Medieval school and medieval university. Main

Monastic and church schools represented the very first educational institutions of the Middle Ages. And although the Christian church preserved only selective, necessary remnants of ancient education (primarily Latin), it was in them that the cultural tradition that connected different eras continued. The lower church schools trained mainly parish priests. Paid training was conducted in Latin. The school was attended by the children of feudal lords, wealthy townspeople, and wealthy peasants. Studying began with cramming prayers and psalms (religious chants). Then the students were introduced to the Latin alphabet and taught to read the same prayers from the book. Often this book was the only one in the school (handwritten books were very expensive, and the invention of printing was still a long way off). When reading, boys (girls were not accepted to school) memorized the most common words and expressions without delving into their meaning. It is not surprising that not everyone who learned to read Latin texts, far from colloquial speech, could understand what they read. But all this wisdom was hammered into the consciousness of the students with the help of a rod. It took about three years to learn to write. Students first practiced on a wax-coated tablet, and then learned to write with a quill pen on parchment (specially treated leather). In addition to reading and writing, they learned to represent numbers with their fingers, memorized the multiplication tables, practiced church singing and, of course, became acquainted with the basics of Catholic doctrine. Despite this, many pupils of the school were forever imbued with an aversion to rote learning, to Latin, which was alien to them, and left the school walls semi-literate, able to somehow read the texts of liturgical books. Larger schools, which provided more serious education, usually arose at episcopal sees. In them, according to the preserved Roman tradition, they studied the so-called “seven liberal arts” (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music). The liberal arts system included two levels. The initial one consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics. The highest was formed by all the remaining liberal arts. From the 11th century the number of church schools grew. A little later, the rapid development of cities leads to the emergence of secular urban private and municipal (i.e., run by the city council) schools. The influence of the church was not so strong in them. Practical needs came to the fore. In Germany, for example, the first burgher schools preparing for crafts and trade arose: in Lübeck in 1262. , in Wismar in 1279, in Hamburg in 1281. From the 14th century. In some schools, teaching is conducted in national languages. Growing cities and strengthening states needed more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed. The nobility became increasingly involved in education.

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities (associations of teachers or teachers together with students). They arose either on the basis of former cathedral (episcopal) schools (this is how the University of Paris appeared in the 12th century, which grew out of the school that existed at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris), or in cities where famous teachers lived, always surrounded by capable students. Thus, from the circle of followers of the famous expert on Roman law Irneria, the University of Bologna, a center of legal science, developed. Classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, and Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. Since the students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with the teachers, united in a union, which was called the “university” (in Latin - community, corporation). The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them, members of the union were booksellers, manuscript copyists, manufacturers of parchment, quills, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. In a long struggle with the city authorities, which went on with varying success, the universities achieved self-government: they had elected leaders and their own court. University teachers created associations by subject - faculties. They were led by deans. Teachers and students elected a rector - the head of the university. The medieval higher school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took 5-6 years, then a future philosopher-theologian took as many as 15. But before entering one of the three main faculties, the student had to graduate from the preparatory - artistic faculty (where they studied the already mentioned “seven free arts). During the classes, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - “reading”) by professors and masters. The teacher's learning was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, connect it with the content of other books, and reveal the meaning of terms and the essence of scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. In the XIV-XV centuries. so-called collegiums (hence colleges) appear. At first, this was what students' dormitories were called. Over time, they also began to host lectures and debates. The college, which was founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king, - the Sorbonne - gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris. The latter was the largest higher school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 15th century. in Europe, students attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. The most famous were Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Krakow. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserving ancient traditions.

The decomposition and decline of the slave system led to its replacement by a new, feudal one. And although it was undoubtedly more progressive than the slave-owning one that preceded it (after all, the main productive force - the peasant had a farm and therefore showed some interest in work, unlike the slave), however, the feudal system was also based on the private property of feudal lords, secular and clergy , on the land, accompanied by harsh exploitation of the peasants who worked on it, subject to the landowners. The Catholic Church was a major political force and ideological stronghold of the feudal system. She played a major role in the life of medieval Western European society. The Church justified the exploitation of the masses. Using the doctrine of the innate sinfulness of man, she called for asceticism, mortification of the flesh to save the soul in the future afterlife, and thereby instilled in people long-suffering and humility, obedience to feudal lords, and taught that life is not. earth - preparation for the afterlife, in which everyone will be rewarded for the suffering endured on earth. This distracted the oppressed from the fight against violence and exploitation.

The Catholic clergy was extremely hostile to ancient culture: science, art, school; it promoted the view of the child as a being, from birth involved in “original sin,” which should be overcome by being raised “in the fear of God.”

At the monasteries there were monastery schools, at churches - parochial schools. First of all, they trained clergy to occupy lower church positions, “but over time, those who did not intend to be ministers of the church also began to study in these schools. Teachers - monks or priests - raised the boys in the spirit of the Christian religion of morality, taught them . read and write in a language alien to them, Latin, in which Catholic worship was conducted. Children memorized prayers, learned church singing, counting. Teaching Latin literacy in a medieval school was carried out using the letter-subjunctive method, designed exclusively for mechanical memorization, often without even understanding that The learning process was extremely difficult and lengthy.For poor performance and the slightest violation of discipline, students were subjected to severe physical punishment.

At the councils, at the bishop's see, there were cathedral, or cathedral schools, which were visited, as a rule, by the children of nobles and eminent citizens. Gradually these schools began to give students increased education. Its content consisted of theology and the so-called “seven liberal arts”: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics (the beginnings of religious philosophy), arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. The cathedral schools mainly trained the higher clergy.

Secular feudal lords (knights) received a different upbringing and education, which consisted of mastering the seven “knightly virtues”: the ability to ride a horse, swim, fence, wield a sword, shield and spear, hunt, play chess, compose and sing poetry in honor of their overlord and ladies of the heart. It was not necessary to be able to read and write. The future knight acquired the necessary knowledge at the court of the overlord, where from 7 to 14 years old he was a page to the feudal lord’s wife, and then from 14 to 21 years old as his master’s squire, accompanying him on military campaigns and hunting. At the 21st year of his life, the young man was knighted, which was accompanied by a special ceremony.

The daughters of feudal lords were educated at home and in convents, where they were raised in a religious spirit and taught reading, writing and handicrafts.

By the XII-XIII centuries. the development of crafts, trade and the growth of cities in Western Europe contributed to the emergence of an urban, predominantly secular, culture. The townspeople, who fought against feudal oppression, also opposed the Catholic Church. In the cities, artisans opened for their children guild schools, and the merchants - guild schools. These schools, established by the city population rather than the church, focused on< счету, чтению и письму на родном языке. Религия не занимала в них господствующего положения. Цеховые и гильдейские школы, которые впоследствии стали городскими начальными школами, содержавшимися магистратами, нарушали монополию церкви в области обучения.

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Didactics. Basic categories of didactics. Types of training.

What is didactics?

Didactics is defined as a general theory of education and training, since it explores the general patterns of human cognitive activity, occurring both under the guidance of a teacher and independently, through self-education.

Didactics is an integral part of pedagogy that studies the laws of the learning process.

The word "didactics" comes from the Greek "didaktikos", which means "teacher". This is the science of learning.

Main tasks of didactics are:

— description and explanation of the learning process and the conditions for its implementation;

— organization of the educational process;

— development of more modern learning processes, new learning systems, new learning technologies

Didactics answers the questions: why teach? How to teach? Where to study? In what organizational forms? In other words, it provides a scientific basis for the goals, selection of educational content, choice of means and methods of teaching, and determines the forms of organization of training.

History of didactics.

Didactics as a theory of learning and education has its roots in ancient times. Learning has always existed as long as man has existed. The theory of learning began to take shape already when a meaningful need arose to pass on to descendants not only the accumulated achievements, but also how to pass them on. The Czech teacher Jan Amos is considered the founder of didactics. Comenius(1592-1670). For the first time, as far as is known, the term “didactics” appeared in the writings of the German educator Wolfgang Rathke (1571-1635) to denote the art of teaching. As a branch of pedagogical science, didactics received its clearest formulation in the work of John Amos Comenius “The Great Didactics” (1632), in which didactics was defined as “the universal art of teaching everyone everything.” At the beginning of the 19th century, the German educator Johann Friedrich Herbart gave didactics the status of a holistic theory of educational education. In domestic pedagogy, didactics received active development at the end of the 19th century thanks to the works of K. D. Ushinsky, K. Yurkevich, G. Skovoroda.

Main categories of didactics

Didactics as a branch of pedagogy, which has its own subject and area of research, while solving a clearly defined range of issues, operates with a certain range of concepts. The most important and significant of them, which therefore have the character of didactic categories, are:

— learning process

- principles of training,

- methods,

— forms of training organization.

Learning process- this is a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, during which the education, upbringing and development of students is carried out.

Principles of training represent a system of the most important didactic requirements, observing which it is possible to ensure the effective functioning of the educational process.

The study of each academic subject involves the acquisition of knowledge and the formation of certain skills and abilities.

Teaching methods - These are ways of interrelated activities between teachers and students to equip students with knowledge, skills, and abilities, their upbringing and overall development in the learning process.

Forms of training organization reflect the features of bringing together students for classes organized by the teacher, during which educational and cognitive activities are carried out.

Types of training.

Depending on the nature of the organization, the specifics of the content of educational material, the use of teaching methods and means, and the historical era, the following can be distinguished: types of training:

1) Socratic type of teaching;

2) dogmatic teaching

3) developmental training

4) explanatory and illustrative (traditional) teaching

5) problem-based learning

6) programmed training

7) modular training

1.Socratic method – (Ancient Greece)

Socratic teaching is a method of consistently and systematically asking questions with the goal of leading the interlocutor to contradict himself, to admit his own ignorance.
However, Socrates set his task not only to reveal contradictions in the statements of his interlocutor, but also to overcome these contradictions in order to achieve “truth.”

This method is sometimes called “Socratic or heuristic conversation.” It was based on a question-and-answer training system. Socrates, talking with each student, sought to lead him to a contradiction in his reasoning, after which, through induction, he led him to the correct judgment. An important role in this method was played by the consistency, systematicity and logic of questions asked by the teacher and providing the opportunity to gain new knowledge. In a word, Socrates not only gave new knowledge, but also developed logical thinking in his students.

Socrates' conversation comes from the facts of life, from specific phenomena. He compares individual ethical facts, identifies common elements from them, analyzes them in order to discover contradictory points that impede their unification, and, ultimately, reduces them to a higher unity based on the essential features found. In this way he reaches a general concept. For example, the study of individual manifestations of justice or injustice opened up the possibility of defining the concept and essence of justice or injustice in general.

According to the Socratic method, learning should take place in two stages, one of which is the main one. Here ethics and behavior in society are studied, as well as those subjects that will be useful to a person for mastering a future profession. The teacher has a specific goal, namely, the awakening of the student’s spiritual strength.

Dogmatic teaching – (medieval)

A typical feature of dogmatic teaching is authoritarianism, expressed in the minimal role of not only students, but also teachers. With dogmatic training, the canonized content of education had to be learned in the form in which it was given.

Chapter 5. Education system in the Middle Ages

Any independent thought of the student was suppressed, the subject of knowledge was, as it were, taken out of brackets, learning goals were imposed by the teacher, and the assessment of the student’s capabilities was reduced to spontaneous diagnosis. The purpose of the exams was to determine the student's position in relation to others. With this style of teaching, the problem of cognitive activity of the individual is not raised.

3.Developmental education (Renaissance) –

an educational process in which, along with the transfer of specific knowledge, significant importance is given to the process of intellectual development of students. Developmental education is a type of education aimed at the formation of knowledge in the form of a well-organized system, at developing cognitive (cognitive) skills in students within the framework of this system.

Features of developmental training:

1) the central figure on whom success depends is not the teacher, but the student;

2) the function of the teacher is not to transmit knowledge, but to organize the educational activities of students and develop their thinking;

3) the pedagogical process within the framework of developmental education has the character of a paired dialogue - teacher and student, during which the student develops together with the teacher.

The beginning of the European Middle Ages is considered to be 476, when the Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of Germanic tribes. During this period, the slave society was replaced by a new society with feudal relations, the stronghold of which was Christianity. The Middle Ages cover 12 centuries and are conventionally divided into 3 periods: V - X centuries. - early Middle Ages; XI - XIII centuries. - developed Middle Ages; XIV - XVII centuries - late Middle Ages (Renaissance).

The nature and forms of medieval education and upbringing were determined by the dominant position of religion and the Church in society. The Catholic Church - the spiritual center of the Middle Ages - officially rejected the ancient educational tradition. However, among Christian theologians and monks there were many supporters of Greco-Roman education.

She made a significant contribution to the development of pedagogical thought in the early Middle Ages scholasticism- a type of religious philosophy, the central problem of which is the relationship between secular knowledge and Christian faith. Scholasticism played a major role in the implementation of cultural continuity from antiquity to the Middle Ages and the New Age. It contributed to raising the status of an educated person in medieval society, determined the content and methods of medieval education, and raised the authority of education and teachers.

Early Middle Ages sometimes called the "Dark Ages". The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was accompanied in Western Europe by a deep decline in culture. Barbarian invasions led to the destruction of the cultural values of antiquity. The Church waged an open struggle against ancient culture. Reading books by ancient authors was prohibited, schools disappeared.

System of education and upbringing in the Middle Ages

School affairs were in a depressing state. Illiteracy and ignorance reigned everywhere.

Attempts to create schools were made by both ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Many politicians were aware of the role of schools in nation-building. Thus, the founder of the Frankish empire, Emperor Charlemagne, in every possible way encouraged the development of school affairs, ordering church parishes to open schools for all classes. The royal court became a center where a few educated people from all over Europe flocked. Following the example of antiquity, the society of scientists who gathered at the court of Charlemagne in the Carolingian Empire began to be called Academy. Associated with his name Carolingian revival- the cultural rise of the empire, the flourishing of literature, art, and architecture. However, such periods were short-lived and did not have a significant impact on the overall picture of education. After the death of the emperor, his undertakings were forgotten and a disdainful attitude towards culture and education prevailed again.

In the early Middle Ages, several types of church schools developed in Europe (parish, monastery, cathedral). The Christian Church preserved only selective remnants of ancient education (Latin), continuing cultural traditions and connecting different eras.

Monastic schools founded by the monastic orders of the Franciscans and Benedictines were among the first to open. At the end of the 13th century. in Western Europe there were up to 15 thousand monasteries of St. Benedict, each had a school where elementary education was given (beginnings of literacy, arithmetic, singing psalms).

Advanced education was provided episcopal schools, operating at the episcopal sees, but there were few of them. They taught seven liberal arts(grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). Thus, the training had a pronounced religious and mystical character.

Since the 12th century. School education is gradually expanding beyond the walls of churches and monasteries. The growth of cities and the development of trade gave impetus to the development of secular education - city schools and universities. First city schools often opened not in the database parish, guild And guild schools. The Catholic Church sought by any means to maintain a monopoly on education and strictly controlled secular educational institutions and their competitors. Gradually, city schools managed to significantly weaken the tutelage of the Church: they began to determine their own teaching and appoint teachers.

City schools differed favorably from church schools in the practical orientation of education. In addition to Latin, they studied mathematics, natural science, and geography.

A major event in the development of medieval education was the discovery universities. The first medieval universities arose either on the basis of cathedral schools (Paris), or in large cities where famous teachers lived, surrounded by capable students (Bologna). Universities were established by both ecclesiastical and secular authorities.

Cities fought for the right to open a university within their walls, since its appearance contributed to the revitalization of public life, trade, and culture. Universities received privileges from the king or pope, strengthening their autonomy (governance, the right to award academic degrees, etc.). University teachers created associations in subjects - faculties, headed by deans. Student teachers elected rector - head of the university.

As a rule, universities had four faculties: artistic; theological; medical; legal. Main features of a medieval university: teaching Latin as a universal language of instruction; consolidation of the sequence of academic procedures; the right to award academic degrees and titles; internal conflict of the university, caused by the confrontation of church and secular spirituality; orientation towards combining learning and research, understood as commenting on religious texts and searching for hidden meanings, etc.

In the Middle Ages, such a form of education developed as discipleship. It quickly covers a number of layers of feudal society. Its essence is that the master, for a certain fee, took several students to study with him. The course of study lasted several years, after which the student, working as an apprentice, earned money to open his own business.

Was built on apprenticeship knightly education system. Until the age of 7, the sons of the feudal lord received home education. Then they went to the castle of a higher feudal lord (suzerain) or to the royal court. While performing the duties of a page, they learned good manners, singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments. House priests taught them to read and write. At the age of 14, the teenager became a squire; accompanied the overlord on campaigns and participated in tournaments. At the age of 21, after special tests, the young man was knighted. The basis of knightly education was seven knightly virtues: horse riding, swimming, possession of weapons (spear, sword), fencing, hunting, playing chess, the ability to compose and sing poetry.

Girls from noble families were raised at home or in monasteries. The training program included mastering literacy, reading religious books, learning languages, and handicrafts.

She made a special contribution to the development of school and pedagogical thought Renaissance, transitional from the Middle Ages to the New Age.

Italy became the cradle of the European Renaissance. It was in this country that ancient ideals received their greatest development. Having placed man at the center of their worldview, humanists linked the progress of society with its purposeful education.

The humanistic ideal of the Renaissance - an educated and enlightened person, brought up on the principles of high morality, physically developed and mentally resilient. Humanists considered nature, discipline (instructions, guidance) and exercise to be the basis of education and upbringing. Understanding man as a physical-spiritual unity led humanists to the idea of harmonious development and forced them to pay attention to physical education. It is characteristic that in the Renaissance, physical education was interpreted more broadly than in antiquity. It implied not only gymnastic exercises and military training, but also hardening of the body and active recreation (games, dancing).

Humanistic education was based on knowledge of ancient languages and the study of ancient cultural heritage. Classical languages during the Renaissance were considered as the key to the thoughts of the works of ancient authors. In addition to Latin, ancient Greek and Hebrew languages were studied. Humanists reformed the traditional system of the seven liberal arts.

The new complex of humanities disciplines was called studiahumanitatis. The trivium was expanded to include history, moral philosophy, grammar, poetry, rhetoric, which humanists highly valued for its moral influence, and the teaching of logic was rethought, giving it an instrumental character. During the period under review, the role of the quadrium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music) was insignificant. Natural sciences occupied an equally modest place in the curriculum.

During the Renaissance it developed new understanding of the learning process - as a voluntary, conscious and joyful process, which presented a stark contrast to the medieval education system, where learning was associated with the rod.

Another important idea put forward by humanists is the connection between learning and life. It was believed that the main criterion of education was its usefulness in preparing a person for life. Humanists advocated a careful selection of educational material, alternating classes throughout the day, versatile encyclopedic education, and clarity in teaching.

Great importance was attached to the personality of the teacher. He had to be not only highly educated, but also a friendly, sensitive, insightful person, well versed in children's nature and take into account the individual characteristics of children. During this period, there was no single point of view regarding where it is better to receive an education: at school or at home. Some humanists ardently advocated school education, proving its advantages by the need for a unified public education for all citizens. Others believed that, given the general unsatisfactory state of school affairs, home education was preferable.

Moral education occupied a central place in the pedagogical system of the late Middle Ages. Children were encouraged and educated in such qualities as vital activity, desire for glory, reverence for elders, and piety.

Summarizing the development of education and upbringing in the Middle Ages, it can be noted that from this era ethical ideals were inherited, the idea of public education, which was subsequently implemented on other social and ideological grounds, elements of the organizational structure of education (schools of different levels, universities), interest in humanitarian knowledge, fundamental principles of education and upbringing, aimed not only at the mental development of the student, but also at nurturing him as a moral person.

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Features of medieval law

Characteristic features of law and its institutions in the Middle Ages

Basic principles of law

Feudal law in Western Europe arose as a result of the death of the slave system and the emergence of a feudal socio-economic formation. Its defining features were:

conditionality of land ownership rights (serfdom);
the presence of legally unequal and socially isolated classes (clergy, nobility, townspeople, peasants).

The law directly consolidated the social inequality of people and made them dependent on each other. Thus, in the French kutyums of Bovesi (c. 1282) it was said this way: “You should know that the people of our century know three states: noble, the state of free people born of a free mother, and serfs... Between the rights of nobles and others There is a big difference between free people, since nobles are those who descend in a direct line from kings, dukes, counts and knights...” By expanding privileges for some sections of society, law pushed others beyond the boundaries of law in general, into complete lack of rights. Feudal law was a right of privilege, a law of force (“fist law”).

Also, the law of a feudal state was characterized by so-called particularism - a condition expressed in the absence of a single law throughout the territory of the state and the dominance of legal systems based on local customs, immune and guild rights, seigneurial and canonical legislation and justice.

Features of criminal law

During the early Middle Ages, the concept of crime had not yet been identified; the main measure of punishment was compositions (fines). With the strengthening of the state, the concept of crime appears. The main purpose of punishment is deterrence, which was realized through the extremely widespread use of the death penalty and cruel punishments.

Not only people, but also animals and even inanimate objects were recognized as subjects of crimes. This practice was known in ancient times. Thus, King Xerxes at one time, in order to transfer the army from Asia to Europe, ordered the construction of a bridge across the Helespont (Dardanelles Strait), but a storm quickly destroyed this bridge. Then the king ordered to “chain the sea” and flog it with whips.

In medieval Europe, in some countries it was believed that animals could commit crimes, so they were tried according to all the rules of legal procedure: an investigation was conducted, they were invited to court by summons or heralds, the prosecution and defense made speeches, the court passed a sentence, which was carried out.

Numerous trials were held against pigs, bulls, who mutilated people, against cats and cats, who were tried and executed along with their owners - “sorcerers and sorcerers.” In this case, the cry of an animal during torture was considered as an admission of guilt. For example, in 1457 in France, a pig and its six piglets were put on trial on charges of premeditated murder of a certain J. Martin. The sentence passed in the case read: “to carry out the death penalty by hanging by the hind legs on a crooked tree.” The sentence was carried out.

History also knows processes against insects (locusts, caterpillars) that destroy agricultural crops. For example, in Tyrol in 1519, peasants filed a lawsuit against moles. The last well-known trial against mice and rats in France took place in 1710.

Features of the court and trial

During the Middle Ages, there was no common judicial system for all segments of the population. Each class was “litigated” in its own court:

for feudal lords - the court of the king;
for peasants - the lord's court;
for clergy and persons living on church lands - church courts.

Different categories of cases (civil or criminal) were considered in different instances. Cases on property disputes (except for land disputes) were dealt with in local courts, minor criminal cases - in community or seigneurial (manoral) courts, serious cases - only in royal courts.

During the formation of states, the main attention of the central government was paid to the basics of the criminal process, which was not divided into the investigation and the court itself. Initially, the process was adversarial, based on transparency, publicity and oral proceedings. The main evidence was ordeals, testimony, and oaths. The court acted as an observer, heard the plaintiff, defendant and witnesses, and rendered a verdict. In later periods, when state power strengthened, the foundations of the accusatory (inquisitorial, investigative, investigative) process with its secrecy of proceedings, writing and the presumption of guilt arose and spread everywhere.

The main goal of criminal law was intimidation, therefore the trial was concerned with establishing the fact of a crime, and not the truth of the case. The best evidence in these conditions was one’s own confession, which could be obtained through torture.

Basic Types of schools in the Middle Ages

Revival of legal science

With the development of commodity-money relations, the need for a more vibrant law arose. This led to the discovery of Roman law and its reception, as well as to the revival against this background of legal science and legislation, freed from the strictest religious dogmas.

At the same time, the formulation of Roman law took place during the activities of the so-called glossators and their followers - post-glossators (Italian jurists of the 11th-13th centuries). They were not only the first to comment on the basic principles of Roman law by compiling glosses in the margins of the texts of codes and digests, thereby introducing medieval Europe to the treasury of Roman law, but also did a tremendous job of adapting the texts to contemporary conditions.

The Italian lawyer Irnerius (1065-1125), the founder of the school of glossators, with his students (Placentinus, Martin, Burgundio, Roger, Bassien, Pillius, Bulgar, Hugolen, Azo, Rofroi, Accursius and Jacob) carried out the initial systematization of all Justinian legislation, laying the foundation revival of legal culture and science. For example, a “Guiding Gloss” was created by Accursius, a professor at the University of Bologna.

Roman law gradually penetrated into the life of medieval society. This was also facilitated by legists (lawyers) - medieval jurists who, through the reception of Roman law and the inclusion of some of its norms in collections of local legal customs (kutyums), contributed to its spread in Western Europe, as well as the limitation of the broadest seigneurial and ecclesiastical jurisdiction that had taken place.

Through the joint efforts of glossators and legalists, Roman law was developed by the 16th century. became the basis of legal science and practice in most European countries, especially Italy, France, Germany and Spain.

EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

In the Middle Ages (V - XVII), the appearance of Western European society, its culture, pedagogy and education changed significantly compared to the ancient era. This was explained by the establishment of a new type of socio-economic relations, and new forms of statehood, and the transformation of culture based on the penetration of the religious ideology of Christianity.

The philosophical and pedagogical thought of the early Middle Ages set the salvation of the soul as its main goal. The main source of education was considered, first of all, the Divine principle. The bearers of Christian pedagogy and morality were the ministers of the Catholic Church.

In the pedagogy of the early Middle Ages, the element of authoritarianism and averageness of the believing individual dominated. Many Christian ideologists openly demonstrated hostility to the ideals of ancient education, demanding that Greco-Roman literature be eliminated from the educational curriculum. They believed that the only model of education could be monasticism, which became noticeably widespread in the early medieval era.

Asceticism, diligent reading of religious literature, elimination of addiction to earthly goods, self-control of desires, thoughts and actions - these are the main human virtues inherent in the medieval ideal of education.

By the 7th century, schools of the ancient type had completely disappeared in medieval Europe. School work in the young barbarian states of the 5th - 7th centuries. It turned out to be in a deplorable state. Illiteracy and ignorance reigned everywhere. Many kings and the top of society - nobles and officials - were illiterate. Meanwhile, the need for literate subjects and clergy was constantly increasing. The Catholic Church tried to correct the existing situation.

The successor to the ancient tradition turned out to be church schools. During the V - XV centuries. Church schools were first the only and then the predominant educational institutions in Europe. They were an important tool for religious education. The main subjects of study were: the Bible, theological literature and the writings of the “church fathers”. All educational material was sifted through the sieve of Christianity.

In medieval Europe there were three main type of church schools: monastic schools, episcopal (cathedral) and parochial schools. The main purpose of all types of schools was to train the clergy. They were available primarily to the upper classes of medieval society.

Monastic schools were organized at monasteries; boys aged 7-10 studied there, whose parents doomed them to future monasticism. Then the monastery schools were divided into internal (for future monks) and external (for incoming laymen). Educated monks acted as teachers. Monastic schools were well supplied with handwritten books. They taught grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and later arithmetic, geometry, geometry, astronomy and music theory.

Episcopal (cathedral) schools opened in church centers, the seat of the head of the diocese.

Features of learning in the Middle Ages

The content of training in them was quite high at that time. In addition to reading, writing, counting and the law of God, grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (three-way) were studied, and in some cases, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory (four-way). The most famous were schools in Saint-Germain, Tours (France), Lüttich (Belgium), Halle, Reichen, Fulda (Germany) and a number of other cities.

Parochial schools were the most common. Schools were located in the vicarage or church gatehouse. They were attended by small groups of boys, where for a small fee the priest or cleric taught the children the law of God in Latin, writing and church singing. This type of school was unsystematic and the least organized.

Education in advanced church schools was taught according to the program of the seven liberal arts. One of the first to propose a formula for such a program for medieval Europe Severinus Boethius(480-524). He combined arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (sciences based on mathematical laws) into the “quadrium” (fourth way) educational cycle. This cycle, together with the “trivium” (third way) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics - made up the seven liberal arts, which subsequently formed the basis of all medieval education.

The seven liberal arts, together with theology, as the “crown” of all learning, constituted the content of medieval education.

Teaching methods were based on rote learning and the development of rote memory. The most common teaching method was catechetical (question-and-answer), with the help of which the teacher introduced abstract knowledge that was subject to mandatory memorization, without explaining the subject or phenomenon. For example: “What is the moon? - Eye of the night, dispenser of dew, prophet of storms,... What is autumn? - Annual granary”, etc.

Grammar was the main academic subject. It boiled down to learning the grammatical forms of the Latin language and to memorizing individual grammatical forms and phrases of religious and mystical meaning.

The study of Latin began with elementary rules and mastering the simplest phrases. It took two or three years to master reading techniques. The writing technique was also very complex.

After mastering grammar, we moved on to studying literature. The choice of literature was extremely conservative. First, they read short literary poems, and then proceeded to the rules of versification. Classical Greek literature was studied in Latin translations as Greek disappeared from the school curriculum.

Dialectics and rhetoric were studied simultaneously. The first taught how to think correctly, build arguments and evidence. The second is to construct phrases correctly, the art of eloquence, which was valued by clergy and the aristocracy. When studying philosophy and dialectics, they relied on the works of Aristotle and St. Augustine.

Astronomy was an applied science associated with the calculations of numerous church holidays. Music was taught using notes indicated by letters of the alphabet. Linear musical notation appeared in.

The arithmetic program meant mastering four arithmetic operations. Learning arithmetic operations was too difficult, calculations took up entire pages. Therefore, there was the honorary title “Doctor of Abacus” (i.e. “Doctor of Multiplication and Division”). All academic subjects were given a religious and mystical character.

Severe, blind discipline reigned at school. The teacher did not spare his students for mistakes; cruel corporal punishment was very common and approved by the church, which taught that “human nature is sinful, and corporal punishment contributes to the purification and salvation of the soul.”

The bulk of the population did not receive even a minimum education in schools. Children were raised by their parents in the family and in everyday work.

By the beginning of the 11th century, a three-member system of division of labor began to play a special role (clergy, secular feudal lords, peasants and townspeople). In the 13th century, the sovlovny structure turned out to be even more differentiated. Each class was endowed with certain virtues. The virtues of the peasantry were considered to be hard work, the aristocracy - valor, the clergy - piety, etc. Thus, society compiled a list of socio-cultural types that a certain education system was supposed to reproduce.

However, the scientific world of the early Middle Ages did not completely erase the ancient traditions. They were used by religious and pedagogical figures of the 12th - 13th centuries. when justifying a different system of training and education.

In the XII - XIII centuries. noticeable shifts are taking place in Western European pedagogical thought, reflecting the general dynamics of Western civilization. Against the background of the religious and pedagogical fanaticism of the early Middle Ages, thinkers stand out who can be considered the heralds of the Renaissance. Such figures include Thomas Aquinas, Hugh of Saint-Victor, Pierre Abelard, Vincent de Beauvais and others.

In the XII - XIII centuries in Western Europe there was a need to support religion with philosophy, not to believe blindly, “but to understand what they believe in.” This task is performed by scholasticism, which tries to reconcile faith and reason, religion and science.

Scholasticism(translated from Greek - scholasticos - school) medieval school philosophy, whose representatives - the scholastics - sought to rationally substantiate and systematize the Christian doctrine. To do this, they used the ideas of the ancient philosophers Plato and especially Aristotle, whose views scholasticism adapted to their goals.

The education of secular feudal lords - “lords of the land and peasants” - was organized differently. The main thing for the medieval knight was the development of military-physical skills, serf morality and piety.

Reading and writing were not mandatory for a knight; many of them were illiterate during the early Middle Ages.

Until the age of seven, the eldest son of the feudal lord was raised in the family. From the age of 7 to 14, he went to the castle to a higher feudal lord (suzerain) and performed the duties of a page in the female half of the overlord's wife.

From the age of 14 to 21, the young man became the squire of the overlord and moved to the male half of the castle. He accompanied the overlord on hunts, participated in knightly tournaments and other important events. Pages and squires had to master basic military professional skills, knowledge of etiquette and religious dogma.

At the age of 21, as a rule, knighting took place. The young man was blessed with a blessed sword.

The younger sons of the feudal lord stayed at home, practiced “knightly virtues” and learned religion from the castle chaplain, and less often, reading and writing. Some of them went to monasteries or to the bishop's court.

The education of girls of noble origin was somewhat higher than that of boys. Many of them were sent to nunneries, where they underwent a special course of training. Some knew the prose and poetic works of Latin authors.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the knightly class gradually declined. The tradition of knightly education also collapsed, but did not disappear without a trace. Thus, the “code of honor”, the ideas of aesthetic and physical development of young knights fed the ideals of humanistic pedagogy of the Renaissance.

In the XII - XV centuries. The school education system of medieval Europe is somewhat modified. This was connected, first of all, with the creation of secular educational institutions: city schools and universities. The growth of cities, urbanization, and the strengthening of the social positions of citizens made it possible to open educational institutions that met the urgent vital needs of the population.

The first city schools appear in almost all European cities: London, Paris, Milan, Florence, Lübeck, Hamburg, etc. and appear in several ways.

Many city schools were organized on the initiative of city magistrates and converted from former parochial schools. These schools catered to the children of the upper classes. They were taught by secular teachers. Graduates of these schools acquired reading, writing, arithmetic, and some grammar skills. This knowledge was enough to receive the title of cleric, which allowed him to become a teacher or clergyman in the future.

Also, city schools were born from the apprenticeship system, guild and guild schools, counting schools for the children of merchants and artisans.

Workshop schools arose for the children of artisans and at the expense of the guilds and provided general educational training (reading, writing, counting, elements of geometry and natural science). Education in these schools was conducted in the native and Latin languages.

Guild schools implemented a similar educational program and were created for the children of wealthy merchants. These schools later became the town's primary schools and were maintained by the town magistrates.

Gradually, educational institutions for girls are emerging, but they are not widespread, and monasteries remain the main source of female education.

The first city schools were under strict church control. The Catholic Church rightly saw them as dangerous competitors. Church ministers cut and modified school curricula and appointed and controlled teachers. Gradually, city schools were freed from such tutelage and won the right to independently appoint teachers in city schools.

As a rule, a city school was opened by a teacher hired by the community, who was called the rector. The rector independently selected his assistants. At first, priests became teachers, and later, former university students. Their salaries were paid irregularly and often in kind. At the end of the contract, teachers could be fired, and they had to look for another place. As a result, over time, in medieval cities, a certain social group arose - itinerant teachers.

Thus, city schools differed from church schools in their practical and scientific orientation and were more progressive.

In the XIV - XV centuries. Secular educational institutions appeared - colleges, which acted as a link between primary and higher education.

Until the middle of the 15th century. colleges were shelters for children of low-income groups. Subsequently, they become places of study, existing at universities. The schoolchildren lived on alms. They were located in obscene places in the city with a high crime rate. Later, the colleges turned into community associations of universities and colleges - educational institutions of general education.

An important milestone in the development of pedagogical science and education was the creation of the first medieval universities. They were created on the initiative of scientists and everyone interested in the development of science in the urban strata, in the depths of church schools of the late 11th - early 12th centuries.

Considered the most prestigious University of Paris(1200), which grew out of a theological school-orphanage where sixteen students lived (four each French, German, English and Italian). The orphanage was founded by the king's confessor Robert Sorbon.

Since then, the University of Paris has been called the Sorbonne. The course of study there lasted ten years. Upon completion, the student had to debate without interruption from six in the morning until six in the evening with twenty professors, who changed every half hour. The student who passed this test received a doctorate and a special black cap.

Other first European universities arose in a similar way: in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), Lisbon (1290). The network of universities grew quite quickly. If in the 13th century there were 19 universities in Europe, then in the next century 25 more were added to them (in Angers, Orleans, Pisa, Cologne, Prague, Vienna, Krakow and other cities).

The growth of university education responded to the trends of the times. The emergence of universities implied a revival of public life and trade.

The Church sought to maintain and strengthen its influence in the development of university education. The Vatican was the official patron of many universities. The opening and rights of the university were confirmed by privileges - special documents signed by popes or reigning persons. One of the most prestigious was the Faculty of Theology. The teachers were mostly clergy. The Church kept its representatives at the universities - chancellors, who were directly subordinate to the archbishops.

However, the universities of the early Middle Ages, in their curriculum, organization and teaching methods, appeared to be a secular alternative to church education.

Privileges secured university autonomy over its own court, administration, the right to grant academic degrees, and exempted students from military service.

An important feature of medieval universities was its supranational and democratic character, which was expressed in the fact that people of all ages and social status could be on the same student bench.

The creation of a university did not require large financial expenditures. The first universities were very mobile. They were located in simple and modest premises. Instead of benches, listeners could even sit on straw. The procedure for registering at the university was quite free and conditional. The training was paid, but not very expensive. Students often chose professors and rector from among themselves. The rector had temporary powers (usually for a year). In fact, power at the university belonged to nations (national associations of students and teachers) and faculties (educational corporations of students and professors).

By the end of the 15th century. the situation is changing significantly. The main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities, and the nations gradually began to lose their influence.

As a rule, most medieval universities had 4 faculties: artistic (faculty of arts), theological, medical and legal.

The content of the training of the artistic faculty was determined by the program of the seven liberal arts and lasted for 5 - 7 years. It was a preparatory general education university. After graduation, students received a Master of Arts degree and could continue their studies at one of the faculties. Upon completion of another 5 - 7 years of study and successful defense, students received the academic degree of “Doctor of Science”.

The main methods of teaching were lectures and debates. The student was required to attend lectures: mandatory during the day and repeated in the evening. Along with lectures, debates took place weekly. Participants in debates often behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.

However, the first medieval universities were a natural and objective alternative to scholasticism, which was turning into a “science of empty words.” Universities countered scholasticism with an active intellectual life and gave a powerful impetus to the development of world culture, science and education (R. Bacon, A. Dante, J. Hus, N. Copernicus, F. Bacon, F. Petrarch, etc.).

During the Middle Ages, there were three types of schools. The lower schools, formed at churches and monasteries, aimed to prepare elementary literate clergy - clergy. The main attention was paid to the study of the Latin language (in which Catholic services were conducted), prayers and the very order of worship. In the secondary school, which most often arose at episcopal departments, the study of the seven “liberal arts” was practiced (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, or logic, arithmetic, geometry, which also included geography, astronomy and music). The first three sciences constituted the so-called trivium, the last four - the quadrivium. Later, the study of the “liberal arts” began to be carried out in higher education, where these disciplines formed the content of teaching at the junior (“artistic”) faculty. The higher school was first called Studia Generalia (literally - general sciences), then this name was supplanted by another - universities.

The first universities arose in the 12th century - partly from episcopal schools, which had the most prominent professors in the field of theology and philosophy, partly from associations of private teachers - specialists in philosophy, law (Roman law) and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is considered to be the University of Paris, which existed as a “free school” in the first half of the 12th and early 13th centuries (the founding charter of Philip II Augustus in 1200 on the rights of the Sorbonne). The role of university centers, however, began to be played by Italian higher schools back in the 11th century - the Bologna Law School, which specialized in Roman law, and the Salerno Medical School. The most typical University of Paris, the charter of which formed the basis of other universities in Europe, consisted of four faculties: artistic, medical, legal and theological (including the teaching of philosophy in church light).

The other oldest universities in Europe were Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanca in Spain and Naples in Italy, founded in the 13th century. In the 14th century, universities were founded in the cities of Prague, Krakow, and Heidelberg. In the 15th century their number increased rapidly. In 1500 there were already 65 universities throughout Europe.

Teaching in medieval universities was conducted in Latin. The main method of university teaching was lectures by professors. A common form of scientific communication was also debates, or public debates, periodically held on topics of a theological and philosophical nature. Mainly university professors took part in the debates. But debates were also held for scholars (scholars are students, from the word Schola - school).

Scholasticism (from the Greek “schole” - quiet activity, study) - medieval scholarship. It is closely connected with the emerging from the VIII-IX centuries. education system in the West. At the same time, this is also a new stage in the development of the spiritual culture of Europe, which replaced patristics. It was based on patristic literature, representing at the same time a completely original and specific cultural formation. The term "scholasticism" implies not so much a doctrinal block of ideas as the philosophy and theology taught in medieval schools, especially since the period of their reorganization by Charlemagne.

The following periodization of scholasticism is accepted. The first stage is from the 6th to the 9th centuries. - preliminary. The second stage is from the 9th to the 12th centuries. - a period of intensive formation. Third stage - XIII century. - “the golden age of scholasticism.” The fourth stage - XIV-XV centuries. - fading of scholasticism.

Each stage can be associated with the personalities of thinkers who most clearly express its features. The first period is clearly represented by I.S. Eriugena (d. c. 877); the second - Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109) and Pierre Abelard (d. 1142); third - Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and Bonaventure (1221-1274); fourth - W. Occam (c. 1285-1349).

Scholastic learning in practice was a series of steps, climbing which the student could reach the highest. The “seven liberal arts” were studied in monastic and church schools. The latter were divided into “trivium” (from the number “three”) and “quadrivium” (from the number “four”). The student had to first master the trivium, i.e. grammar (Latin), dialectics, rhetoric. The Quadrivium, as a higher level, included arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Until the 13th century (when the formation of universities began), schools were: monastic (at abbeys), episcopal (at cathedrals), and courtly (“palacium”). During the period of barbarian invasions, schools at monasteries and abbeys were something like shelters and repositories of monuments of classical culture, places for making lists; Episcopal schools were places of primarily elementary education. However, the court school brought the greatest revival to cultural life. The director of one of these schools was Alcuin of York (730-804), the king's adviser on cultural and educational issues. A three-stage training was organized: 1) reading, writing, elementary concepts of common Latin, a general understanding of the Bible and liturgical texts; 2) the study of the seven liberal arts (first the trio of grammar, rhetoric and dialectics, then the quartet of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music); 3) in-depth study of the Holy Scriptures. Alcuin boldly formulated the spirit of his innovations: “Thus a new Athens will grow on the land of the Franks, even more brilliant than in antiquity, for our Athens is fertilized by the teaching of Christ, and therefore will surpass the Academy in wisdom.” Whether he was able to fully implement his program or not, his merit in writing and preparing textbooks on each of the seven liberal arts is beyond any doubt.

Since the 13th century, the school has already acted as a university. Universitas is a typical product of the Middle Ages. If the model of schools were ancient analogues, which medieval schools imitated and updated in some way, then the university did not have its own prototype. This kind of corporate formations and free associations of students and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles were unknown in antiquity either in the West or in the East.

The first universities arose in the 12th century. in Paris and Bologna. In the XIII-XV centuries. Europe is covered with a whole network of universities. The need for them was determined primarily by the needs and tasks of the church.

In most cases, universities relied directly on the support of church authorities. The main goal of university science was the study and interpretation of Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition (i.e., the works of the Holy Fathers of the Church). The interpretation of sacred texts was the exclusive prerogative of the church and its associated university scholars, in order to prevent the spread of ignorant opinions about the Christian faith. Scientists of at least a master's degree were allowed to interpret. In accordance with the main task, most universities included two faculties - the Faculty of Liberal Arts and the Faculty of Theology (theology). The first was a necessary preparatory step for the second.

The term “university” itself did not initially indicate a center of learning, but rather a corporate association, or, in modern language, it was a kind of “syndicate” protecting the interests of a certain category of persons.

Bologna and Paris are two models of organization that other universities have more or less oriented towards. Bologna – “universitas scolarum” (universitas scholarum), i.e. a student corporation that received special privileges from Frederick I Barbarossa. In Paris, the Universitas Magistrorum et Scolarum, a united corporation of masters and students, prevailed. The Cathedral School of Notre Dame was noted for its particular excellence in the 12th century, attracting students from all over Europe and soon becoming the object of attention of the Roman Curia. Autonomy took place under the direct tutelage of the king, the bishop and his chancellor. A fact worthy of mention is that the desire for freedom of teaching, as opposed to pressure from local authorities, found tangible support in the form of papal protection. The "clerical" character of the university consisted primarily in the acceptance of ecclesiastic authority; The rights of the Pope were enshrined in prohibitions, for example, on the reading of certain texts, which made it impossible to reconcile differences and contradictory positions

University and its mitigating effects. Two effects accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a certain class of scientists, priests and lay people, to whom the church entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that to this day the official doctrine of the church should and can be entrusted only to church hierarchs. Magisters were officially allowed to discuss matters of faith. Saint Thomas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventure would later be called "Doctors of the Church". Along with the traditional two powers - church and secular - a third appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more noticeable over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where teachers and students of all classes flocked. The university community from the very beginning did not know caste differences; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval university was initially “popularis”, in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans through a system of privileges (in the form of low tuition prices and free housing) became students, taking on the burden of the most severe obligations inevitable on this thorny path. Goliards and clerics formed, as it were, a world within themselves. Their “nobility” was no longer determined by class origin, but depended on their accumulated cultural baggage. A new meaning appeared for the concepts of “nobility” (“nobilitas”) and “refinement” (“gentilitas”) in the sense of aristocracy of mind and behavior, subtlety of the psyche and refinement of taste. Boccaccio will rightly speak about this: “an educated person is not the one who, after a long study in Paris, is ready to sell his knowledge on trifles, as many do, but the one who knows how to find out the reasons for everything at the very origins.”

Thus, if medieval culture bore fruit in institutional forms - “scholae”, “universitas”, “scholastica” - then “scholasticism” should be understood as a certain doctrinal body, which at first is developed inorganically, then more and more systematically in studio centers where we We sometimes find people who are creatively gifted, endowed with a critical mind, logical discipline and keen insight.

In the Middle Ages (V – XVII), the appearance of Western European society, its culture, pedagogy and education changed significantly compared to the ancient era. This was explained by the establishment of a new type of socio-economic relations, and new forms of statehood, and the transformation of culture based on the penetration of the religious ideology of Christianity.

Asceticism, diligent reading of religious literature, elimination of attachment to earthly goods, self-control of desires, thoughts and actions - these are the main human virtues inherent in the medieval ideal of education.

Church schools turned out to be the successor to the ancient tradition. During the V – XV centuries. Church schools were first the only and then the predominant educational institutions in Europe. They were an important tool for religious education. The main subjects of study were: the Bible, theological literature and the writings of the “church fathers”. All educational material was sifted through the sieve of Christianity.

In medieval Europe, three main types of church schools developed: monastic schools, episcopal (cathedral) and parochial schools. The main purpose of all types of schools was to train the clergy. They were available primarily to the upper classes of medieval society.

Monastic schools were organized at monasteries; boys aged 7-10 studied there, whose parents doomed them to future monasticism. Then the monastery schools were divided into internal (for future monks) and external (for incoming laymen). Educated monks acted as teachers. Monastic schools were well supplied with handwritten books. They taught grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and later arithmetic, geometry, geometry, astronomy and music theory.

Episcopal (cathedral) schools opened in church centers, the seat of the head of the diocese. The content of training in them was quite high at that time. In addition to reading, writing, counting and the law of God, grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (three-way) were studied, and in some cases, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory (four-way). The most famous were schools in Saint-Germain, Tours (France), Lüttich (Belgium), Halle, Reichen, Fulda (Germany) and a number of other cities.

Parochial schools were the most common. Schools were located in the vicarage or church gatehouse. They were attended by small groups of boys, where for a small fee the priest or cleric taught the children the law of God in Latin, writing and church singing. This type of school was unsystematic and the least organized.

Education in advanced church schools was taught according to the program of the seven liberal arts. One of the first to propose the formula for such a program for medieval Europe was Severinus Boethius (480-524). He combined arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (sciences based on mathematical laws) into the “quadrium” (fourth way) educational cycle. This cycle, together with the “trivium” (third way) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics - made up the seven liberal arts, which later formed the basis of all medieval education.

The seven liberal arts, together with theology, as the “crown” of all learning, constituted the content of medieval education.

Teaching methods were based on rote learning and the development of rote memory. The most common teaching method was catechetical (question-and-answer), with the help of which the teacher introduced abstract knowledge that was subject to mandatory memorization, without explaining the subject or phenomenon. For example: “What is the moon? – Eye of the night, dispenser of dew, prophet of storms,... What is autumn? – Annual granary”, etc.

The study of Latin began with elementary rules and mastering the simplest phrases. It took two or three years to master reading techniques. The writing technique was also very complex.

Astronomy was an applied science associated with the calculations of numerous church holidays. Music was taught using notes indicated by letters of the alphabet. Linear musical notation appeared in 1030.

The bulk of the population did not receive even a minimum education in schools. Children were raised by their parents in the family and in everyday work.

However, the scientific world of the early Middle Ages did not completely erase the ancient traditions. They were used by religious and pedagogical figures of the 12th – 13th centuries. when justifying a different system of training and education.

In the XII – XIII centuries. noticeable shifts are taking place in Western European pedagogical thought, reflecting the general dynamics of Western civilization. Against the background of the religious and pedagogical fanaticism of the early Middle Ages, thinkers stand out who can be considered the heralds of the Renaissance. Such figures include Thomas Aquinas, Hugh of Saint-Victor, Pierre Abelard, Vincent de Beauvais and others.

In the 12th – 13th centuries in Western Europe, there was a need to support religion with philosophy, not to believe blindly, “but to understand what they believe in.” This task is performed by scholasticism, which tries to reconcile faith and reason, religion and science.

Scholasticism (translated from Greek - scholasticos - school) is a medieval school philosophy, the representatives of which - the scholastics - sought to rationally substantiate and systematize the Christian doctrine. To do this, they used the ideas of the ancient philosophers Plato and especially Aristotle, whose views scholasticism adapted to their goals.

Reading and writing were not mandatory for a knight; many of them were illiterate during the early Middle Ages.

At the age of 21, as a rule, knighting took place. The young man was blessed with a blessed sword.

In the XII – XV centuries. The school education system of medieval Europe is somewhat modified. This was connected, first of all, with the creation of secular educational institutions: city schools and universities. The growth of cities, urbanization, and the strengthening of the social positions of citizens made it possible to open educational institutions that met the urgent vital needs of the population.

The first city schools appear in almost all European cities: London, Paris, Milan, Florence, Lübeck, Hamburg, etc. and appear in several ways.

Also, city schools were born from the apprenticeship system, guild and guild schools, counting schools for the children of merchants and artisans.

Guild schools arose for the children of artisans and at the expense of the guilds and provided general educational training (reading, writing, counting, elements of geometry and natural science). Education in these schools was conducted in the native and Latin languages.

Guild schools implemented a similar educational program and were created for the children of wealthy merchants. These schools later became the town's primary schools and were maintained by the town magistrates.

Gradually, educational institutions for girls are emerging, but they are not widespread, and monasteries remain the main source of female education.

Thus, city schools differed from church schools in their practical and scientific orientation and were more progressive.

In the XIV – XV centuries. Secular educational institutions appeared - colleges, which acted as a link between primary and higher education.

Until the middle of the 15th century. colleges were shelters for children of low-income groups. Subsequently, they become places of study, existing at universities. The schoolchildren lived on alms. They were located in obscene places in the city with a high crime rate. Later, the colleges turned into fraternities of universities and colleges - educational institutions of general education.

The most prestigious was considered the University of Paris (1200), which grew out of a theological school-orphanage where sixteen students lived (four each French, German, English and Italian). The shelter was founded by the king's confessor, Robert Sorbon.

The growth of university education responded to the trends of the times. The emergence of universities implied a revival of public life and trade.

The Church sought to maintain and strengthen its influence in the development of university education. The Vatican was the official patron of many universities. The opening and rights of the university were confirmed by privileges - special documents signed by popes or reigning persons. One of the most prestigious was the Faculty of Theology. The teachers were mostly clergy. The Church kept its representatives at universities - chancellors, who were directly subordinate to the archbishops.

However, the universities of the early Middle Ages, in their curriculum, organization and teaching methods, appeared to be a secular alternative to church education.

Privileges secured university autonomy over its own court, administration, the right to grant academic degrees, and exempted students from military service.

As a rule, most medieval universities had 4 faculties: artistic (faculty of arts), theological, medical and legal.

The content of training at the artistic faculty was determined by the program of the seven liberal arts and lasted for 5–7 years. It was a preparatory general education university. After graduation, students received a Master of Arts degree and could continue their studies at one of the faculties. Upon completion of another 5–7 years of study and successful defense, students received the academic degree of “Doctor of Science.” The main methods of teaching were lectures and debates. The student was required to attend lectures: mandatory during the day and repeated in the evening. Along with lectures, debates took place weekly. The participants in the debates often behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts. However, the first medieval universities were a natural and objective alternative to scholasticism, which turned into the “science of empty words.” Universities countered scholasticism with an active intellectual life and gave a powerful impetus to the development of world culture, science and education (R. Bacon, A. Dante, J. Hus, N. Copernicus, F. Bacon, F. Petrarch, etc.).