would greatly complicate the development of traditional Christian thinking and consciousness.

A partial solution to this problem was proposed in the 5th century by St. Augustine. However, the chaos that ensued in Europe as a result of the invasion of Germanic tribes and the decline of the Western Roman Empire pushed back serious debate about the role and acceptability of pagan rational science in Christian society for seven centuries, and only in the 10th-11th centuries, after the Arab conquest of Spain and Sicily, was interest in the development of ancient history revived heritage. For the same reason, Christian culture was now capable of accepting the original works of Islamic scholars. The result was an important movement that involved collecting Greek and Arabic manuscripts, translating them into Latin, and commenting on them. The West received in this way not only the complete body of Aristotle's works, but also the works of Euclid and Ptolemy.

Universities, which appeared in Europe in the 12th century, became centers scientific research, helping to establish Aristotle's unquestioned scientific authority. In the middle of the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas carried out a synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian doctrine. He emphasized the harmony of reason and faith, thereby strengthening the foundations of natural theology. But the Thomist synthesis did not remain without a response challenge. In 1277, after the death of Aquinas, the Archbishop of Paris declared 219 of Thomas's statements contained in his writings unsuitable. As a result, the nominalist doctrine was developed (W. Ockham). Nominalism, which sought to separate science from theology, became a cornerstone in the redefinition of the fields of science and theology later in the 17th century. More complete information about philosophical culture European Middle Ages should be given in a philosophy course. During the 13th and 14th centuries, European scientists seriously praised the fundamental foundations of Aristotelian methodology and physics. English Franciscans Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon introduced mathematical and experimental methods into the field of science, and contributed to discussions about vision and the nature of light and color. Their Oxford followers introduced quantitative, reasoning and physical approaches through their studies of accelerated motion. Across the Channel, in Paris, Jean Buridan and others began the concept of momentum, while introducing a series of bold ideas into astronomy that opened the door to the pantheism of Nicholas of Cusa.

Alchemy occupied an important place in the scientific culture of the European Middle Ages. Alchemy was devoted primarily to the search for a substance that could transform ordinary metals into gold or silver and serve as a means of endlessly prolonging human life. Although its aims and means were highly questionable and often illusory, alchemy was in many respects the forerunner of modern science, especially chemistry. The first reliable works of European alchemy that have come down to us belong to the English monk Roger Bacon and the German philosopher Albertus Magnus. They both believed in the possibility of transmutation of lower metals into gold. This idea captured the imagination and greed of many people throughout the Middle Ages. They believed that gold was the most perfect metal, and that lower metals were less perfect than gold. Therefore they tried to make or invent a substance called the philosopher's stone, which is more perfect than gold, and therefore can be used to improve the lower metals to the level of gold. Roger Bacon believed that gold, dissolved in aquaregia, was the elixir of life. Albertus Magnus was the greatest practical chemist of his time. The Russian scientist V.L. Rabinovich made a brilliant analysis of alchemy and showed that it was a typical product of medieval culture, combining a magical and mythological vision of the world with sober practicality and an experimental approach.

Perhaps the most paradoxical result of medieval scientific culture is the emergence of new principles of knowledge and learning on the basis of scholastic methods and irrational Christian dogmatics. Trying to find a harmony of faith and reason, to combine irrational dogmas and experimental methods, thinkers in monasteries and theological schools gradually created fundamentally new way organization of thinking - disciplinary. The most developed form of theoretical thinking of that time was theology.

It was theologians, discussing the problems of synthesis of pagan rational philosophy and Christian biblical principles, who found those forms of activity and knowledge transfer that turned out to be the most effective and necessary for the emergence and development of modern science: the principles of teaching, evaluation, recognition of truth, which are used in science today. “The dissertation, defense, debate, title, citation network, scientific apparatus, explanation with contemporaries using supports - references to predecessors, priority, ban on repetition-plagiarism - all this appeared in the process of reproduction of spiritual personnel, where the vow of celibacy forced the use of “foreign” "For the spiritual profession, the younger generations."

The theology of medieval Europe, in search of a new explanation of the world, began for the first time to focus not on simple reproduction of already known knowledge, but to create new conceptual schemes that could unite such different, practically incompatible systems of knowledge. This ultimately led to the emergence of a new paradigm of thinking - forms, procedures, attitudes, ideas, assessments, with the help of which participants in discussions achieve mutual understanding. M.K. Petrov called this new paradigm disciplinary (Ibid.). He showed that medieval Western European theology acquired all the characteristic features of future scientific disciplines. These include “a basic set of disciplinary rules, procedures, requirements for a completed product, and methods for reproducing disciplinary personnel.” The pinnacle of these methods of personnel reproduction has become the university, a system in which all of the listed findings flourish and work. The university as a principle, as a specialized organization can be considered the greatest invention of the Middle Ages .

Artistic culture of medieval Europe.

Roman style.

The first independent, specifically European artistic style of medieval Europe was Romanesque, which characterized the art and architecture of Western Europe from about 1000 until the emergence of Gothic, in most regions until about the second half and end of the 12th century, and in some later. It arose as a result of the synthesis of the remains of the artistic culture of Rome and barbarian tribes. At first it was the proto-Romanesque style.

At the end of the Proto-Roman period, elements of the Romanesque style were mixed with Byzantine, with Middle Eastern, especially Syrian, which also came to Syria from Byzantium; with Germanic, with Celtic, with features of the styles of other northern tribes. Various combinations of these influences created a variety of local styles in Western Europe, which received the general name Romanesque, meaning “in the manner of the Romans.” Since the main number of surviving ones is fundamentally important monuments Proto-Romanesque and Romanesque styles are architectural structures: the various styles of this period are often distinguished by schools of architecture. Architecture V-VIII centuries are usually simple, with the exception of buildings in Ravenna, (Italy), erected according to Byzantine rules. Buildings were often created from or decorated with elements taken from old Roman buildings. In many regions this style was a continuation of early Christian art. Round or polygonal cathedral churches, borrowed from Byzantine architecture, were built during the Pre-Romanesque period;

later they were erected in Aquitaine in southwestern France and Scandinavia. The most famous and best-developed examples of this type are the Cathedral of San Vitalo of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in Ravenna (526-548) and the octagonal palace chapel built between 792 and 805 by Charlemagne in Isle of Capelle (presently Aachen, Germany), directly inspired by the Cathedral of San Vitalo. One of the creations of Carolingian architects was the westwork, a multi-story entrance facade flanked by bell towers, which began to be added to Christian basilicas. Westworks were the prototypes of the facades of giant Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.

Important buildings were also designed in the monastic style. Monasteries, characteristic religious and social phenomenon of that era, they required huge buildings that combined both monks’ homes and chapels, rooms for prayers and services, libraries, and workshops. Elaborate pre-Romanesque monastic complexes were erected at St. Gall (Switzerland), on the island of Reichenau (German side of Lake Constance) and at Monte Cassino (Italy) by Benedictine monks.

The outstanding achievement of the architects of the Romanesque period was the development of buildings with stone voltae (arched, supporting structures). The main reason for the development of stone arches was the need to replace the highly flammable wooden floors of pre-Romanesque buildings. The introduction of voltaic structures led to the general use of heavy walls and pillars.

Sculpture. Most Romanesque sculptures were integrated into church architecture and served both structural, constructive and aesthetic purposes. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about Romanesque sculpture without touching on church architecture. Small-sized sculpture of the pre-Roman era made of bone, bronze, and gold was made under the influence of Byzantine models. Other elements of numerous local styles were borrowed from the crafts of the Middle East, known for imported illuminated manuscripts, bone carvings, gold objects, ceramics, and textiles. Also important were motifs derived from the arts of migrating peoples, such as grotesque figures, images of monsters, and intertwined geometric patterns, especially in areas north of the Alps. Large-scale stone sculptural decorations only became common in Europe in the 12th century. In the French Romanesque cathedrals of Provence, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, many figures were placed on the facades, and statues on the columns emphasized the vertical supporting elements.

Painting. Existing examples of Romanesque painting include decorations of architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract designs, as well as wall decorations with images of hanging fabrics. Pictorial compositions, in particular narrative scenes based on biblical subjects and from the lives of saints, were also depicted on wide surfaces of the walls. In these compositions, which largely follow Byzantine painting and mosaics, the figures are stylized and flat, so that they are perceived more as symbols than as realistic representations. Mosaic, just like painting, was essentially a Byzantine technique and was widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches, especially St. Mark's Basilica (Venice) and the Sicilian churches at Cefalu and Montreal.

decorative arts . Proto-Roman artists reached the highest level in illustrating manuscripts. In England, an important school of manuscript illustration arose already in the 7th century at Holy Island (Lindisfarne). Works of this school, exhibited in British Museum(London), are distinguished by the geometric interweaving of patterns in capital letters, frames, and they densely cover entire pages, which are called carpets. Drawings of capital letters are often enlivened by grotesque figures of people, birds, and monsters.

Regional schools of manuscript illustration in southern and eastern Europe developed different specific styles, as can be seen, for example, in the copy of the Apocalypse of Beata (Paris, National Library), made in the mid-11th century at the monastery of Saint-Sever in northern France. At the beginning of the 12th century, the illustration of manuscripts in the northern countries acquired common features, just as the same thing happened at that time with sculpture. In Italy, Byzantine influence continued to dominate in both miniature painting, wall paintings, and mosaics.

Proto-Roman and Romanesque metal processing- a widespread art form - were used mainly to create church utensils for religious rituals. Many of these works remain to this day in the treasuries of great cathedrals outside France; French cathedrals were looted during the French Revolution. Other metalwork from this period is early Celtic filigree jewelry and silver objects; late products of German goldsmiths and silver items inspired by imported Byzantine metal products, as well as wonderful enamels, especially cloisonné and champlevé, made in the areas of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. Two famous metalworkers were Roger of Gelmar-Schausen, a German known for his bronze work, and the French enameller Godefroy de Clare.

The most famous example of Romanesque textile work is the 11th century embroidery called the Bayeux Tapestry. Other examples survive, such as church vestments and draperies, but the most valuable textiles in Romanesque Europe were imported from Byzantine Empire, Spain and the Middle East and are not the products of local craftsmen.

Gothic art and architecture

The Romanesque style was replaced by a new style, the Gothic, as cities flourished and social relations improved. Religious and secular buildings, sculpture, colored glass, illuminated manuscripts, and other works of fine art began to be executed in this style in Europe during the second half of the Middle Ages.

Gothic art originated in France around 1140, spread throughout Europe over the next century, and continued to exist in Western Europe throughout most of the 15th century, and in some regions of Europe into the 16th century. The word Gothic was originally used by writers of the Italian Renaissance as a derogatory label for all forms of architecture and art of the Middle Ages, which were considered comparable only to the works of the barbarian Goths. Later use of the term "Gothic" was limited to the period of the late, high or classical Middle Ages, immediately following the Romanesque. Currently, the Gothic period is considered one of the most outstanding in the history of European artistic culture.

The main representative and exponent of the Gothic period was architecture. Although a huge number of Gothic monuments were secular, the Gothic style served primarily the church, the most powerful builder in the Middle Ages, which ensured the development of this new architecture for that time and achieved its fullest realization.

The aesthetic quality of Gothic architecture depends on its structural development: ribbed vaults became a characteristic feature of the Gothic style. Medieval churches had powerful stone vaults that were very heavy. They tried to open up and push out the walls. This could lead to the collapse of the building. Therefore, the walls must be thick and heavy enough to support such vaults. At the beginning of the 12th century, masons developed ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches located diagonally, transversely and longitudinally. The new vault, which was thinner, lighter and more versatile (since it could have many sides), solved many architectural problems. Although early Gothic churches allowed for a wide variety of forms, the construction of a series of great cathedrals in northern France, beginning in the second half of the 12th century, took full advantage of the new Gothic vault. Cathedral architects discovered that external thrust forces from vaults were now concentrated in narrow areas at the joints of the ribs, and could therefore be easily counteracted by buttresses and external flying buttresses. Consequently, the thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be replaced by thinner ones that included extensive window openings, and interiors received illumination hitherto unparalleled. Therefore, a real revolution took place in the construction business.

With the advent of the Gothic vault, both the design, shape, and layout and interiors of cathedrals changed. Gothic cathedrals acquired general character lightness, upward striving, have become much more dynamic and expressive. The first of the great cathedrals was Notre Dame (begun in 1163). In 1194, the cathedral of Chartres was founded, which is considered the beginning of the High Gothic period. The culmination of this era was the Cathedral of Reims (begun in 1210). Rather cold and all-conquering in its finely balanced proportions, Reims Cathedral represents a moment of classical peace and serenity in the evolution of Gothic cathedrals. Openwork partitions, characteristic Late Gothic architecture was the invention of the first architect of Reims Cathedral. Fundamentally new interior solutions were found by the author of the cathedral in Bourges (begun in 1195). The influence of French Gothic quickly spread throughout Europe: Spain, Germany, England. In Italy it was not so strong.

Sculpture. Following Romanesque traditions, in numerous niches on the facades of French Gothic cathedrals, a huge number of figures carved from stone were placed as decorations, personifying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church. Gothic sculpture in the 12th and early 13th centuries was predominantly architectural in nature. The largest and most important figures were placed in the openings on both sides of the entrance. Because they were attached to columns, they were known as column statues. Along with columnar statues, free-standing monumental statues were widespread, an art form unknown in Western Europe since Roman times. The earliest that have come down to us are the column statues in the western portal of Chartres Cathedral. They were still in the old pre-Gothic cathedral and date from around 1155. The slender, cylindrical figures follow the shape of the columns to which they were attached. They are executed in a cool, austere, linear Romanesque style, which nevertheless gives the figures an impressive character of purposeful spirituality.

From 1180, Romanesque stylization began to transition into a new one, when the statues acquired a sense of grace, sinuousness and freedom of movement. This so-called classical style culminates in the first decades of the 13th century in the large series of sculptures on the portals of the north and south transepts of Chartres Cathedral.

The emergence of naturalism. Beginning around 1210 on the Coronation Portal of Notre Dame Cathedral and after 1225 on the West Portal of Amiens Cathedral, the ripple effect of classical surface design begins to give way to more formal volumes. The statues of Reims Cathedral and the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle Cathedral have exaggerated smiles, emphatically almond-shaped eyes, curls arranged in bunches on small heads and mannered poses that produce a paradoxical impression of a synthesis of naturalistic forms, delicate affectation and subtle spirituality.

Medieval music and theater

Medieval music is predominantly spiritual in nature and is a necessary component of the Catholic mass. At the same time, already in the early Middle Ages, secular music began to take shape.

The first important form of secular music were the songs of the troubadours in the Provençal language. Beginning in the 11th century, the songs of the troubadours remained influential in many other countries for more than 200 years, especially in northern France. The pinnacle of the art of troubadours was reached around 1200 by Bernard de Ventadorn, Giraud de Bornel Folke de Marseille. Bernard is famous for his three texts about unrequited love. Some of the poetic forms anticipate the 14th century ballad with its three stanzas of 7 or 8 lines. Others talk about the crusaders or discuss some love trivia. Pastorals in numerous stanzas convey banal stories about knights and shepherdesses. Dance songs, such as rondo and virelai, are also in their repertoire. All this monophonic music could sometimes have accompaniment on a string or wind instrument. This was the case until the 14th century, when secular music became polyphonic.

Medieval theater. Ironically, theater in the form of liturgical drama was revived in Roman Europe Catholic Church. As the church sought ways to expand its influence, it often adapted pagan and folk festivals, many of which contained theatrical elements. In the 10th century many church holidays provided the possibility of dramatization: generally speaking, the Mass itself is nothing more than a drama.

Certain holidays were famous for their theatricality, such as the procession to church on Palm Sunday. Antiphonal or question-and-answer songs, chants, masses and canonical chorales are dialogues. In the 9th century, antiphonal chimes, known as tropes, were included in the complex musical elements of the mass. The Three-Part Paths (dialogue between the three Marys and the angels at the tomb of Christ) by an unknown author from about 925 are considered the source of liturgical drama. In 970, a record of instructions or manuals for this small drama appeared, including elements of costume and gestures.

Religious drama or miracle plays. Over the next two hundred years, liturgical drama slowly developed, incorporating various biblical stories acted out by priests or choir boys. At first, church vestments and existing architectural details churches, but soon more ceremonial design details were invented. As liturgical drama developed, it presented many biblical themes in succession, typically depicting scenes from the creation of the world to the crucifixion of Christ. These plays were called differently - passions (Passion), miracles (Miracles), holy plays. Appropriate decorations rose around the church nave, usually with heaven in the altar and a Hellmouth - an elaborate monster's head with a gaping mouth, representing the entrance to hell - at the opposite end of the nave. Therefore, all scenes of the play could be presented simultaneously, and the participants in the action moved around the church from one place to another depending on the scenes.

The plays were apparently episodic, spanning periods of literally thousands of years, moving the action to a variety of locations, and presenting the setting and spirit of different times, as well as allegories. Unlike ancient Greek tragedy, which clearly focused on creating the preconditions and conditions for catharsis, medieval drama did not always show conflict and tension. Its purpose was to dramatize the salvation of the human race.

Although the church supported early liturgical drama in its didactic quality, entertainment and showmanship increased and began to predominate, and the church began to express suspicion of drama. Not wanting to lose the beneficial effects of the theater, the church compromised by removing dramatic performances from the walls of the church churches themselves. The same material design began to be recreated in the market squares of cities. While maintaining its religious content and orientation, the drama became much more secular in its production character.

Medieval secular drama. In the 14th century, theatrical productions were associated with the feast of Corpus Christi and developed into cycles that included up to 40 plays. Some scholars believe that these cycles developed independently, although simultaneously with liturgical drama. They were presented to the community over an entire four to five year period. Each production could last one or two days and was staged once a month. The production of each play was financed by some workshop or trade guild, and usually they tried to somehow connect the specialization of the workshop with the subject of the play - for example, a shipbuilding workshop could stage a play about Noah. Since the performers were often illiterate amateurs, the anonymous authors of the plays tended to write in easy-to-remember, primitive verse. In accordance with the medieval worldview, historical accuracy was often ignored, and the logic of cause-and-effect relationships was not always respected.

Realism was used selectively in productions. The plays are full of anachronisms, references to purely local circumstances known only to contemporaries; only minimal attention was paid to the realities of time and place. The costumes, furnishings and utensils were entirely modern (medieval European). Something could be depicted with extreme precision - there are reports of actors almost dying due to too realistic execution of a crucifixion or hanging, and of actors who literally burned to death while playing the devil. On the other hand, the episode of the retreat of the waters of the Red Sea could be indicated by simply throwing a red cloth over the pursuing Egyptians as a sign that the sea had swallowed them up.

The free mixture of the real and the symbolic did not hinder medieval perception. Spectacles and folk plays were performed wherever possible, and the hellmouth was usually a favorite object of effort for the masters of mechanical wonders and pyrotechnicians. Despite the religious content of the cycles, they increasingly became entertainment. Three main forms of production were used. In England, carnival floats were the most common. The earlier ecclesiastical settings gave way to elaborate traveling scenes, such as small modern ships that moved from place to place in the city. Spectators gathered in each such place: the performers worked on platforms of carts, or on stages built on the streets. They did the same in Spain. In France, synchronized productions were used - various sets were raised one after another on the sides of a long, raised platform in front of the assembled spectators. Finally, again in England, plays were sometimes staged "in the round" - on a circular stage, with the scenery placed around the circumference of the arena and the audience sitting or standing between the scenery.

Moral plays. During the same period, folk plays, secular farces and pastorals appeared for the most part anonymous authors who stubbornly maintained the character of worldly entertainment. All this influenced the evolution of morality plays in the 15th century. Although written on themes of Christian theology with corresponding characters, morality plays were not like cycles, since they did not present episodes from the Bible. They were allegorical, self-contained dramas and were performed by professionals such as minstrels or jugglers. Plays such as Everyman usually dealt with the life path of an individual. The allegorical characters included such figures as Death, Gluttony, Good Deeds and other vices and virtues.

These plays are in some places difficult and boring for modern perception: the rhymes of the poems are repeated, improvised in nature, the plays are two to three times longer than Shakespeare's dramas, and the moral is stated in a straightforward and didactic manner. However, the performers, by incorporating music and action into the performances and using the comic capabilities of numerous characters of vices and demons, created a form of folk drama.

Conclusion

So, the Middle Ages in Western Europe were a time of intense spiritual life, a complex and difficult search for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of the previous millennia. During this era, people were able to reach new road cultural development, different from what was known in former times. Trying to reconcile faith and reason, building a picture of the world on the basis of the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life, a new economy, and prepared people's consciousness for the use of mechanical devices and technology. Contrary to the opinion of the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance, the Middle Ages left us with the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including the institutions of scientific knowledge and education. Among them, we should mention, first of all, the university as a principle. In addition, a new paradigm of thinking arose, a disciplinary structure of knowledge without which modern science would have been impossible, people were able to think and understand the world much more effectively than before. Even the fantastic recipes of alchemists played a role in this process of improving the spiritual means of thinking and the general level of culture.

The image proposed by M.K. Petrov could not be more successful: he compared medieval culture to scaffolding. It is impossible to build a building without them. But when the building is completed, the scaffolding is removed, and one can only guess what it looked like and how it was constructed. Medieval culture in relation to our modern culture played precisely the role of such forests:

Without it, Western culture would not have arisen, although medieval culture itself was largely unlike it. Therefore we need to understand historical reason such a strange name for this long and important era in the development of European culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

· Gurevich A. Ya. Medieval world; culture of the silent majority. M., 1990.

· Petrov M.K. Social and cultural foundations of the development of modern science. M., 1992.

· Radugin A.A. Culturology: tutorial. M., 1999.