Post medieval culture. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

European culture as such began to take shape precisely at the moment when the cultural tradition of antiquity was stopped (or?) and precisely in the same geographical region. In many ways, medieval culture was determined by the very concept of Christianity, which was a form that met the cultural and ideological needs of society. At the origins of European culture were the church fathers, who laid the foundations of Catholicism, since in the Middle Ages culture was predominantly religious. Moreover, for a long time only the clergy was the most educated layer of Europe. The Church could not go through those elements of secular education that it inherited from antiquity and without which Christianity itself, adopted from antiquity, would simply remain incomprehensible. The Bible and writings of church writers were available Western Middle Ages only in Latin. The first attempt to bring together all the elements of ancient knowledge, which the church considered necessary to use for its own purposes, was made back in the 5th century. African writer Marcian Capella. In his book “On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury” he gave summary those subjects that formed the basis of education in the ancient school and were known as the “seven liberal arts”, i.e. grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music. In the VI century. Boethius and Cassiodorus divided these seven arts into 2 parts - the trivium - (the crossroads of the three paths of knowledge) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectic and quadrivium - the rest. The trivium was considered the first stage of education, the quadrivium the highest. In this form, these items were included in all medieval textbooks and were preserved until the 15th century. Rhetoric was viewed by representatives of the Christian Church as a subject that teaches church eloquence, dialectics (or rather, formal logic) as a handmaiden of theology, helping to defeat heretics in disputes; arithmetic - as a subject that facilitates the religious and mystical interpretation of numbers found in the Holy Scriptures; geometry - description of the earth (“And here are the deserted deserts (in Ethiopia), and the inhuman faces of monstrous tribes. Some have no nose, the whole face is smooth and flat... Others have fused mouths, and through a small hole they suck food with an ear of oats... But the Moorish Ethiopians , have four eyes, and this is for the sake of accurate shooting." "In the Ganges there is a worm that has two claws, with which it grabs an elephant and dives with it under the water."); music was needed for church chants; astronomy made it possible to determine the dates of church holidays. According to the teachings of the church, the earth is a disk floating in water, and the sky is a vault supported by four pillars, the center of the earth is Jerusalem. Most attention was devoted to grammar - the queen of sciences. In the images, the grammarian was shown in the form of a queen with a bunch of rods in her left hand, and with a knife for erasing texts in her right. IN medieval schools Corporal punishment flourished. A French monk wrote a grammar manual called “Watch Your Back.” The expressions “being in training” and “walking under the rod” were synonymous. The works of ancient authors studied during the trivium were cut down as the clergy considered necessary. The same was done with works for the quadrivium. Therefore, many works of ancient authors were irretrievably lost in the early Middle Ages. They could have written on them (palimpsest). In the early Middle Ages, authors appeared whose works were also later used as the basis for medieval education. Master of the Office of the Ostrogothic King Severinus Boethius (480-525). His treatises on arithmetic, music, works on logic and theology, translations of Aristotle's logical works became the basis of medieval philology and education. He is sometimes called the father of scholasticism. He was accused and thrown into prison, where he wrote the treatise “Consolation of Philosophy” before his execution. Quaestor and Master of the Offices of the Ostrogothic King Flavius ​​Cassiodorus (490-585) - wanted to create the first university, but failed. His work "Varii". Vivarium founded the monastery on his estate = Cultural Center, school, scriptorium, library, which became a model for Benedictine monasteries. Visigothic Spain gave the world an educator - Isidore of Seville (570-636) - the first medieval encyclopedist. “Etymology” - 20 books, collected everything that has been preserved from antiquity. In the second half of the 7th century. cultural life Western Europe fell into decline, except for Ireland, where there were pockets of education in the monasteries, from there this education went around the world - the Venerable Bede “Ecclesiastical History of the Angles”, Alcuin and others. But in the early Middle Ages, chronicles began to appear - “Getica” by Jordan, “The History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals and Sueves” by Isidore of Seville, “The History of the Lombards” by Paul the Deacon, “The History of the Franks” by Gregory of Tours. The rise of Western European culture dates back to the reign of Charlemagne, hence the name Carolingian Renaissance. Under Charlemagne, various copies of the Bible were compared and its single canonical text was established for the entire Carolingian state. The liturgy was reformed and became uniform according to the Roman model. Around 787, the “Capitulary on Sciences” appeared, according to which schools were to be created in all dioceses, at every monastery, where not only clergy, but also children of lay people studied. A reform of writing was also carried out - minuscules and majuscules. Textbooks appeared. The center of education is the court academy in Aachen. Alcuin was discharged from Britain. His most famous student is the encyclopedist Hraban the Maurus. The heyday of education did not last long. And in the 9th century. Ferrières abbot Servat Lupe († 862) wrote, “For anyone in our time to move from grammar to rhetoric, and then in order to other sciences is an unprecedented thing.”

As cities developed, they experienced an ever-increasing need for educated, especially literate, people. This need gave rise to new, non-church schools, which differed in both their program and student composition. These schools were a special phenomenon in the intellectual life of medieval society. A specific feature non-church school of the 12th century. was that it was a private school, i.e. a school which was not maintained by the church, and whose masters subsisted on fees collected from the students. Especially many such schools arose in Northern France. The most famous schools in the middle of the 12th century. there were the Parisian schools of Guillaume of Conches and Pierre Abelard. The grammarian and dialectician Guillaume was famous for the thoroughness of his lectures and his love for ancient authors. Being a follower of Democritus and Epicurus, Guillaume tried to explain to his students the teaching of Democritus about atoms and sought to find a natural explanation for all natural phenomena, denying supernatural explanations. Guillaume's treatises attracted the attention of the church and were condemned by it. One of the brightest representatives of urban culture was Abelard (1079-1142), who by birth belonged to the knighthood, but became first a wandering schoolboy and then a master of liberal arts. He founded one non-church school after another. Was extremely popular. But the church is not in honor because of its philosophical views. He entered into a dispute with the head of the cathedral school of Paris, Guillaume of Champeaux, on the issue of the so-called. "universals" or general concepts. The dispute revolved around the question of whether general concepts have real existence, or whether they are just simple names for a number of individual phenomena. Medieval nominalists considered general concepts - universals - words or names (nomina), arising only on the basis of reality (universalia post rem). Medieval realists viewed universals from a purely idealistic point of view, as certain things (res) existing before real world and regardless of the latter (universalia ante rem). Abelard took a position close to nominalism (conceptualist), Guillaume of Champeaux was a realist. Abelard was condemned at the Council of Sens in 1140. He himself burned one of his best treatises. His studies with Eloise led to emasculation and sending both of them to a monastery, where the brethren did not like him and intrigued against him.

In the 12th century. in the West, a higher school - a university - begins to take shape (from the Latin universitas - totality). This was the name given to associations of teachers and students. The first university in Europe was considered to be Bologna, which arose at the end of the 11th century. based on the Bolognese school, where the famous expert on Roman law Irnerius taught. Gradually, the Bologna school turned into a “general” school (stadium generale), and then into a university. The oldest uni in Europe was the uni of Salerno, which arose from the Salerno medical school (811-1811). Typical medieval university was Paris, which received the first royal charter with the legalization of its rights in 1200. The University of Paris united both students and teachers. Those who were involved in its maintenance (booksellers, scribes, messengers, pharmacists and even innkeepers) were also considered members of the university. All university teachers were united in special organizations - faculties (from Latin - facultas - ability, i.e. the ability to teach a particular subject). Subsequently, the faculty began to be understood as that department of the university in which a certain branch of knowledge was taught. The University of Paris had 4 faculties - artistic, where the seven liberal arts (septem artes liberalis) were studied (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music) and 3 senior ones - medical, theological, legal, for which students were accepted only after graduating from the artistic faculty. Those. the artistic faculty provided an educational base, after which one could study further. Only those persons who had bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees could be teachers. They chose their head - the dean. Students (from the word studere - to study diligently) united into community corporations, provinces, and nations. In the Parisian uni there were 4 nations - Norman, English, Picardy, Gallic. At the head of each nation was an elected person - the procurator, and all 4 nations elected the head of the uni - the rector. The Uni was subordinate to the Chancellor of Notre Dame Cathedral and the Pope. All students and teachers were clerics, took a vow of celibacy, and wore dark dresses. True, doctors (medical doctors) were allowed to marry. The faculties differed sharply from each other in their numbers. The most numerous was the artistic department, the completion of which gave the student a Bachelor of Arts degree and the right to teach the latter outside the walls of the uni. (A degree obtained at one uni did not immediately begin to be recognized in others. The first deviation from this discrimination was made in Toulouse - the papal bull of 1233 endowed everyone who received a degree there with the right to teach everywhere. The first incidents related to with the awarding of academic degrees. Thus, the Parisian uni, which was on bad terms with the Dominican Order, refused Thomas Aquinas a doctorate for five years.) Therefore, they sought to obtain a license to teach at the uni and become a Master of Liberal Arts. The legal department was in second place in terms of number. Only one third of all those entering uni left with a bachelor's degree, and only 1/16 with a master's degree, all the rest left uni, content with the knowledge they acquired at a lower faculty. To become a bachelor, master, or doctor (the doctorate was first awarded in 1130 in Bologna), one had to give a speech and take part in a debate before worthy people who tested the candidate’s knowledge. Then there was a party to be had. "Aristotle's Feast" We studied for a long time. It was expensive. Therefore, in the letters: “I appeal to your parental soul and beg you not to leave me in a difficult situation. After all, you yourself will be pleased if I successfully complete my studies in order to return to my homeland with glory. Do not refuse to send money, as well as shoes and stockings, with the bearer of this letter.” Training - lecture, debates. During the lectures, the teacher (who came to the scholars) (the teachers’ salaries were paid by both the city and the scholars themselves) read and commented on books that were studied in a particular department. Dispute participants reached great art. Thus, Duns Scott, participating in a dispute organized by the Paris Uni, listened to 200 objections, repeated them from memory and then consistently refuted them. The topic - theses - arguments was brought up for debate. The respondent and the opponent participated. It was necessary to monitor speech and avoid indecent expressions. The entertainment was a debate about anything (disputatio de quodlibet). At the theological faculty, the main debate took place during Lent. Those who survived the Lenten debate received the title of bachelor and the right to wear the red kamilavka. At the Uni of Paris, the degree of doctor (a symbol of doctoral dignity - beret, book, ring) was first awarded in 1231. Training sessions were designed for a whole academic year, only from the end of the 15th century. a division into semesters appeared - a large ordinary academic period - (magnus ordinaries) - from October (St. Remy's Day - October 1 (15), or as at the Paris Uni in the three higher faculties from mid-September to Easter, with a short break for Christmas, and the small ordinary educational period (ordinarius parvas) - from Easter to July 25 (St. James). Classes began at about five in the morning and lasted about four hours, then there were evening classes. Lectures were ordinary and extraordinary. The differences are based on which books, when and how they were read. During ordinary lectures, listeners could not interrupt the lecturer with words or questions, but during extraordinary ones, this was allowed. At the Paris Uni, dictation was prohibited, it was assumed that the lecturer should present the material fluently and without a cheat sheet. If this was not observed, then followed by a fine - they could be suspended from teaching for 1 year, in case of relapse - for 2, 4 years. Repeating the text was also not allowed, with the exception of particularly difficult passages. From the 14th century, uni received the epithet alma mater (as the Romans called the mother of the gods Cybele) . Textbooks - grammar was studied according to a short course by Donatus, then according to Priscian, rhetoric was taught according to Cicero, dialectics according to Aristotle, Boethius, Augustine, etc., doctors - Galen, Hippocrates, jurists - their own authorities.

Colleges began to be built to accommodate students. Although the students rented apartments from the townspeople, there was a rule that the townspeople were not to increase the rent arbitrarily. The first person to take care of the students' lives was Robert de Sorbonne, confessor and physician to the French king Louis IX. A specialization appeared at uni Salerno, Montpellier - medicine, Bologna - law, about the Faculty of Theology in Paris - “all the knots can be untangled here.” Therefore, students often continued to listen to a course of lectures on a particular discipline in different uni at the most famous teachers, undergoing some kind of internship. Therefore, vagantes and goliards, wandering students, appeared. Authors of student poetry. The most famous collection of works by 13th-century vagants. "Carmina Burana", composed by an unknown amateur from southern Bavaria, consisting of over 200 works, mainly of Vagant origin. They are arranged in sequence - moral-satirical poems, love poems, wandering songs, drinking songs, religious hymns and liturgical dramas. Those who finally completed their studies and received a doctorate degree were expected to receive honor and recognition in best case scenario, a good position at court and in society, but in the worst case - how it turns out. In the Middle Ages there were doctors who received epithets for their learning - Francis of Assisi (Giovanni Francesco (del Moricone) (1181-1226) - Doctor of Mariinsky (Marianus), i.e., who dedicated his activities to the Virgin Mary; Albert the Great, Cologne (1198 and 1206 -1280 - doctor comprehensive (Universalis); Roger Bacon (1214-1294) - doctor Amazing (Mirabilis); Henry of Ghent (1217-1293) - triumphant (Solemnis); Bonaventura (Giovanni Fidanza) (1221-1274) - seraphic (seraphicus); Aquinas (1225-1274) - angelic (angelicus); Raymond Lull (1235-1315) - enlightened (illuminatus); Aegidius of Rome (1257-1316) - most thorough (fundatissimus); John Duns Scott (1266-1308) - refined (subtilis); William of Ockham (1285-1349) - invincible (invicibilis); John Charles Gerson (1363-1429) - most Christian (christianissimus); Dionysius the Carthusian (1402-1471) - enthusiastic (extaticus) (Shevelenko A.Ya. Doctor Mariinsky and Doctor Comprehensive // ​​VI. 1994. No. 9. P. 170.) Members of the uni corporation had their own privileges - not subject to the jurisdiction of city authorities, exempt from mutual responsibility for debt obligations, and have the right to secession. Although scholars often get into fights with townspeople, they are judged by their superiors.

Medieval university science was called scholasticism or “school science” (from the Latin schola - school). Its characteristic feature was the desire to rely on authorities and a complete disregard for experience. Ability to use concepts fluently formal logic was considered the main thing among the scholastics. The positive thing about the activities of the scholastic logicians was that they introduced compulsory study of a number of ancient authors into all uni programs, tried to pose and solve important issues knowledge and introduced Western Europe to the works of Arab scientists. In the 12th century. in Cordoba Ibn Roshd (1126-1198) (Averroes) taught, whose teachings were developed in the teachings of Amaury of Ben († 1204), David of Dinan, Siger of Brabant (killed in prison).

An important part of medieval culture are epic tales, which can be considered as collective memory and the custodian of history. At first, the epic was sung by jugglers and shpilmans. Later were written down, in addition, the heroic epic became integral part knightly culture. Epic works are based on real events, but with a touch of the fantastic. The recording of the Anglo-Saxon epic "Beowulf" dates back to 1000. It is about Beowulf (nephew of the ruler of the Geats), who, together with his 14 comrades, offered his services to the ruler of Denmark Hrothgar, who decided to build a huge banquet hall, but the noise disturbed the monster Grendel, who every evening appeared in the hall and destroyed several of Hrothgar's comrades. Beowulf managed to defeat Grendel in battle, and he crawled away to die in his swamp. But the next evening a new monster appeared - Grendel's mother, who decided to avenge her son. Approaching the swamp, the knights saw snakes, dragons, water nyxes, Beowulf sank into the pool to the bottom and defeated her (Beowulf's sword - Hrunting). Beowulf returned home and became a good king. But soon snakes began to visit Beowulf's possessions. The snake guarded the treasures in the cave for 300 years, and after a certain man stole a cup from him, the snake decided to take revenge on the people. Beowulf (now old) went to fight the serpent to keep his country safe. The serpent was killed, but Beowulf also died, receiving a mortal wound.

The Scandinavian sagas consist of 12 songs from the Elder Edda, composed in the ancient North Germanic (Scandinavian) dialect. According to the content of the songs, they are divided into tales about gods and tales about heroes. Some songs set out the concepts of the ancient Scandinavians about the universe and all 9 worlds, the constituent parts of the universe. One of the songs tells how the god Frey wooed the giant's daughter Gerda. In another, how the god Heimdal came to earth to establish classes and establish mutual relations between people. It tells about episodes of Odin's wanderings through the land, about the Aesir (light gods), the Jotungs (giants), the death of the Aesir and the whole world is predicted, about dwarfs, about Valkyries. Songs about heroes tell about two families - the Welzungs and the Niflungs. In the 13th century “The Younger Edda” by Snorri Sturluson appeared - a manual on how to compose skaldic tales. The ancient Scandinavian tales of the Edda about the Niflungs, their treasure, Sigurd about his fight with Fafnir, about Gudrun and Brünnhilde were not exclusively Scandinavian tales. They belonged to all Germanic tribes, and a little later these legends became the basis for the poem in Middle German “Songs of the Nibelungs”. But unlike the Edda, the Nibelungenlied has a god and religious rituals are observed. Brunnhilde is a girl of wondrous beauty. Sigfried is the son of the Dutch kings. The Abelungs and Nibelungs die in the battle, the treasure was not found (Hagen did not say). The Song of Roland is based on the battle in Roncesvalles with the Basques, while the Song of My Cid is based on episodes of the reconquista. The stories were extremely popular and everyone knew them.

A separate page of medieval culture was knightly culture. It took shape by the 11th-12th centuries. The creator and bearer is the knightly class. It is based on the code of conduct of the ideal knight. Loyalty, courage, nobility, good manners, etc. One of the sources of the Western European knightly (courtly - the term was introduced by Gaston Paris (1839-1903) to denote the form of relations between a man and a woman that develops among gentlemen) novel was the Celtic epic about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. (The story of Tristan and Isolde). In the knightly culture, the cult of the lady arises, constituting a necessary element of courtliness. From the end of the 11th century. the poetry of the troubadours flourishes in Provence, the poetry of the trouvères in the north of France, and the minnesingers in Germany. The most famous authors chivalric novels were Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von Aue (knight) (1170-1210) (“Poor Henry”), participant in the Third Crusade. In 1575, Michel Nostradamus's brother Jean published biographies of troubadours, who could also be people of noble origin, for example. Thibault of Champagne, and grandfather of Alienor of Aquitaine.

From the 11th century Cities become centers of cultural life. The genres of urban literature are fabliaux, schwanks, farces, and soti. A satirical epic is also taking shape - “The Romance of the Fox”. The main character, the Fox Renard (a wealthy townsman), defeats the Wolf Isengrin, the Bear Brenn, deceives the Lion Noble, the Donkey Baudouin. By the 13th century. refers to the origins of urban theatrical art. City games - “The Game of Robin and Marion”, etc. Then secular plays appear. Adam de Al (from Arras, nicknamed “The Hunchback” (1238-1286), who lived in Paris in 1262-1263, at the court of Count d'Artois (from 1272) and Charles of Anjou (from 1283) was author of the first secular plays in in native language"Games under the leaves", "Games about Robin and Marion". “The Game of Robin and Marion” was one of the most famous. The characters are Marion (peasanka), Robin (paisan), Knight. Marion says that she is in love with Robin, who bought her a scarlet dress and a belt, and that he is wooing her. Then the Knight returning from the tournament appears and tries to seduce her. Marion doesn't give in, and then Robin appears and they coo sweetly. Pastoral games were popular - scenes between a knight and a shepherdess, a shepherd and a shepherdess. An example is the poem by Thibaut of Champagne “The King of Navarre”: “These days, Thibaut narrates, I met a shepherdess between the grove and the garden who was singing, her song began like this: “When illness attracts me, love.” Hearing this, I went to her and said: “darling, God grant you, good day" To this she answered me with a bow. She was sweet, fresh, rosy, that I wanted to talk to her again. “Darling, I am looking for your love. I will give you a luxurious headdress!” “Knights are great deceivers, I prefer my shepherd Perren than rich scoffers.” “Beauty, don’t say that. Knights are very worthy people. Only knights and people of the highest circle can have a girlfriend according to their desire. And the love of a shepherd costs nothing. Let's go..." “Sir, by the Mother of God, you wasted your words. Knights are greater deceivers than the traitor Ganelon. I would rather return to Perren, who is waiting for me and loves me with all his honest heart. And you, sir, stop chatting.” I realized that the shepherdess wanted to get away from me. I asked her for a long time and in vain, but when I hugged her, the shepherdess screamed: “Perinet, treason.” They responded from the forest, and I left her. Seeing that I was leaving, she mockingly shouted to me: “Oh, brave knight!” (La Barthe. Conversations...P.168-169).

An indispensable attribute of urban culture were processions, which could be arranged for any reason. In England, as well as in other European countries, processions of corporations and the ceremonial entry of the Lord Mayor of London into the City were common.

From the processions in Italian cities, as well as in other European countries, trionfo arose - i.e. a costumed procession, partly on foot, partly on carts, which, being originally church-based, gradually acquired a secular meaning. Processions for the feast of Corpus Christi and carnival processions here stylistically merge, and the ceremonial entries of sovereigns soon join this style.

Carnival- was held in the week preceding Lent, on Maslenitsa - either on Broad Thursday or on Fat Tuesday. First carnesciale (meat eater), carnevale. It got its name either from carrus navalis - ship, cart, carne vale - meat eater, flesh. An exclusively urban phenomenon. It acquired a variety of forms by the 15th century. It included processions, games, acrobatic and sports displays, and masks. Perhaps masks are an attribute exclusively of the Venetian carnival. The first mention of masks is found in a Senate decree of 1268. It was a ban on wearing masks when organizing certain categories of games, but the Venetians... In 1339 the decree was repeated. Then workshops for mask manufacturers appeared. Over the years, the carnival has become wild, lush and fun. The opening carnival was accompanied by a church service and speeches from the authorities. So-called entertainment companies appear. Compagnie delle Calze, whose members wore symbolic emblems decorated with pearls and precious stones, ladies wore it on their sleeves, men wore it on their stockings. In the 15th century the carnival becomes diverse - fortune tellers, astrologers, soothsayers, sellers of all-healing ointments, ointments, insect repellents, against female infertility, against bullets, against bladed weapons. Then, as an addition to the carnival, and then as an independent component, the commedia delle arte appeared, i.e. folk comedy. There were over 100 masks. 2 quartets - northern - Pantalone (Venetian with his own dialect, old man - merchant, rich, stingy, sick, frail, sneezes, coughs, considers himself smarter than everyone else, but most often becomes the object of pranks, womanizer, merchant who has grown old), Doctor (Bolognese scientist, spouts, misinterpreting Latin quotes, lawyer, sometimes a doctor (the attribute in this case is klystir), loves to drink, womanizer, the most complex mask is comedy), Brighella ( clever servant, a complex and responsible mask, since it is he who starts the intrigue), Harlequin = Truffaldino (stupid servant, often gets beaten), (both come from Bergamo, the homeland of Italian fools); southern - Coviello (southern parallel of Brighella), Pulcinella (southern parallel of Harlequin - consistently stupid), Scaramuccia (boastful warrior, coward), Tartaglia (appeared in Naples around 1610 - Tartaglia in Italian. stutterer, the character of the Spanish servants, preventing people from living ), + Captain (a parody of the Spaniards), Lovers (ladies - 1. powerful, proud, 2. soft, gentle, submissive; gentlemen - 1. cheeky, optimistic; 2. timid, modest. speak the correct literary language), Fantesca (Serveta = Colombina - a maid, in Goldoni - Mirandolina), etc. Masks = role.

Since laughter was banished from official life, that is why "Fool's Day", which were held on New Year's Day, the Day of the Innocent Infants, Epiphany, Midsummer's Day. There were few such holidays. What could cause laughter? Buffon tricks = lazzi (lazzi = l "atto, action, i.e. buffon trick. Lazzi with a fly - Zanni makes a gesture with his hand, as if catching a fly in the air, then with facial expressions shows that he tears off its wings, legs and throws it at mouth to yourself. Or lazzi with pasta - a plate of pasta, which is eaten either with the hands or with the mouth. The actors are tied with their backs, one bends over, eats; the second dangles his legs in the air.

In many cities the townspeople were organizing in neighborhoods for public performances. These include the performance of hell on stages and barges standing on the Arno (Florence) (05/1/1304), during which the Alla Caraya bridge collapsed under the audience. One of the specific features of the performances in Italy was the use of machines - they carried out ascent into the air and descent. Florentines already in the 14th century. maligned when the trick did not go smoothly. Famous artists took part in organizing the holidays. For example, Brunelleschi invents for the Feast of the Annunciation in Piazza San Felice an apparatus depicting a celestial globe framed by two garlands of angels, from which Gabriel descended to earth in an almond-shaped machine. Cecca also develops mechanisms for such celebrations. The most solemn holiday was the Feast of Corpus Christi. It was celebrated magnificently in 1480 in Viterbo. The holiday was organized by Pope Pius II. Here is the suffering Christ, surrounded by angelic boys; last supper, where Thomas Aquinas was present, the struggle of the Archangel Michael with demons, a spring gushing with wine, the Holy Sepulcher, the scene of the Resurrection, in the cathedral square - the tomb of Mary, which, after a solemn mass and blessing, opened, and the Mother of God, in a host of angels, soared into heaven with singing , where Christ placed a crown on her and led her to the eternal Father. Rodrigo Borgia (Alexander VI) organized similar holidays, but he was distinguished by his passion for cannon cannonades. S. Infessura wrote about the holiday that Pietro Riario organized in 1473 in Rome on the occasion of the passage of Eleanor of Aragon, the bride of Prince Ercole of Ferrara. There were also mysteries, and pantomimes on mythological themes - Orpheus surrounded by animals, Perseus and Andromeda, Ceres, who was attracted by the dragon, Bacchus, Ariadne with a panther; there was a ballet of love couples of prehistoric times; flocks of nymphs, all this was interrupted by the invasion of robber centaurs, whom Hercules defeated. During all the festivities, in the niches and on the columns there were people depicting statues, while they recited and sang. In the halls of the Riario there was a boy completely covered with gold, spraying water from a fountain. Vasari in his “Biography of Pontormo” told how such a child in 1513 On one Florentine holiday he died due to overexertion or gilding. The boy represented the “golden age”. In Venice, the arrival of the princess from the house of d'Este (1491) was celebrated with a gala reception with the "Bucentaur", a rowing competition and the pantomime "Meleager" in the Doge's Palace. In Milan, Leonardo da Vinci took care of the festivities of the Duke and other nobles. One of his machines represented on a huge scale the celestial system and all its movements; whenever one of the planets approached the young Duke's bride, Isabella, the corresponding god appeared from the ball and sang the verses of the court poet Bellincioni (1489). From Vasari we know what kind of automata Leonardo invented to greet the French king, who was entering Milan as a conqueror.

In addition, there were holidays that were celebrated only in one city or another. For example, in Rome they organized running competitions: donkeys, horses, buffaloes, old men, young men, Jews. In Siena they organized a paleo (on horseback). In Venice - regattas, the betrothal of the Doge to the sea. Torchlight processions are popular. Thus, in 1459, after the Congress of Mantua, Pius II was waited in Rome with torches; participants in the torchlight procession formed a ring near his palace.

City entertainment - walks around the city, in the park, “sports” - fist fights, various competitions, in England - curling, etc. Trips to resorts, visits to drinking establishments, in countries Northern Europe and the Netherlands - skating visits with occasion (or without?).

Religious holidays. 4 holiday cycles - Yuletide (winter), (Maslenitsa), Easter (spring), Trinity (summer), Theotokos (autumn), or December birth, April crucifixion, June Ascension, August death of the Mother of God and her September birth.

Winter holidays began on November 11 - St. Martina, or Martin's Day - the time of pouring new wine, slaughtering livestock. Expression - Martyn's pig, Martyn's goose. Disease of St. Martina - being drunk. The day of hiring workers, settlement with owners, the day of rent payment. They ate and drank (Grimmelshausen - St. Martin's Day - then we, the Germans, begin to feast and revel until Maslenitsa. Then many, both officers and townspeople, began to invite me to visit Martin's goose), and had fun. In the Netherlands there was a game of cat - a cat was put in a barrel, which was tied to a tree, and they tried to get it out of there with sticks. In Italy, on Martin's day they ate pasta, pork, poultry, sweet pretzels and drank new wine.

November 25 was celebrated as St. Catherine and the Christmas period began. Christmas was preceded by the “dead weeks” of Advent (4 Sundays before Christmas (candles are lit before Christmas, a candle every Sunday).

December 6th - St. Nicholas, in the Netherlands on this day children (good and small) are given gifts and placed in stockings (bad and grown-up children are given coals). Later St. Nicholas turned into Santa Claus (1822). The prototype of Santa Claus was Bishop Nicholas of Myra, who lived in the 4th century, who first gave gifts to three sisters who dreamed of getting married, but did not have a dowry (he tossed a wallet with money to each, the youngest - the wallet ended up in a stocking, which she hung up to dry at the hearth after washing).

December 25th is Christmas. Roman proverb: “Spend Christmas with your own people, and Easter where she finds you.” Then Christmastide came until January 6 (until the day of the Three Kings. The Bean King. (A bean or some inedible object was placed in the pie; whoever got the wrong piece was the Bean King, who fulfilled all wishes). The first 12 days of the new year were determined all year, January 1 - January, 2 - February, etc. “Whoever counts coins on the first day of the year, counts them all year.” On January 1-6, Befana walks around Italy either on a donkey, or she is brought by the stars and gives gifts to children. The custom of putting up a Christmas tree for Christmas came from Germany. It was first erected in the 16th century (after the Reformation) in Strasbourg on the day of remembrance of Adam and Eve on December 24. A fir tree decorated with red apples was placed in the room, personifying the tree of good and evil , or a triangular pyramid, on the shelves of which gifts lay, and the top was decorated with the Star of Bethlehem.(Champagne began to be drunk in 1668.) On New Year - in Italy they throw old furniture out of the window, at midnight - whoever eats the most grapes wins the most will be prosperous all year, food is prepared from lentils (resembles coins), eggs; in Spain - they eat a grape and make a wish; in England - when midnight strikes, they open the back door of the house, letting out old year, and with the final blow, they open the front door, letting in the New Year. They drink punch - grape wine, vodka (rum), tea, sugar, lemon juice (2 alcoholic components for 3 non-alcoholic), boil in a silver pan.

January 17th - St. Anthony, blessed domestic animals, lit bonfires - “the fires of St. Anthony" - with cleansing properties, the extinct firebrand was kept as a remedy against lightning.

End of winter - Meeting on February 2. - In Italy it's Candelora's holiday. (candles). It is believed that on Candelora a bear crawls out of its den to see what the weather is like. If it is cloudy, it makes 3 jumps - winter is over; if it is clear, it returns back to the den, saying that it will be cold for another 40 days. The culmination of the holiday is the blessing of candles.

Spring - On March 14, a ceremony was held in Rome called mamuralia - a man dressed in the skin of “old Mars” was driven out of the city with sticks.

March 15 is the holiday of Anna Perena - the goddess of the Moon or water. At this time, a carnival was held. Carts (carrus navalis - (chariot - ship), carne vale - long live the flesh), processions, masks, games. The last Thursday (Tuesday) before the carnival is Fat Thursday, the apogee of the holiday. Lent began with Ash Wednesday, which followed Fat Tuesday.

Palm Sunday, Easter.

April 30 - (Walpurgis Night - Witches' Sabbath) night walk in the forest behind a tree. In all countries of Western Europe there was a custom to celebrate the “day of renewal of nature” - May 1st. Young people went out of town to “bring May.” They returned with flowers, fragrant herbs, and leaves that decorated the doors and windows of houses. In France and Belgium, the homes of lovers were decorated with flowering rosehip branches. This was called “planting May.” In the Middle Ages, at the courts of the lords, a special “May ride” was organized, with the May count or the May king at the head of the cavalcade. On the May holidays, young people led round dances and sang. They built a maypole, from the top of which gifts (ham, sausages, sweets, poultry, etc.) were hung. The holiday ended with a competition to see which of the guys could climb the tree the fastest. The winner is the King of May + Queen of May.

Summer cycle holidays began with the Feast of Corpus Domini and was celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. Introduced by Pope Urban IV on September 8, 1264 in memory of the Bolsena miracle (when, during a service in one of the churches in Bolsena, the blood of Christ appeared on a wafer). The holiday ritual is a procession. The city was always decorated with carpets and flowers; the pavements were decorated with carpets of fresh flowers. Holiday - carpet demonstrations.

June 24 - St. Day John the Baptist. Fires were lit. On the eve of the holiday they told fortunes. At night they put 2 beans under the pillow - black and white, in the morning they took them out at random, if they pulled out the black one, the girl would get married within a year, if the white one - not. They also wondered about the wealth of the future husband. If they pulled out peeled beans, they were poor; if they were unpeeled, they were rich. June 24 is the day of Florence, since St. Giovanni is the patron saint of the city. So, just like every city has its own heavenly patron, in whose honor a holiday was always held.

August 15 - Assumption of the Virgin Mary. In Italy, “buon Ferragosto” means good August holidays. The season ended with a big summer festival. In Rome, Navin Square was flooded with water. They organized a competition - a paleo (palio) competition of riders. Dante wrote about a similar competition near Verona, the winner received green cloth, the last - a rooster. They shot from a crossbow.

From August to October, holidays began throughout the Mediterranean, dedicated to the harvesting of grapes, figs, and the ripening of leaves on mulberry trees (Murcia). The grape harvest season is a time of revelry, fun and extravagance.

Autumn. A wine fair was held in Seville from October 5 to 15. On the third Sunday of October in Germany, fairs began in many lands, where they held the so-called. kirbaum resembled a maypole, + lunch.

(October 30 - on English speaking countries Halloween) preceded November 1 - All Saints' Day. Introduced in 610, it first fell on May 13, in the 9th century. postponed to November 1st.

November 2 is the day of remembrance of all the dead. November 1 was spent in the church, November 2 - in the cemetery, and then they had a meal. (In Italy, beans are a funeral food).

There were annual holidays for schoolchildren. They were celebrated either on St. Nicholas, or on the day of innocent babies (December 27). On this day, in all major cathedrals, a boy was elected bishop, who led the religious holiday and delivered a sermon. The second holiday for schoolchildren is Penitential Tuesday (during Maslenitsa week) on this day the students brought fighting cocks and had cockfights. On the same day they played ball.

In addition, all regions of Europe had their own local patronal holidays. In German and Dutch countries it was called kermes (kirmes).

During the Middle Ages, there was a special influence of the Christian Church on the formation of the mentality and worldview of Europeans. Instead of a meager and difficult life, religion offered people a system of knowledge about the world and the laws operating in it. That is why medieval culture is completely imbued with Christian ideas and ideals, which were considered earthly life like a person preparatory stage to the upcoming immortality, but in another dimension. People identified the world with a kind of arena in which they confronted heavenly powers and hellish, good and evil.

Medieval culture reflects the history of the struggle between the state and the church, their interaction and the implementation of divine goals.

Architecture

In the 10th-12th centuries in Western European countries, which is rightfully considered the first canon of medieval architecture, prevailed.

Secular buildings are massive, characterized by narrow window openings and high towers. Typical features of Romanesque architectural structures are domed structures and semicircular arches. Bulky buildings symbolized the power of the Christian god.

During this period, special attention was paid to monastery buildings, as they combined the monks’ home, chapel, prayer room, workshops and library. Main element composition - high tower. Massive reliefs decorating facade walls and portals were the main element of temple decor.

Medieval culture is characterized by the emergence of another style in architecture. It is called Gothic. This style shifts the cultural center from secluded monasteries to crowded city neighborhoods. At the same time, the cathedral is considered the main spiritual building. The first temple buildings are distinguished by slender columns that soar upward, elongated windows, painted stained glass windows and “roses” above the entrance. Inside and out, they were decorated with reliefs, statues, and paintings, emphasizing the main feature of the style - upward direction.

Sculpture

Metal processing is used primarily for manufacturing

Education system. During the early Middle Ages, the need of Western European society for educated people was minimal. The church and state apparatus fully provided monastic and episcopal schools with competent personnel.

In the High Middle Ages, a new impetus for the development of the education system was given by the formation of the urban sector of the economy and the associated steady demand for a number of specialties - medicine, law. Only relatively large educational institutions with the appropriate intellectual potential could take on the task of training such specialists

Universities became such centers. The first of them was formed in 1119 in Bologna (Italy). Later, universities appeared in England (Oxford, second half of the 12th century), France (Paris, 1215).

The training of doctors, and at the highest level, took place within the walls of the Salerno Medical School (Italy).

The science. The early and beginning of the High Middle Ages in Western European science was marked by the dominance of speculative book knowledge based on heritage ancient civilization, taken, however, far from being taken in full.

The creation of any new information of a scientific nature can only be discussed with beginning of XIII V. Among the most notable scientists of the Western European Middle Ages, one should highlight Robert Grosseteste (1175 - 1253), who was one of the first to advocate the transition from speculative to experimental science. In his opinion, the process of studying nature goes through the following stages: 1) experience; 2) thesis-hypothesis; 3) deductive conclusion from the thesis-hypothesis of consequences; 4) practical verification of the latter. This line of transition to experimental natural science was continued by Grosseteste's student Roger Bacon (1214 - 1290).

Western European medieval history. One of the first historians of medieval Western Europe was Flavius ​​Cassiodorus (c. 487 - 578), who wrote “The History of the Goths” in 12 books, which has come down to our time in a summary retelling of the Goth Jordanes, made in 551 (“On the Origin and Deeds of the Goths” ). Over time, histories of other Germanic peoples appeared: “History of the Franks” by Gregory of Tours (VI century), “History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals and Sueves” by Isidore of Seville (VII century), “History of the Lombards” by Paul the Deacon, “Ecclesiastical History of the English People” » Troubles of the Venerable (VIII century). The most recent work was “The Acts of the Danes” by Saxo Grammar (12th century).

In addition to stories, the path of development of Western European medieval civilization was outlined in chronicles, which were written, as a rule, in Latin. The exception is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, recorded at the end of the 9th century. in the vernacular and later translated into Latin.

A number of chronicles (for example, Otto of Freising, 12th century) described the entire history of mankind. They began with an account of the creation of the world, then followed the events of world history, contemporary events of the author and pictures of the Last Judgment. From the 13th century chronicles appear dedicated to the history of individual countries: the “Great French Chronicle”, the “Great Chronicle” of England, begun by Roger of Wendover (died 1236).

Architecture. The most characteristic architectural monuments Western European Middle Ages were knightly castles and cathedrals.

The first distinctive architectural style of the Western European Middle Ages, known as “Romanesque,” ​​began to spread in the 10th century. It was based on the use of a system of simple volumes - cubes, parallelepipeds, prisms, cylinders. The walls of the buildings were very massive, with narrow windows that looked like loopholes.

In secular architecture, the Romanesque style is represented by a castle-fortress with a donjon, a central tower that served as a refuge for the feudal lord's family and his vassals in the event of an attack. Food and weapons warehouses and a prison were also located here.

In church architecture, the main monument was the three-nave basilica with a transept and a tower above the intersection of the central nave and transept.

In the 12th century. the formation of a new architectural style began - Gothic. The technical basis of Gothic was the invention of a complex frame structure. The vault was now supported not only by the walls. Part of the load was distributed over relatively low but very massive buttresses connected to the walls with special arches. As a result, huge windows with stained glass appeared, filling the cathedral with light.

An essential element of a Gothic cathedral were two towers in the western part of the building. This probably reflected the ancient Germanic belief that after sunset demons came from the west. These towers were designed to protect people from them.

The symbolism of the Gothic cathedral gave medieval people a clear idea of ​​the structure of the Universe, man’s place in it, and the social hierarchy.

Knightly culture. The formation of the knightly class entailed the creation of a whole layer specific culture. Particular attention should be paid to tournaments known since the end of the 9th century. In the 11th century The first tournament rules were written down, and in the 13th century. knightly tournaments became a stable Western European tradition.

An integral part of knightly culture was heraldry, which went from identifying marks to distinguish its knights during the Crusades to a kind of identification card for a knight participating in a tournament, a language of symbols capable of conveying quite a large amount of information.

Numerous works of fiction of various genres were also associated with chivalry. These include epic works: “The Song of Roland” (France), “The Song of My Cid” (Spain), “The Song of the Nibelungs” (Germany), lyric poems, novels.

The most popular among the latter were the works that were part of the “Arthurian” cycle, associated with the name of the legendary King Arthur. In his castle Camelot there was a round table, above which one could see the inscription: “Strength is not justice, justice is strength.” Every year 12 knights gathered here and talked about their exploits over the past time.

Urban culture. The main literary works from the pens of urban authors, mostly anonymous, belong to the genre of poems, short stories of comic or satirical content, known in France as fabliau, in Germany as schwank. Works in which the main characters - peasants and a knight - were hidden under the masks of animals: the smart fox Rener and the stupid wolf Isengrim ("Romance of the Fox") were also very popular.

Theater. We can talk about the origins of medieval theater approximately from the 9th - 10th centuries, when first dialogues based on gospel texts, and then pantomimes, appeared in Catholic services. From the end of the 11th century. the transformation of these inserts into small everyday scenes began.

The first truly theatrical genre appeared in the 12th - 13th centuries. It was a mystery - a mass amateur performance on biblical themes with the participation of tens and even hundreds of people. Around the same time, the Miracle appeared - a theatrical production based on Christian legends of miracles. The French farces of the 14th - 15th centuries were filled with very witty, although often rude jokes.

Early humanism. The development of the urban sector of the economy during the late Middle Ages (mainly in Italy) strengthened the secular principle in culture, defining an orientation toward human creators.

The first representative of the new culture was Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321), whose work not only crowns the medieval period of development of Western European culture, but also opens up in it new page- Renaissance.

The figures of the Renaissance sought to place man at the center of attention, which gave the name to the entire movement - humanism (from the Latin humanus - human). The main features of determining a person’s value were not origin, wealth, but the desire for harmonious and comprehensive development personality, creative activity. The figures of the Renaissance chose the culture of antiquity as a model for themselves. However, we were not and could not be talking about a simple resumption of the culture of one and a half thousand years of antiquity. In fact, the formation of a fundamentally new culture, aimed at the future, has begun.

Humanistic principles were most fully embodied in the works of Francesco Petrarch (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 - 1375), Masaccio (1401 - 1428), Sandro Botticelli (1445 - 1510), Donatello (1386 - 1466).

The history of the Middle Ages in Europe covers the period from the 5th to the middle of the 17th century, within the period the following stages can be distinguished: a) early Middle Ages: V - 11th centuries; b) developed Middle Ages: XI - XV centuries; c) late Middle Ages: XVI - mid-XVII century.

The term “Middle Ages” (from the Latin medium aevum - hence the name of the science that studies the Middle Ages, medieval studies) arose in Italy during the Renaissance among humanists who believed that this time was a period of cultural decline, as opposed to the high rise of culture in ancient world and in modern times.

The Middle Ages were a time of feudalism, when humanity made significant progress in the development of material and spiritual culture, and the area of ​​civilization expanded.

Feudal society is characterized by: 1) the dominance of large land ownership; 2) a combination of large land ownership with small individual farming of direct producers - peasants who were only land holders, and not owners; 3) non-economic coercion in various forms: from serfdom to class inferiority.

Feudal property (from Latin - feodum) is hereditary land property associated with compulsory military service. In medieval society, a hierarchy emerged with a large role for personal vassal-feudal connections.

The state went through different stages: the early feudal period was characterized by large but loose empires; for the developed Middle Ages - small entities, class monarchies; for the late Middle Ages - absolute monarchies.

Feudal law protected the monopoly of land ownership of feudal lords, their rights to the personality of peasants, to judicial and political power over them.

Religious ideology and the church played a huge role in society.

Thus, the features of feudal production gave rise to specific features social structure, political, legal and ideological systems.

The main features of medieval culture are: 1) the dominance of religion, a God-centric worldview; 2) rejection of the ancient cultural tradition; 3) denial of hedonism; 4) asceticism; 5)

increased attention to inner world man, his spirituality; c) conservatism, commitment to antiquity, a tendency to stereotypes in material and spiritual life; 7) elements of dual faith (Christianity and paganism) in the popular consciousness; 8) fetishization of works of art; 9) internal inconsistency of culture: the conflict between paganism and Christianity, the opposition between scientific and folk culture, the relationship between secular and spiritual, church authorities, the duality of value orientations (spirituality and physicality, good and evil, fear of sin and sin); 10) hierarchical culture, in which one can distinguish the culture of the clergy, knightly culture, urban culture, folk, mainly rural culture; 11) corporatism: the dissolution of a person’s personal beginning in a social group, for example, an estate.

Medieval European culture arose from the ruins of the Roman Empire. In the early Middle Ages, the decline of culture, which had already taken place in late Rome, deepened. The barbarians destroyed cities that were the center of cultural life, roads, irrigation structures, monuments ancient art, libraries, there was an agrarianization of society with the dominance of subsistence farming, commodity-money relations were undeveloped.

The Church established a monopoly on education and intellectual activity for many centuries. All areas of knowledge were subordinated to church-feudal ideology. Possessing a strong organization and established doctrine during the time of political decentralization, the church also had powerful means of propaganda.

The essence of the church worldview was the recognition of earthly life as temporary, “sinful”; material life, human nature were opposed to “eternal” existence. As an ideal of behavior that ensures afterlife bliss, the church preached humility, asceticism, strict observance of church rituals, submission to masters, and faith in miracles. Reason, science, and philosophy were despised, which were opposed to faith, although individual elements of philosophical and secular knowledge were borrowed from the ancient heritage. The education system: the so-called “seven liberal arts of antiquity” was divided into the lower - “trivium” (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and the highest - “quadrivium” (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music parts). The works of ancient authors were used: Aristotle, Cicero, Pythagoras, Euclid, but to a limited extent. Authority was placed above all sciences Holy Scripture. In general, the knowledge system of the Middle Ages was characterized by the following features: 1) universalism; 2) encyclopedism; 3) allegorism; 4) exegesis (Greek interpretation) - the ability to interpret and give a religious explanation of the Bible.

The universe (space) was viewed as a creation of God, doomed to destruction. The geocentric system prevailed with various areas, hell and the seat of God. Each material object was considered as a symbol of the hidden and ideal world, and the task of science is to reveal these symbols. Hence the refusal to study the true connections of things with the help of experience. Symbolism left its mark on the entire medieval culture. Words were believed to explain the nature of things. The direct realistic perception of the world in art and literature was often clothed in the form of symbols and allegories.

Feudal-church culture was opposed by folk culture. It was rooted in pre-feudal antiquity and associated with barbarian cultural heritage, pagan myths, beliefs, legends, holidays. These traditions, preserved among the peasantry throughout the Middle Ages, were permeated religious ideas of a pagan sense, alien to the dark asceticism of Christianity, its distrust of living nature: it was seen not only as a formidable force, but also as a source of life’s blessings and earthly joys. The people's worldview was characterized by naive realism. The forms of folk art are varied: fairy tales, legends, songs. Folk tales formed the basis of the epic (the Irish epic about the hero Cuchulainn, the Icelandic epic - the "Elder Edda", the Anglo-Saxon epic - the poem "Beowulf"). The exponents and bearers of the musical and poetic creativity of the people were mimes and histrions, and from the 11th century, jugglers in France, huglars in Spain, shpilmans in Germany, wandering throughout Europe.

The art of the early Middle Ages lost many of the achievements of antiquity: sculpture and the image of man in general disappeared almost completely; Stone processing skills were forgotten; in architecture, wooden architecture predominated. The art of this period is characterized by: barbarization of taste and attitude; cult of physical strength; display of wealth; at the same time, he was characterized by a living, direct sense of material, especially manifested in jewelry and bookmaking, where complex ornamentation and “animal” style dominated. Under primitivism, barbarian art was dynamic, its main visual means was the color. Bright objects created a sense of materiality, corresponding to a barbaric sensual vision and perception of the world, far from Christian church asceticism.

In the early Middle Ages in the 7th - 9th centuries, there was a certain rise in feudal-ecclesiastical culture at the court of Charlemagne (768 - 814) - the so-called “Carolingian Renaissance”, caused by the need for literate people to manage the empire. Schools were opened at monasteries and for the laity, and people were invited educated people Antique manuscripts were collected from other countries, stone construction began, but this rise in culture was fragile and short-lived.

The advanced Middle Ages were marked by significant urban growth and the emergence of universities.

The emergence of cities as centers of craft and trade meant a new stage in the development of medieval culture. The prerequisites for the growth of cities were the intensive development of commodity production and money circulation on the basis of private property. There was a need for literate people; production gave rise to interest in experimental knowledge and its accumulation; The townspeople are characterized by an active perception of life, sober calculation, and efficiency, which contributed to the development of a rationalistic type of thinking; mental demands and interests grew and, accordingly, the craving for secular education. The monopoly of the church on education was broken, although the church dominated ideology. City schools successfully competed with monastery schools.

Cities grew due to the influx of peasants who fled from their masters or were released on quitrent. In terms of population, medieval cities were small; in the XIV - XV centuries, those of them with a population of 20 thousand people were considered large. The population of the cities actively fought for their independence from the feudal lords: the cities were either bought off or gained independence through armed struggle. Many cities became communes, that is, they had the right to conduct an independent foreign policy, have their own self-government, mint coins, and all citizens were free from serfdom. In essence, they were city-states reminiscent of an ancient polis. The urban population, or the “third estate,” became the spiritual leader and the predominant bearer of culture.

With the development of urban culture, secular education appears and universities emerge (from the Latin universitas - association, community). In 1088, on the basis of the Bologna Law School, the University of Bologna was opened, in 1167 the University of Oxford began to operate in England, in 1209 - the University of Cambridge, in France in 1160 the University of Paris was opened.

In total, by the end of the 15th century there were 65 universities in Europe (besides Italy, France, England, universities appeared in Spain, Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland). Teaching at universities was conducted in Latin, which became the European language of culture. A common language and religion created a certain cultural unity in Europe, despite feudal fragmentation and political conflicts. The main faculties (from the Latin facultas - opportunity) were the junior faculties, where they studied the “seven liberal arts of antiquity,” and the senior faculties, where they studied theology, law, and medicine.

In its refined form, spiritual culture was expressed in philosophy. In the course of philosophical debates, the main directions of medieval scholasticism (from the Latin schola - school) emerged. Two main directions arose: “nominalism” (from the Latin nomina - name), which believed that only individual things objectively exist, accessible to human sensations, and general concepts - “universals” - do not really exist, nominalism was the embryo of materialism; "realism", which believed that only general concepts - "universals" - really exist; individual things were considered only as a generation and imperfect reflection of these concepts. The main question of scholasticism was the question of the relationship of knowledge to faith. The problem of the relationship between faith and reason is embodied in literature, fine art, and music. The religious worldview, as the core of spiritual culture, and the Christian God, as the basis of the moral world of medieval man, determined the subordinate role of philosophy in relation to religion.

Thomas Aquinas (1225/26 - 1274), the greatest scholastic philosopher, argued that philosophy and science are the handmaidens of theology, since faith surpasses reason in human existence. He argued this by saying that, firstly, human mind is constantly mistaken, while faith is based on the absolute truthfulness of God, and, secondly, faith is given to every person, and the possession of scientific and philosophical knowledge, which requires intense mental activity, is not available to everyone.

An outstanding scholastic was Pierre Abelard (1079 - 1142) - French philosopher, theologian and poet, a bright exponent of freethinking, who opposed extreme forms of both nominalism and realism. His freethinking was based on the priority of reason over faith: “understanding in order to believe.” He was declared a heretic and banned from teaching and writing.

Along with scholasticism, in the Middle Ages there were other directions of philosophy and theology, in particular mysticism. Mystics rejected the need to study Aristotle and use logical proofs of faith. They believed that religious doctrines were learned not through reason and science, but through intuition, insight or “contemplation,” prayer and vigils. Denying the role of reason in knowledge of the world and God, the mystics were more reactionary than the scholastics. But democratic sentiments were strong among them: mystical sects were critical of the feudal system and preached the need to establish the “kingdom of God on earth” without private property, inequality, and exploitation. Among the mystics one can single out Bernard of Clairvaux, Johannes Tauler, and Thomas à Kempis.

In medieval Europe, although slowly, science and technology developed. Thus, Oxford professor Roger Bacon (1214 - 1294), based on the fact that experience is the basis of knowledge, created the “Great Work” - an encyclopedia of that time. In medieval science, alchemy developed, which expressed the connection between crafts, religion, mysticism, magic, and the occult. Alchemy preceded the emergence of experimental natural science.

The Arab-Islamic civilization, in particular, the works of Al-Biruni (980 - 1048), Ibn Sina (980 - 1037), had a significant influence on European philosophy and science.

In the Middle Ages, inventions were made that influenced the entire subsequent life of society: the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing, glasses, and a compass. Special meaning There was book printing, begun in Europe by Johannes Guttenberg (1400 - 1468), which contributed to the development of national literatures, the unification of spelling and, accordingly, education, science, and culture.

In the 12th - 13th centuries, Latin-language literature flourished, in particular, the poetry of vagantes (from Latin vagary - to wander). Developing national literature, in particular, an epic is written down: French - “The Song of Roland”, Spanish - “The Song of Cid”, German - “The Song of the Nibelungs”. Knightly literature is being formed: secular lyrical poetry of the troubadours, glorifying “courtly love” (from the Old French - courtier), chivalric novels. There is an interest in the person’s personality and his feelings. Urban literature is developing in national languages: for example, French“The Romance of the Fox” and “The Romance of the Rose” were created; the forerunner of the Renaissance in France was François Villon (1431 - 1461). Father English literature Geoffrey Chaucer (1340 - 1400) is considered to have created a collection of poems in English vernacular, The Canterbury Tales.

In medieval Europe, the place of art was controversial. Art was seen as the Bible for the illiterate. The main task of art is to strengthen religious feelings, to reveal the images of the Holy Scriptures; works, as a rule, are anonymous. What is required from the artist is not realism, but the disclosure of ideas of divine holiness. The transition from the space of the outer world to the inner space of the human spirit is the main goal of art. It is expressed famous phrase Augustine: “Do not wander outside, but go inside yourself.” Christian ideology rejected the ideals that inspired ancient artists: the joy of being, sensuality, physicality, truthfulness, the glorification of man, aware of himself as a beautiful element of the cosmos - it destroyed the ancient harmony of body and spirit, man and the earthly world.

Architecture became the most important form of art, embodied in two styles: Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque architecture is distinguished by its massiveness and squatness, its task is the humility of man, his suppression against the backdrop of the monumental grandeur of the universe, of God. Since the 12th century, the Gothic style has emerged, the features of which are upward direction, pointed arches, and stained glass windows. V. Hugo called Gothic “a symphony in stone.” Unlike the harsh, monolithic, imposing Romanesque temples, Gothic cathedrals are decorated with carvings and decorations, many sculptures, they are full of light, directed towards the sky, their towers rose up to 150 m. The ancient temple was considered the place of life of God, religious ceremonies took place outside, and the medieval the temple was perceived as a place of communication for the religious community and special attention was paid to the interior decoration.

In painting, the main genre was iconography. Painting acted as a silent sermon, “speculation in colors.” Icons were seen as an emotional connection with God, accessible to the illiterate, and they are deeply symbolic. Images are often deliberately deformed, conventional, there is an effect of so-called reverse perspective for a greater impact on the viewer. In addition to icons, the fine art of the Middle Ages is also represented by paintings, mosaics, miniatures, and stained glass.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION OF THE RF

GOU VPO "SYKTYVKAR STATE UNIVERSITY"

VORKUTA BRANCH

TEST

discipline: Culturology

on the topic: “Features of medieval culture”

Completed by: 1st year student

group No. 4159

Gorelova A.V.

Checked by: Ph.D. Sc., Associate Professor

Vakhnina E. G.

Introduction 3

1. Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality 5

2.Early Middle Ages 8

2.1. Merovingian art 9

2.2. "Carolingian Renaissance" 9

3. High Middle Ages 10

3.1 Literature 10

3.1.1. Heroic Epic 11

3.1.2. Chivalric literature 12

3.1.3. Urban literature of the Middle Ages 13

3.2. Music 16

3.3. Theater 17

3.3.1. Religious Drama or Miracle Plays 17

3.3.2. Medieval secular drama 18

3.3.3. Moral plays 19

3.4.Great architectural styles 20

3.4.1. Roman style 20

3.4.2. Gothic style 22

4. Late Middle Ages 25

Conclusion 26

Bibliography 27

Application 28

INTRODUCTION

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) - the era of domination in Western and Central Europe by feudal economic and political system and Christian religious worldview, which came after the collapse of antiquity. Replaced by the Renaissance. Covers the period from the 4th to the 14th centuries. In some regions it persisted even at a much later time. The Middle Ages are conventionally divided into the Early Middle Ages (IV-1st half of the 10th century), the High Middle Ages (2nd half of the 10th-13th centuries) and the Late Middle Ages (XIV-XV centuries).

The beginning of the Middle Ages is most often considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. However, some historians proposed to consider the beginning of the Middle Ages to be the Edict of Milan in 313, which meant the end of the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the defining cultural movement for the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, and after several centuries it began to dominate in the states of the barbarian tribes that formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

There is no consensus among historians regarding the end of the Middle Ages. It was proposed to consider it as such: the fall of Constantinople (1453), the discovery of America (1492), the beginning of the Reformation (1517), the beginning of the English Revolution (1640) or the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789).

The term "Middle Ages" (lat. medium ævum) was first introduced by the Italian humanist Flavio Biondo in his work “The Decades of History, Beginning with the Decline of the Roman Empire” (1483). Before Biondo, the dominant term for the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance was Petrarch's concept of the "Dark Ages", which in modern historiography refers to a narrower period of time.

In the narrow sense of the word, the term “Middle Ages” applies only to the Western European Middle Ages. In this case, this term implies a number of specific features of religious, economic and political life: feudal system of land tenure (feudal landowners and semi-dependent peasants), the vassalage system (the relationship of lord and vassal connecting feudal lords), the unconditional dominance of the Church in religious life, the political power of the Church (the Inquisition, church courts, the existence of feudal bishops), the ideals of monasticism and chivalry (a combination of spiritual practice of ascetic self-improvement and altruistic service to society), the flourishing of medieval architecture - Romanesque and Gothic.

Many modern states arose precisely in the Middle Ages: England, Spain, Poland, Russia, France, etc.

The object of study of this work is the Middle Ages, the subject of study is culture in the Middle Ages. The purpose of the work is to study the features of the culture of the Middle Ages. The goal involves solving the following tasks:

● study of the role of the church and Christian doctrine

● study of three periods of the Middle Ages

● identification of cultural features at each stage and in general

1. CHRISTIAN CONSCIOUSNESS – THE BASIS OF THE MEDIEVAL MENTALITY

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. In conditions of difficult and meager life, against the backdrop of extremely limited and most often unreliable knowledge about the world, Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, about its structure, about the forces and laws operating in it.

This picture of the world, which completely determined the mentality of believing villagers and townspeople, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.

The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

Monasticism played a huge role in the life of society at that time: monks took upon themselves the obligations of “leaving the world,” celibacy, and renunciation of property. However, already in the 6th century, monasteries turned into strong, often very rich centers, owning movable and immovable property. Many monasteries were centers of education and culture.

However, one should not think that the formation of the Christian religion in the countries of Western Europe went smoothly, without difficulties and confrontation in the minds of people with old pagan beliefs.

The population was traditionally committed to pagan cults, and sermons and descriptions of the lives of saints were not enough to convert them to true faith. People were converted to a new religion with the help of state power. However for a long time After the official recognition of a single religion, the clergy had to fight persistent remnants of paganism among the peasantry.

The Church destroyed idols, forbade worshiping gods and making sacrifices, and organizing pagan holidays and rituals. Severe punishments were threatened for those who engaged in fortune telling, divination, spells, or simply believed in them.

The formation of the process of Christianization was one of the sources sharp clashes, since the people often associated the concepts of popular freedom with the old faith, while the connection of the Christian Church with state power and oppression appeared quite clearly.

In the minds of the masses of the rural population, regardless of belief in certain gods, behavioral attitudes remained in which people felt directly included in the cycle of natural phenomena.

The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. In his mind, the world was seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely confident in the possibility of miracles and perceived everything that the Bible reported literally.

In the most general terms, the world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical ladder, like a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the Apostles, those closest to God, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and cardinals, then clergy more low levels, below them are ordinary laymen. Then animals are placed even further from God and closer to the earth, then plants and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a “minus” sign, in a seemingly underground world, with increasing evil and proximity to Satan. He is placed at the top of this second, atonic pyramid, acting as symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with opposite sign(reflective like a mirror) being. If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

Medieval Europeans, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings and emperors, were illiterate. The level of literacy and education even of the clergy in the parishes was terribly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have educated personnel, began to open theological seminaries, etc. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The masses of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only clergy were allowed to interpret it. However, both their education and literacy were, as has been said, very low. Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells.

2. EARLY MIDDLE AGES

The Early Middle Ages in Europe is the period from the end of the 4th century. until the middle of the 10th century. In general, the early Middle Ages were a time of deep decline European civilization compared to the ancient era. This decline was expressed in the dominance of subsistence farming, in the decline of handicraft production and, accordingly, urban life, in the destruction ancient culture under the onslaught of the unwritten pagan world. In Europe during this period, turbulent and very important processes took place, such as the barbarian invasion, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.