Literature of the era of classicism. Classicism in art (XVII-XIX centuries)

from lat. classicus, lit. - belonging to the first class of Roman citizens; V figuratively– exemplary) – arts. direction and the corresponding aesthetic. theory, the emergence of which dates back to the 16th century, its heyday - to the 17th century, its decline - to the beginning of the 19th century. K. is the first direction in art in the history of modern times, in which aesthetic. theory preceded the arts. practice and dictated its laws to it. K.'s aesthetics are normative and boil down to the following. provisions: 1) the basis of the arts. creativity is the mind, the requirements of which must be subordinated to all components of art; 2) the goal of creativity is to know the truth and reveal it in an artistic and visual form; there can be no discrepancy between beauty and truth; 3) art must follow nature, “imitate” it; what is ugly in nature should become aesthetically acceptable in art; 4) art is moral by its very nature and by the entire structure of art. the work affirms the moral ideal of society; 5) cognitive, aesthetic. and ethical the quality of the claim dictates the definition. art system. techniques that best contribute to practical implementation of the principles of K.; the rules of good taste determine the characteristics, norms and limits of each type of art and each genre within a given type of art; 6) arts. the ideal, according to K. theorists, is embodied in antiquity. claim. That's why best way achieve the arts. perfection - imitate classical examples. art of antiquity. Title "K." comes from the principle of imitation of antiquity adopted by this direction. classics. K. is partly characteristic of ancient aesthetics: theorists of imperial Rome came out with demands to imitate the Greek. samples, be guided in the process by the principles of reason, etc. The cult of antiquity re-emerges during the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity intensifies. a culture partially destroyed and partially forgotten in the Middle Ages. Humanists studied the monuments of antiquity, trying to find pagan worldview antiquity a support in the fight against spiritualism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages. feud. ideology. "In manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium, in manuscripts dug out from the ruins of Rome antique statues appeared before the astonished West new world– Greek antiquity; before her bright images the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared" (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 345–46). Major significance for the formation of the aesthetic theory of humanism of the era The Renaissance included the study of treatises on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace, which were accepted as a set of indisputable laws of art. great development received already in the 16th century. the theory of drama, primarily tragedy, and the theory of epic. poems, to which the Crimea is given primary attention in the surviving text of Aristotle's Poetics. Minturpo, Castelvetro, Scaliger and other commentators on Aristotle lay the foundations of the poetics of K. and established the arts typical for this. directions rules of composition of drama and epic, as well as other lit. genres. B will depict. In art and architecture there is a turn from the Gothic of the Middle Ages to the antique style. samples, which is reflected in the theoretical. works on art, in particular by Leon Battista Alberti. In the Renaissance, however, aesthetic. K.'s theory experienced only the initial period of its formation. It was not recognized as a universally obligatory art. practice largely deviated from it. As in literature, drama, and in depiction. art and architecture, arts. the achievements of antiquity were used to the extent that they corresponded to the ideological and aesthetic. aspirations of figures in the art of humanism. In the 17th century K. is transformed into an indisputable doctrine, and adherence to it becomes mandatory. If First stage The formation of K. takes place in Italy, then the design of K. into a complete aesthetic. The doctrine was accomplished in France in the 17th century. Socio-political The basis of this process was the regulation of all spheres of life, carried out by the absolutist state. Cardinal Richelieu created an Academy in France (1634), which was charged with monitoring the purity of the French. language and literature. The first document that officially approved the K. doctrine was the “Opinion French Academy about the tragicomedy (P. Corneille) “The Cid” (“Les sentiments de l´Acad?mie fran?aise sur la tragi-com?die du Cid”, 1638), where the rules of three unities in drama were proclaimed (unity of place, time and action). Simultaneously with the establishment of K. in literature and theater, he also conquered the spheres of architecture, painting and sculpture. In France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture was created, at its meetings the rules of K. and in plastic art were formulated. In France in the 17th century, capitalism acquired its classical form not only due to state support, but also thanks to general character development of the spiritual culture of that time. The defining aspect of the content of K.'s claim was the idea of ​​establishing statehood. It arose as a counterweight to the feud. separatism and in this respect represented a progressive principle. However, the progressiveness of this idea was limited, because it boiled down to an apology for the monarchy. autocracy. The bearer of the principle of statehood was the absolute monarch and his person embodied humanity. ideal. The stamp of this concept lies on the entire art of K., which was even later sometimes called “court K.”. Although the king's court was indeed the center from which ideological ideas emanated. directives of the lawsuit, K. as a whole was by no means only a noble-aristocratic. claim K.'s aesthetics are under the meaning. influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Ch. representative of the French rationalism of the 17th century. R. Descartes had a decisive influence on the formation of aesthetics. doctrines of K. Ethical. K.'s ideals were aristocratic only in appearance. Their essence was humanistic. ethics that recognized the need for compromise with the absolutist state. However, within the limits of what was available to them, K.’s supporters fought against the vices of the noble-monarchist. society and cultivated a sense of morality. everyone's responsibility to society, including the king, who was also portrayed as a person who renounced personal interests in the name of the interests of the state. This was the first form of the civic ideal available at that stage of society. development, when the rising bourgeoisie was not yet strong enough to oppose the absolutist state. On the contrary, using it internally. contradictions, primarily the struggle of the monarchy against the self-will of the nobility and the Fronde, leading figures of the bourgeois-democratic. cultures supported the monarchy as a centralizing state. a beginning capable of moderating feud. oppression or, at least, bring it into some kind of framework. If in some types and genres of art and literature external pomp and elation of form prevailed, then in others freedom was allowed. According to the nature of the class state, there was also a hierarchy of genres in art, which were divided into higher and lower. Among the lowest in literature were comedy, satire, and fable. However, it was in them that the most democratic developments received a vivid development. trends of the era (Moliere's comedies, Boileau's satires, La Fontaine's fables). But also in high genres literature (tragedy) affected both contradictions and advanced morals. ideals of the era (early Corneille, the work of Racine). In principle, K. claimed to have created an aesthetic. a theory imbued with a comprehensive unity, but in practice the arts. The culture of the era is characterized by striking contradictions. The most important of them was the constant discrepancy between modern. content and antique the shape into which it was squeezed. Heroes of classicist tragedies, despite the antiquity. names were 17th century French. by way of thinking, morals and psychology. If such a masquerade was occasionally beneficial for covering up attacks against the authorities, at the same time it prevented the direct reflection of modern times. reality in the “high genres” of classicism. lawsuit Therefore, the greatest realism is characteristic of the lower genres, in which the depiction of the “ugly” and “base” was not prohibited. Compared to the multifaceted realism of the Renaissance, K. represented a narrowing of the sphere of life covered by art. culture. However, aesthetic. K.'s theory is credited with revealing the importance of the typical in art. True, the principle of typification was understood in a limited way, because its implementation was achieved at the cost of the loss of the individual principle. But the essence of life phenomena is human. characters receive such an embodiment in K., which makes both cognitive and educational activities truly possible. product function. Their ideological content becomes clear and precise, the intelligibility of ideas gives the works of art a direct ideological quality. character. The lawsuit turns into a tribune of moral, philosophical, religious. and political ideas. Feudal crisis. monarchy gives birth new uniform antifeud. ideologies – enlightenment. A new variation of this art is emerging. directions – so-called educational K., which is characterized by the preservation of all aesthetics. principles of K. 17th century. The poetics of enlightenment poetry, as it was finally formulated by Boileau (the poetic treatise “Poetic Art” - “L´art po?tique”, 1674), remains a code of inviolable rules for the enlightenment classicists, led by Voltaire. New in K. 18th century. is primarily its socio-political. orientation. An ideal civic hero emerges, caring not about the good of the state, but about the good of society. Not serving the king, but caring for the people becomes the center of moral and political politics. aspirations. Voltaire's tragedies, Addison's "Cato", Alfieri's tragedies, and to some extent Russian. classicists of the 18th century (A. Sumarokov) affirm life concepts and ideals that conflict with the principles of feudalism. statehood and abs. monarchy. This civic current in France is transformed in France on the eve and during the first burgh. revolution in K. republican. The reasons that led to the renewal of K. during the French period. bourgeois revolutions were deeply revealed by Marx, who wrote: “In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, the gladiators of bourgeois society found ideals and art forms, illusions they need in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to keep their inspiration at the height of the great historical tragedy"("The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", see Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 8, p. 120). The republican culture of the period of the first bourgeois revolution was followed by the culture of the Napoleonic Empire, who created the "Empire" style. All this was a historical masquerade that covered up the bourgeois content of the social revolution that was taking place at that time. The 18th century was freed from certain features of dogmatism inherent in the poetics of the 17th century. It was during the Enlightenment in connection with a deeper study of art -va, classical antiquity, the cult of antiquity in plastic arts acquires especially great development.In Germany, Winckelmann and then Lessing establish that the aesthetic charm of the monuments of antiquity is connected with the political structure of the Greek polis: only democracy and the psychology of a free citizen can give rise to such a beautiful art. From that time on, German theoretical thought affirmed the idea of ​​​​the connection between the aesthetic ideal and political freedom, which received its clearest expression in F. Schiller’s “Letters on Aesthetic Education” (“?ber die ?sthetische Erziehung lier Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen", 1795). However, for him this idea appears in an idealistically perverted form: civil freedom is achieved through aesthetics. education. This formulation of the question was associated with the backwardness of Germany and the lack of prerequisites for bourgeoisie. coup. However, even in this form, late mute. classicism, so-called Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller represented a progressive, albeit limited, ideological art. phenomenon. Overall K. was important stage in the development of artistic practice and theoretical thoughts. In antiquity the shell was put on by the advanced bourgeois-democratic. ideology of the era of the rise of the bourgeoisie. society. The constraining nature of the doctrinaire teachings of the classicists was already clear at the end of the 17th century, when Saint-Evremond rebelled against it. In the 18th century Lessing dealt crushing blows precisely to dogmatism. elements of K., protecting, however, the “soul” of K., his beautiful ideal of a free, harmoniously developed person. This was precisely the core of the Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller. But in the first third of the 19th century, after the victory and approval of the bourgeoisie. building in the West Europe, K. is losing its importance. The collapse of enlightenment illusions about the advent of the kingdom of reason after the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution makes clear the illusory nature of the classic. ideal in the kingdom of the bourgeois. prose. Historical The role of overthrowing K. was performed by the aesthetics of romanticism, which opposed the dogmas of K. The struggle against K. reached its greatest severity in France at the end of 1820 - early. 1830, when the romantics won ended. victory over K. as an art. direction and aesthetic. theory. This, however, did not mean the complete disappearance of K.’s ideas in art. At the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20th centuries. aesthetic movements of the West. Europe there are relapses of the department. ideas, the roots of which go back to K. They are anti-realistic. and aesthetic character ("neoclassical" trends in French poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century) or serve as a mask for ideological. reactions, eg. in the theories of the decadent T. S. Eliot after the 1st World War. The most stable were the aesthetic ones. K.'s ideals in architecture. Classic the architectural style was repeatedly reproduced in architectural construction in the 1930s and 40s, e.g. in the development of architecture in the USSR. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., On Art, vol. 1–2, M., 1957; Plekhanov G.V., Art and literature, [Sb. ], M., 1948, p. 165–87; Kranz [E. ], Experience in the philosophy of literature. Descartes and French classicism, trans. [from French ], St. Petersburg, 1902; Lessing G. E., Hamburg Drama, M.–L., 1936; Pospelov G.N., Sumarokov and the Russian problem. classicism, "Uch. Zap. Moscow State University", 1948, issue. 128, book. 3; Kupreyanova E. N., On the issue of classicism, in the book: XVIII century, collection. 4, M.–L., 1959; Ernst F., Der Klassizismus in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland, Z., 1924; Peyre H., Qu´est-ce que le classicisme?, P., 1942; Kristeller P. O., The classics and Renaissance thought, Camb., (Mass.), 1955. A. Anikst. Moscow.

Time of occurrence.

In Europe- XVII - beginning 19th century

The end of the 17th century was a period of decline.

Classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the Great french revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism declines, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

In Russia- in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century.

Place of origin.

France. (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc.)

Representatives of Russian literature, works.

A. D. Kantemir (satire “On those who blaspheme the teaching”, fables)

V.K. Trediakovsky (novel “Riding to the Island of Love”, poems)

M. V. Lomonosov (poem “Conversation with Anacreon”, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”

A. P. Sumarokov, (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”)

Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”)

G. R. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”)

Representatives of world literature.

P. Corneille (tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”.

J. Racine (tragedies of Phaedrus, Mithridates)

Voltaire (tragedies "Brutus", "Tancred")

J. B. Moliere (comedies “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”)

N. Boileau (treatise in verse “Poetic Art”)

J. Lafontaine (fables).

Classicism from fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary.

Features of classicism.

• The purpose of art- moral influence on the education of noble feelings.
• Reliance on ancient art(hence the name of the style), which was based on the principle of “imitation of nature.”
• IN based on principle rationalism((from the Latin “ratio” - reason), a view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
• Cult of the mind(belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a rational basis).
• Headship state interests over personal, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. Affirmation of positive values ​​and the state ideal.
• Main conflict classic works- this is the hero's fight between reason and feeling. A positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, when choosing between love and the need to completely devote himself to serving the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feeling.
• Personality is the highest value of existence.
• Harmony content and form.
• Compliance with rules in a dramatic work "three unities": unity of place, time, action.
• Dividing heroes into positive and negative. The hero had to embody one character trait: stinginess, hypocrisy, kindness, hypocrisy, etc.
• Strict hierarchy of genres, mixing of genres was not allowed:

"high" — epic poem, tragedy, ode;

“middle” - didactic poetry, epistles, satire, love poem;

"low"- fable, comedy, farce.

• Purity of language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - colloquial);
• Simplicity, harmony, logic of presentation.
• Interest in the eternal, unchanging, the desire to find typological features. Therefore the images are devoid individual traits, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring characteristics over time
• Social and educational function of literature. Education of a harmonious personality.

Features of Russian classicism.

Russian literature mastered the stylistic and genre forms of classicism, but also had its own characteristics, distinguished by its originality.

• The state (not the person) was declared highest value) combined with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, requiring everyone to serve for the good of society.
• General patriotic pathos Russian classicism. Patriotism of Russian writers, their interest in the history of their homeland. They all study Russian history, write works on national and historical topics.
• Humanity, since the direction was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
• Human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.
• Affirmation of the natural equality of all people.
• Main conflict- between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
• The works are centered not only on the personal experiences of the characters, but also on social problems.
• Satirical focus- an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, which satirically depict specific phenomena of Russian life;
• The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones. In Russia, “antiquity” was domestic history.
• High level of development of the genre odes(from M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin);
• The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
• At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

Three periods of classicism in Russian literature.

1. 30-50s of the 18th century (the birth of classicism, the creation of literature, national language, the flowering of the ode genre - M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarkov, etc.)
2. 60s - end of the 18th century (main task literature - education human citizen, human service for the benefit of societies, exposing the vices of people, the flourishing of satire - N.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonviin).
3. The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century (the gradual crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies, national motifs, the image of an ideal nobleman - N.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.)

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna.

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.

Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art(Aristotle, Horace).

Directions of classicism in architecture: Palladianism, Empire style, Neo-Greek, “Regency style”.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The emergence of the classicism style

In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” This call to renew modern art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism a necessary contrast to court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - the English one in 1688, the French one 101 years later.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

Historical characteristics of the classicism style

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.

Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

From Rococo forms, initially marked by Roman influence, after the completion of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After liberation wars against Napoleon, this “Hellenism” found its masters in K.F. Schinkel and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.

The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy an ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Walhalla (Walhalla “Chamber of the Dead”).

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.

In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities.

In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classical rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following Napoleonic wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).

Princely palaces and residences became the centers of construction in the classicist style; Marktplatz (marketplace) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built primarily in the classical style.

But palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. Into the sphere state building public buildings were included - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. Buildings were added social purpose- hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.

The construction of churches no longer played a primary role, but remarkable buildings were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate as to whether pagan ones were suitable architectural forms for a Christian monastery.

Construction features of the classicism style

After the collapse of the great historical styles that had survived centuries, in the 19th century. There is a clear acceleration in the process of architecture development. This becomes especially obvious if we compare the last century with the entire previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic spanned about five centuries, the Renaissance and Baroque together covered only half of this period, then classicism took less than a century to take over Europe and penetrate overseas.

Characteristic features of the classicism style

With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction technology, and the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. There was also a significant shift in the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that did not experience the highest stage of Baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness, lack of rigor of architectural and artistic manifestations worldview.

Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid theoretical basis a movement whose participants considered ancient culture to be the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in real life at the end of the 18th and early 18th centuries are associated with classicism. half of the 19th century V. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.

New Russian literature made a big step forward in the 30s–50s of the 18th century. This is due to the active work of the first major writers - representatives of new Russian literature: A. D. Kantemir (1708–1744), V. K. Trediakovsky (1703–1769), A. P. Sumarokov (1717–1777) and especially the brilliant figure of Russian science and culture Lomonosov. These four writers belonged to different strata of society (Kantemir and Sumarokov belonged to the elite of the nobility, Trediakovsky came from the clergy, Lomonosov was the son of a peasant). But they all fought against supporters of pre-Petrine antiquity and advocated for the further development of education, science, and culture. In the spirit of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment (as the 18th century is usually called), they were all supporters of the so-called enlightened absolutism: they believed that progressive historical development could be carried out by the bearer of supreme power - the king. And as an example of this they set the activities of Peter I. Lomonosov in his laudatory poems - odes (from the Greek word meaning “song”), addressed to the kings and queens, gave them, drawing the ideal image of an enlightened monarch, a kind of lesson, called on them to follow the paths of Peter . In accusatory poems - satires - Cantemir sharply ridiculed adherents of antiquity, enemies of enlightenment and science. He castigated the ignorant and selfish clergy, the sons of boyars, proud of the antiquity of their family and having no merit to the fatherland, arrogant nobles, greedy merchants, bribe-taking officials. In his tragedies, Sumarokov attacked the despot kings, contrasting them with the ideal bearers of royal power. Trediakovsky angrily denounced the “evil kings” in the poem “Tilemakhida”. Progressive ideas, which are largely or to a lesser extent imbued with the activities of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, significantly increase the social weight and significance of the new Russian literature they create. Literature is now moving to the forefront of social development, becoming, in its best manifestations, an educator of society. It was from this time that works of fiction systematically appeared in print, attracting the sympathetic attention of ever wider readership.

New forms are created for new content. Through the efforts of Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Sumarokov, it is taking shape in accordance with the development of advanced European literatures first big literary direction, which became dominant throughout almost the entire 18th century, is Russian classicism.

The founders and followers of classicism considered serving the “benefits of society” as the main purpose of literature. State interests, duty to the fatherland should, according to their concepts, unconditionally prevail over private, personal interests. In contrast to the religious, medieval worldview, they considered the highest in man to be his mind, the laws of which artistic creativity must completely obey. They considered the most perfect, classical (hence the name and the whole movement) examples of beauty to be the wonderful creations of ancient, i.e., ancient Greek and Roman art, which grew on the soil religious ideas of that time, but mythological images gods and heroes essentially glorified the beauty, strength and valor of man. All this amounted to strengths classicism, but they also contained its weakness and limitations.

The exaltation of the mind came at the expense of belittling feelings, direct perception of the surrounding reality. This often gave the literature of classicism a rational character. When creating a work of art, the writer tried in every possible way to get closer to antique samples and strictly follow the rules specially developed for this by the theorists of classicism. This constrained creative freedom. And the obligatory imitation of creatures ancient art, no matter how perfect they were, inevitably separated literature from life, the writer from his modernity, and thereby gave his work a conditional, artificial character. The most important thing is that the socio-political system of the classic era, based on the oppression of the people, did not correspond in any way to reasonable concepts about natural, normal relations between people. This discrepancy made itself felt especially sharply in the autocratic-serfdom. Russia XVIII century, where instead of enlightened absolutism the most unbridled despotism reigned. Therefore, it was in Russian classicism, which was not accidentally initiated by Cantemir’s satires, that accusatory, critical themes and motifs began to intensively develop.

This had a particularly strong effect in the last third of the 18th century. - a time of further strengthening of serfdom and the tyrannical dictatorship of the serf-owning nobles led by Empress Catherine II.

A critical attitude towards lawlessness, tyranny and violence corresponded to the sentiments and interests of broad sections of Russian society. Public role literature is increasing more and more. The last third of the century is the most flourishing period in the development of Russian literature of the 18th century. If in the 30s–50s writers could be counted on one hand, now dozens of new literary names are appearing. Noble writers occupy a predominant place. But there are also many writers from the lower classes, even from among the serfs. Empress Catherine II herself felt the increased importance of literature. She began to be very actively engaged in writing, trying in such ways to win over public opinion, herself to manage the further development of literature. However, she failed. Few and mostly unimportant authors took her side. Almost all major writers, figures of Russian enlightenment - N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, young I. A. Krylov, A. N. Radishchev, the author of the comedy "Yabeda" V. V. Kapnist and many others - joined in a bold and energetic struggle against the reactionary literary camp of Catherine and her servants. This fight was carried out in very harsh conditions. The works of writers disliked by the queen were prohibited by censorship, and sometimes publicly burned “by the hand of the executioner”; their authors were brutally persecuted, imprisoned, sentenced to death penalty, exiled to Siberia. But, despite this, the advanced ideas that filled their work increasingly penetrated the consciousness of society.

Thanks to the activities of mainly progressive writers, literature itself is remarkably enriched. New literary genera and types are being created. In the previous period literary works were written almost exclusively in verse. Now the first examples of artistic prose are appearing. Drama is developing rapidly. The development of satirical genres (types) is gaining a particularly wide scope: satires are intensively written not only in verse, but also in prose, satirical fables, so-called irocomic, parody poems, satirical comedies, comic operas, etc. In the work of the greatest poet of the 18th century . Derzhavin’s satirical beginning even penetrates into laudatory, solemn odes.

Satirists of the 18th century. still follow the rules of classicism. But at the same time, their work increasingly reflects pictures and images of real life. They are no longer of a conventionally abstract nature, as in the so-called high genres of classicism (odes, tragedies), but are directly taken from contemporary Russian reality. The works of critical writers - Novikov, Fonvizin, Radishchev - were direct predecessors of the work of the founders of Russian critical realism XIX century - Pushkin, Gogol.

Satire of the 18th century. still limited in politically. While sharply denouncing the evil landowners who brutally treated their peasants, the satirists did not oppose the savagery and absurdity of the right of some people to own other people as their working animals. Scourging the tyranny, violence, bribery, and injustice that reigned in the country, the satirists did not connect them with the autocratic serfdom that gave rise to all this. In the words of the remarkable Russian critic Dobrolyubov, they condemned “the abuse of what in our concepts is already evil in itself.” For the first time, the first Russian indignantly attacked not only individual abuses, but all the evils of autocracy and serfdom as a whole. revolutionary writer Radishchev.

Classicism (from the Latin classicus – exemplary) – art style and the direction in the art of Europe in the 17th – 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to. The culture of the ancient world served as such an example. The rules and canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

History of origin

As a movement, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

Classicism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

1. Early classicism(1760s – early 1780s);
2. Strict classicism(1780s – 1790s);
3. Late classicism, called (the first 30 years of the 19th century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - shining example classicism.

Style features

Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high-quality materials, noble finishes and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinctive features classicism. later displayed in minimalist interiors.

General style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

The distinctive features of the Russian classic style were calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time varied decorative design, precise proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste.

Exterior

The external signs of classicist architecture are clearly expressed and can be identified at the first glance at the building.

• Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
• Shapes: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
• Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, smooth pattern.
• Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
• Roof: complex, intricate shape.
• Predominant colors: rich white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
• Characteristic elements: restrained decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble staircase, balconies.
• Window: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upward, modestly decorated.
• Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
• Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior

The interior of the premises of the classicism era contains nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, and exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly valuable types of wood, marble, stone, silk.

• Ceilings: light, tall, often multi-level, with stucco and ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, camsha, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with candle-shaped shades.
• Mandatory interior attributes: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low armchairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive antique-style floor vases, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture from the Classical era is distinguished by its quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. The dishes are porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern and gilding. A secretary with a cubic body on high legs was considered one of the most important attributes of furniture.

Architecture

Classicism turned to the fundamentals of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in design. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, proportionality of the created composition, regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces and garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the shape of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented stairs, classic antique decor, a dome in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire style) acquires military symbols (“Arc de Triomphe” in France). In Russia, St. Petersburg can be called the canon of the architectural style of classicism; in Europe, these are Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying military valor and the wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for sculptors was the image model famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It became popular among private individuals to commission tombstones from sculptors to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the 18th century. This was especially evident in the women's costume. A new ideal of beauty emerged in Europe, one that celebrated natural forms and the beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics in light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.

Women's dresses lost frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, pleated tunics, cut at the sides and tied with a belt under the bust. They were worn over flesh-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as footwear. Hairstyles have been copied since antiquity. Powder, which was used to cover the face, hands, and décolleté, is still in fashion.

Accessories included either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.

WITH early XIX centuries, formal dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Fashion includes short-cropped hair, curled into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.

Men's fashion developed under the influence of the British. English cloth tailcoats, redingotes (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabots and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of form are line and light and shade. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures and divides the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the 17th century. – Lorraine Claude, famous for his “ideal landscapes.” Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the “decorative landscapes” of the French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.

Literature

The literature of the classic era promoted reason conquering feelings. The conflict between duty and passions is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Language reforms have been carried out in many countries and the foundations have been laid poetic art. Leading representatives of the direction are Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. Main compositional principle works are a unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The most prominent representative of the literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this direction.

The "Golden Age" is considered the era of classicism for theatrical arts, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just act, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of declamation.

Personalities

Among the brightest classicists one can also highlight such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Khemnitser (literature).

Video review of classicism

Conclusion

Ideas from the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, furniture made of natural wood. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style still characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later, another appears, which marked the arrival of a new era - this. was a combination of several modern styles, which includes not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.