What sciences did Da Vinci influence? Leonardo da Vinci - scientist, inventor, writer, musician

For Leonardo, art has always been science. To engage in art meant for him to make scientific calculations, observations and experiments. The connection of painting with optics and physics, with anatomy and mathematics forced Leonardo to become a scientist. And often the scientist pushed aside the artist.

As a scientist and engineer, L. da Vinci enriched almost all areas of science of that time with insightful observations, considering his notes and drawings as preparatory sketches for a gigantic encyclopedia of human knowledge. Skeptical of the ideal of an erudite scientist, popular in his era, L. da Vinci was the most prominent representative of the new natural science based on experiment.

Mathematics

Leonardo especially highly valued mathematics. He believed that “there is no certainty in the sciences where none of the mathematical disciplines can be applied, and in that which has no connection with mathematics.” Mathematical sciences have, in his words, “the highest certainty and impose silence on the language of disputants.” Mathematics was an experienced discipline for Leonardo. It is no coincidence that Leonardo da Vinci was the inventor of numerous instruments designed for solving mathematical problems (a proportional compass, a device for drawing a parabola, a device for constructing a parabolic mirror, etc.) He was the first in Italy, and perhaps in Europe, to introduce the + signs (plus and minus).

Leonardo preferred geometry over other branches of mathematics. He recognized the important role of number and was very interested in numerical relationships in music. But number meant less to him than geometry, since arithmetic relies on “finite quantities,” while geometry deals with “infinite quantities.” A number is made up of individual units and is something monotonous, devoid of the magic of geometric proportions that deal with surfaces, figures, and space. Leonardo tried to achieve the squaring of the circle, that is, to create a square equal in size to the circle. He worked hard on this problem, as well as on other puzzling problems, including curved and straight surfaces, using a number of different techniques. Leonardo invented a special tool for drawing ovals and for the first time determined the center of gravity of the pyramid. The highest expression of the greatness of geometry were the five regular bodies, revered in classical philosophy and mathematics. These are the only ones solids, which consist of equal polygons and are symmetrical with respect to all their vertices. These are tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron. They can be truncated - that is, with vertices cut off symmetrically, thus transformed into semi-regular bodies. The peak of Leonardo's passion for mathematics came during his collaboration with the mathematician Luca Pacioli, who appeared in 1496 at the Sforza court. Leonardo created a series of illustrations for Pacioli's treatise “On Divine Proportion”.

The study of geometry allowed him to create for the first time a scientific theory of perspective, and he was one of the first artists to paint landscapes that were somewhat consistent with reality. True, Leonardo’s landscape is still not independent, it is a decoration for historical or portrait painting, but what a huge step in comparison with the previous era and how much the correct theory helped him here!

Mechanics

Leonardo da Vinci paid special attention to mechanics, calling it “the paradise of mathematical sciences” and seeing in it the main key to the secrets of the universe. Leonardo's theoretical conclusions in the field of mechanics are striking in their clarity and provide him with an honorable place in the history of this science, in which he is the link connecting Archimedes with Galileo and Pascal.

Leonardo's works in the field of mechanics can be grouped into the following sections: laws of falling bodies; laws of motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon; laws of body motion on an inclined plane; the influence of friction on the movement of bodies; theory of simple machines (lever, inclined plane, block); issues of balance of forces; determining the center of gravity of bodies; issues related to the strength of materials. The list of these questions becomes especially significant if we consider that many of them were dealt with for the first time. The rest, if they were considered before him, were based mainly on the conclusions of Aristotle, which in most cases were very far from true position of things. According to Aristotle, for example, a body thrown at an angle to the horizon should first fly in a straight line, and at the end of the rise, having described an arc of a circle, fall vertically down. Leonardo da Vinci dispelled this misconception and found that the trajectory of motion in this case would be a parabola.

He expresses many valuable thoughts regarding the conservation of motion, coming close to the law of inertia. “No sensible body,” says Leonardo, “can move by itself. It is set in motion by some external cause, force. Force is an invisible and incorporeal cause in the sense that it cannot change either in form or in tension. If a body is moved by a force at a given time and traverses a given space, then the same force can move it into half the space. Every body exerts resistance in the direction of its movement. (Newton’s law of action equal to reaction is almost guessed here). A freely falling body at each moment of its movement receives a certain increase in speed. The impact of bodies is a force acting for a very short time.” Based on these conclusions, Leonardo was convinced that the Aristotelian assumption that a body moved twice greater strength, will travel twice the distance, or that a body weighing half as much, moved by the same force, will also travel twice the distance, is not feasible in practice. Leonardo resolutely denies the possibility of a mechanism moving forever without external force. It is based on theoretical and experimental data. According to his theory, any reflected movement weaker than that which produced it. Experience showed him that a ball thrown on the ground never (due to air resistance and imperfect elasticity) rises to the height from which it is thrown. This simple experience convinced Leonardo of the impossibility of creating force from nothing and expending work without any loss to friction. About the impossibility of perpetual motion, he writes: “The initial impulse must sooner or later be used up, and therefore in the end the movement of the mechanism will stop.”

Leonardo knew and used the method of decomposition of forces in his works. For the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, he introduced the concept of friction force, connecting it with the force of pressure of a body on the plane and correctly indicating the direction of these forces.

Leonardo also worked on specific engineering projects for his patrons - both as a consultant and as a creator of simple utilitarian objects like pliers, locks or jacks, made in his workshop. Lifting mechanisms were of great importance when lifting heavy loads from the ground, such as stone blocks, - especially when loading onto vehicles. Leonardo was the first to formulate the idea that in these simplest machines the gain in strength occurs at the expense of a loss in time.

Hydraulics

Hydraulics occupied a large place in the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He began studying hydraulics as a student and returned to it throughout his life. As in other areas of his activity, Leonardo combined the development of theoretical principles in hydraulics with the solution of specific applied problems. The theory of communicating vessels and hydraulic pumps, the relationship between the speed of water flow and cross-sectional area - all these questions were mainly born from applied engineering problems, which he dealt with so much (construction of locks, canals, land reclamation). Leonardo designed and partially carried out the construction of a number of canals (the Pisa - Florence canal, irrigation canals on the Po and Arno rivers). He came almost close to the formulation of Pascal's law, and in the theory of communicating vessels he practically anticipated the ideas of the 17th century.

Leonardo was also interested in the theory of the whirlpool. Having a fairly clear concept of centrifugal force, he noticed that “water moving in a whirlpool moves in such a way that those of the particles that are closer to the center have a greater rotational speed. This is an amazing phenomenon, because, for example, the particles of a wheel rotating around an axis have a lower speed the closer they are to the center: in a whirlpool we see just the opposite.” Leonardo tried to classify and describe the complex configurations of water in turbulent motion.

Leonardo, who was called the "master of water", advised the rulers of Venice and Florence; combining theory and practice, he sought to show why tornadoes engulf the shores, to prove that in order to achieve the desired results, the inexhaustible force of moving water should be used and resisted.

Leonardo’s views on wave-like motion are even more distinct and remarkable. “The wave,” he says, “is a consequence of the impact reflected by the water.” “Waves often move faster than the wind. This is because the impulse was received when the wind was stronger than at given time. The speed of a wave cannot change instantly.” To explain the movement of water particles, Leonardo begins with the classical experience of the latest physicists, i.e. throws a stone, making circles on the surface of the water. He gives a drawing of such concentric circles, then throws two stones, gets two systems of circles and asks the question: “Will the waves be reflected under equal circles?” then he says, “The movement of sound waves can be explained in the same way. Waves of air move away in a circle from their place of origin, one circle meets another and passes on, but the center always remains in the same place.”

These extracts are enough to convince oneself of the genius of the man who, at the end of the 15th century, laid the foundation for the wave-like theory of motion, which received full recognition only in the 19th century.

Physics

In the field of practical physics, Leonardo also showed remarkable ingenuity. So, long before Saussure, he built a very ingenious hygrometer. On the vertical dial there is a kind of needle or scale with two balls of equal weight, one of which is made of wax, the other of cotton wool. In damp weather, cotton wool attracts water, becomes heavier and pulls the wax, as a result of which the lever moves, and by the number of divisions it passes, one can judge the degree of air humidity. In addition, Leonardo invented various pumps, glass to enhance the light of lamps, and diving helmets.

Venturi also claimed that Leonardo invented the camera obscura before Cardano and Porta. This has now been fully proven thanks to the research of Grote, who found corresponding drawings and descriptions from da Vinci.

In the field of applied physics, the steam gun invented by Leonardo is very interesting. Its action consisted in the fact that warm water was introduced into a very heated chamber, which instantly turned into vapor, which, with its pressure, displaced the core. In addition, he invented a spit that rotated using currents of warm air.

Warfare

Leonardo's various military inventions cannot be ignored. A remarkable example of his approach to military mechanisms is his design for a giant crossbow. Disgusted by war, which he called “disgusting madness,” Leonardo was at the same time passionate about creating the most destructive weapons of that time, which he took up not only at the request of his patrons, but also, being himself captivated by the opportunity to create systems capable of increase human power. In addition, he thought about creating explosive shells so that the throwing weapon would have even greater penetrating power.

The digging machines invented by Leonardo are ingenious, consisting of a complex system of levers that simultaneously move dozens of shovels. As a curiosity, one can also point out the chariots he invented with rotating sickles, which, crashing into the enemy infantry, were supposed to mow down the soldiers.

Much more important are Da Vinci's drawings and explanations relating to the drilling of cannon muzzles and casting various parts guns. He was especially interested in various bronze alloys. Leonardo studied in great detail the circumstances of the flight of projectiles, being interested in this subject not only as an artilleryman, but also as a physicist. He examined questions such as, for example, what shape and size should the grains of gunpowder have for faster combustion or for a more powerful effect? What shape should buckshot have to fly faster? The researcher answers many of these questions quite satisfactorily.

The big dream of Leonardo, an engineer, was flight; he attached great importance to the creation of the Uccello (“big bird”). He who could conquer the sky truly had the right to claim that he had created a “second nature.”

As with all of Leonardo's studies, the foundations were laid in nature. Birds and bats told him how to achieve this. But Leonardo was not going to follow suit legendary hero Daedalus tied feathered bird wings to her hands so she could fly, flapping them. He saw from the beginning that the problem was the strength to weight ratio. Leonardo knew enough anatomy to know that the human arm was not designed to swing with the force equivalent to a bird's wing. It should be noted that he began to study the flight of birds because he needed to understand the principles on which he could rely in order to achieve positive results using only human power. Before 1490, he came up with the frame design of wings, the model for which was the structure of the wings of flying creatures, but he also took into account the structure of human muscles, especially the muscles of the legs. Perhaps the pedals could complement the muscles of the arms and chest enough to achieve the desired result. The wings use "bones" from wood, "tendons" from rope and "ligaments" from leather to replicate the complex movements of a bird's wing. It was a great idea, but he came to the conclusion that none of the designs dear to his heart were capable of performing as required.

When, after returning to Florence, Leonardo turned to this problem a second time, he took a different path. The small Turin Codex on the flight of birds, dated 1505, shows that he returned to the study of the flight of birds that soared in the updrafts of warm air over the Tuscan hills - especially the huge birds of prey that glide without flapping their wings, looking for prey below . He sketched air vortices under the concave part of a bird's wing, found out what changes in the bird's center of gravity lead to and what imperceptible movements of the tail can do. He adhered to an active planning strategy, in which any movements of the wings and tail were aimed not at a controlled lift off the ground, but at controlling altitude, flight path and turns. The wing design was still based on natural observations, but these were general principles and trends, not mere imitation. The aviator, who would probably have to control the flight and maintain balance with the help of his tail, would hang under the wings, adjusting the center of gravity for the most precise control of flight.

Although Leonardo knew nothing about the aerodynamic surface, and he only intuitively assumed the existence of pressure produced by compressed or rarefied air, the study of nature helped him find a fairly correct path.

Anatomy

He spoke of Leonardo as an artist who performed dissections and explored, as legend has it, the forbidden secrets of decomposing bodies, despite the fact that he himself recognized the repulsive aspects of practicing “anatomy.” It was probably a forbidden and sacrilegious activity that placed him outside the laws of the church. A fully proven dissection of an entire human corpse, perhaps the only one he performed, was the autopsy of a “hundred-year-old” man whose “quiet death” Leonardo witnessed in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in the winter of 1507-08. More often he worked with animals, which were believed to be not very different from people, except in body configuration and size.

Considering that Leonardo was engaged in autopsies and never tired of repeating the advantage of “experience” over bookish knowledge, it may seem surprising that his anatomical studies were based on traditional knowledge. For example, for a long time he adhered to the doctrine of a two-chambered heart. Moreover, for Leonardo, anatomy was not “descriptive” in the modern sense, but “functional”; in other words, he always considered form in terms of function. Leonardo did not introduce any radical changes to the physiology that existed before him, but created the whole picture dynamics of a living body in three dimensions; his drawing serves both as a method of representation and as a form of research.

Praise to the eye

Despite the fact that Leonardo's views on the internal structure of the eye changed, Leonardo worked on the principle that it is an instrument built with geometric precision in accordance with the laws of optics. His original idea of ​​the structure of the eye was that the spherical, transparent and vitreous body of the eye (which represents the lens) is surrounded by moisture and the membranes of the eye. The pupil regulates the angle of vision, thus creating a “visual pyramid” - that is, a beam of rays from an object or surface - with its apex in the eye. The eye extracts a pyramid from a chaotic mass of rays that spread from the object in all directions. The further the same object is from the eye, the narrower the angle, and the smaller it appears. If you imagine light coming from an object in a series of concentric waves, the pyramid will gradually narrow with each successive wave moving away from the object. Dimensions, as taught by the theory of perspective used by artists, are proportional to the distance from the object to the eye. He explained that the strength of radiation from an object, which he called “images” in accordance with the traditions of medieval optics, decreases in proportion to the distance from the object. This optical theory explains not only the gradual shrinking of things according to the rules of linear perspective, but also the diminishing distinctness and brightness of color at greater distances. This loss of clarity and intensity of color, along with the specific properties of moist air, which envelops objects like a veil, explains the magical effects of the “aerial perspective” of his landscapes - both in drawing and in painting.

This view of the eye, which Leonardo held in the 1490s, he moved around 1508 to a more complex interpretation of the form and function of the eye. It is also important that he was convinced that the pyramid cannot end at one point of the eye, since the point is not measurable - this would mean the inseparability of “images” in the optical field. Leonardo believed that the eye and its pupil acted like a camera obscura. He knew that the image captured by the camera was upside down, and he theoretically developed a number of ways to reverse the image, returning it to its normal position.

As Leonardo became more familiar with the works of major medieval scientists dedicated to optics, he began to understand more and more the phenomenon of “optical deception.” This branch of optics studied such phenomena as our inability to see very fast moving objects and clearly distinguish something too bright or, on the contrary, dark, “inertia of vision” observed when we look at something that moves quickly.

No matter how changeable and complex his later theories of perception were, what remained constant was that the eye worked according to the laws of geometry.

Prospect theory

Leonardo systematically studied the effects of illumination of one or many objects from one or several sources of different sizes, shapes and distances. It was on this basis that he reformed light and color in painting, developing a “tonal” system in which light and shadow had an advantage over color in conveying relief. He observed how the intensity of shadows decreased with distance from the opaque object casting them, in accordance with the laws of proportional diminution, which apply universally to light and other dynamic systems. He calculated the relative intensity of light on surfaces depending on the angle of incidence and plotted patterns of secondary reflection of light from illuminated surfaces in shadowed areas. He used the latter phenomenon to explain grey colour the shadow side of the moon, which he proved to be the result of the reflection of light from the surface of the earth. His studies of light falling on the face from one point and emphasizing the contours show us that he tried to model forms according to a certain system, reminiscent of that followed by a ray in computer graphics. The more direct the angle of the “percussion”, the greater the intensity of the illumination, although in fact it is, as we now know, the law of cosine established by Lambert in the 18th century that is in effect here, and not Leonardo’s simple rule of proportions. For da Vinci, the result is always proportional to the angle of incidence of the beam. Thus, the grazing light will not illuminate the surface as strongly as the one that falls on it perpendicularly.

According to Leonardo, the perfection of God's plan for all forms and forces of nature was expressed in proportions. The beauty of the proportions was the most important task for Florentine architects, sculptors and artists. Leonardo was the first to incorporate the artist's idea of ​​the beauty of proportions into the overall picture of the proportional structure of nature. The most authoritative work on architectural proportions was the treatise on architecture by the ancient Roman author Vitruvius. As the ideal of beauty in architecture, Vitruvius chose the human body, with legs and arms outstretched to the sides, inscribed in a circle and a square - the two most perfect geometric figures. Within this scheme, body parts can be defined according to a system of relative sizes in which each part, such as the face, stands in simple proportional relation to another part. The Vitruvian diagram of the human body reproduced by Leonardo received its complete visual embodiment and became widespread as a symbol of the “cosmic” design of the human structure. As Leonardo said, proportional structure human body- This is an analogue of musical harmonies, which were based on cosmic relationships built by the Greek mathematician Pythagoras. It was precisely the mathematical basis of music that allowed it, with greater reason than other arts, to compete with painting, although he tried in every possible way to emphasize that musical harmonies it is necessary to listen sequentially, whereas the picture can be taken in at one glance.

Leonardo di Ser Piero da Vinci is a man of Renaissance art, sculptor, inventor, painter, philosopher, writer, scientist, polymath (universal person).

The future genius was born as a result of a love affair between the noble Piero da Vinci and the girl Katerina (Katarina). According to the social norms of that time, the marriage of these people was impossible due to the low origin of Leonardo’s mother. After the birth of her first child, she was married to a potter, with whom Katerina lived the rest of her life. It is known that she gave birth to four daughters and a son from her husband.

Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci

The first-born Piero da Vinci lived with his mother for three years. Leonardo's father, immediately after his birth, married a rich representative of a noble family, but his legal wife was never able to give him an heir. Three years after the marriage, Pierrot took his son to him and began raising him. Leonardo's stepmother died 10 years later while trying to give birth to an heir. Pierrot remarried, but quickly became a widower again. In total, Leonardo had four stepmothers, as well as 12 paternal half-siblings.

Creativity and inventions of da Vinci

The parent apprenticed Leonardo to the Tuscan master Andrea Verrocchio. During his studies with his mentor, son Pierrot learned not only the art of painting and sculpture. Young Leonardo studied the humanities and technical sciences, the craftsmanship of leather, the basics of working with metal and chemical reagents. All this knowledge was useful to Da Vinci in life.

Leonardo received confirmation of his qualifications as a master at the age of twenty, after which he continued to work under the supervision of Verrocchio. The young artist was involved in minor work on his teacher’s paintings, for example, he painted background landscapes and clothes of minor characters. Leonardo only got his own workshop in 1476.

In 1482, da Vinci was sent by his patron Lorenzo Medici to Milan. During this period, the artist worked on two paintings, which were never completed. In Milan, Duke Lodovico Sforza enrolled Leonardo in the court staff as an engineer. The high-ranking person was interested in defensive devices and devices for entertaining the courtyard. Da Vinci had the opportunity to develop his talent as an architect and his abilities as a mechanic. His inventions turned out to be an order of magnitude better than those proposed by his contemporaries.

The engineer stayed in Milan under Duke Sforza for about seventeen years. During this time, Leonardo painted the paintings “Madonna in the Grotto” and “Lady with an Ermine”, created his most famous drawing“Vitruvian Man”, made a clay model of the equestrian monument of Francesco Sforza, painted the wall of the refectory of the Dominican monastery with the composition “The Last Supper”, made a number of anatomical sketches and drawings of apparatus.

Leonardo's engineering talent also came in handy after his return to Florence in 1499. He entered the service of Duke Cesare Borgia, who relied on Da Vinci's ability to create military mechanisms. The engineer worked in Florence for about seven years, after which he returned to Milan. By that time, he had already completed work on his most famous painting, which is now kept in the Louvre Museum.

The master's second Milanese period lasted six years, after which he left for Rome. In 1516 Leonardo went to France, where he spent his last years. On the journey, the master took with him Francesco Melzi, a student and main heir artistic style da Vinci.

Despite the fact that Leonardo spent only four years in Rome, it is in this city that there is a museum named after him. In three halls of the institution you can get acquainted with devices built according to Leonardo’s drawings, examine copies of paintings, photos of diaries and manuscripts.

Most The Italian dedicated his life to engineering and architectural projects. His inventions were both military and peaceful in nature. Leonardo is known as the developer of prototypes of a tank, an aircraft, a self-propelled carriage, a searchlight, a catapult, a bicycle, a parachute, mobile bridge, machine gun. Some of the inventor's drawings still remain a mystery to researchers.

In 2009, the Discovery TV channel aired the series of films “Da Vinci Apparatus.” Each of the ten episodes of the documentary series was devoted to the construction and testing of mechanisms based on Leonardo's original drawings. The film's technicians tried to recreate the inventions Italian genius using materials from his era.

Personal life

The master's personal life was kept in the strictest confidence. Leonardo used a code for entries in his diaries, but even after deciphering, researchers received little reliable information. There is a version that the reason for the secrecy was homosexual da Vinci.

The theory that the artist loved men was based on researchers’ guesses based on indirect facts. At a young age, the artist was involved in a case of sodomy, but it is not known for certain in what capacity. After this incident, the master became very secretive and stingy with comments about his personal life.

Leonardo's possible lovers include some of his students, the most famous of whom is Salai. The young man was endowed with an effeminate appearance and became a model for several paintings by da Vinci. John the Baptist is one of Leonardo's surviving works for which Szalai sat.

There is a version that the "Mona Lisa" was also painted from this sitter, dressed in women's dress. It should be noted that there is some physical similarity between the people depicted in the paintings “Mona Lisa” and “John the Baptist”. The fact remains that da Vinci bequeathed his artistic masterpiece to Salai.

Historians also include Francesco Melzi among Leonardo's possible lovers.

There is another version of the secret of the Italian’s personal life. It is believed that Leonardo had a romantic relationship with Cecilia Gallerani, who is supposedly depicted in the portrait “Lady with an Ermine”. This woman was the favorite of the Duke of Milan, the owner of a literary salon, and a patron of the arts. She introduced the young artist to the circle of Milanese bohemia.

Among Da Vinci's notes was found a draft of a letter addressed to Cecilia, which began with the words: “My beloved goddess...”. Researchers suggest that the portrait “Lady with an Ermine” was painted with clear signs of unspent feelings for the woman depicted in it.

Some researchers believe that the great Italian did not know carnal love at all. He was not attracted to men or women in a physical sense. In the context of this theory, it is assumed that Leonardo led the life of a monk who did not give birth to descendants, but left a great legacy.

Death and grave

Modern researchers have concluded that the probable cause of the artist’s death was a stroke. Da Vinci died at the age of 67 in 1519. Thanks to the memoirs of his contemporaries, it is known that by that time the artist was already suffering from partial paralysis. Leonardo couldn't move right hand, as researchers believe, due to a stroke suffered in 1517.

Despite the paralysis, the master continued his active creative life, resorting to the help of his student Francesco Melzi. Da Vinci's health deteriorated, and by the end of 1519 it was already difficult for him to walk without assistance. This evidence is consistent with the theoretical diagnosis. Scientists believe that a repeated attack of cerebrovascular accident in 1519 ended the life of the famous Italian.

At the time of his death, the master was in the castle of Clos-Lucé near the city of Amboise, where he lived for the last three years of his life. In accordance with Leonardo's will, his body was buried in the gallery of the Church of Saint-Florentin.

Unfortunately, the master's grave was destroyed during the Huguenot wars. The church in which the Italian was buried was looted, after which it fell into severe neglect and was demolished by the new owner of the Amboise castle, Roger Ducos, in 1807.

After the destruction of the Saint-Florentin chapel, remains from many burials different years were mixed and buried in the garden. Since the mid-nineteenth century, researchers have made several attempts to identify the bones of Leonardo da Vinci. Innovators in this matter were guided by the lifetime description of the master and selected the most suitable fragments from the found remains. They were studied for some time. The work was led by archaeologist Arsen Housse. He also found fragments of a tombstone, presumably from da Vinci's grave, and a skeleton in which some fragments were missing. These bones were reburied in the reconstructed artist's tomb in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert on the grounds of the Castle of Amboise.

In 2010, a team of researchers led by Silvano Vinceti was going to exhume the remains of the Renaissance master. It was planned to identify the skeleton using genetic material taken from the burials of Leonardo's paternal relatives. Italian researchers were unable to obtain permission from the castle owners to carry out the necessary work.

On the site where the Church of Saint-Florentin used to be located, at the beginning of the last century a granite monument was erected, marking the four hundredth anniversary of the death of the famous Italian. The engineer's reconstructed grave and stone monument with his bust are among the most popular attractions in Amboise.

The secrets of da Vinci's paintings

Leonardo's work has occupied the minds of art critics, religious researchers, historians and ordinary people for more than four hundred years. The works of the Italian artist have become an inspiration for people of science and creativity. There are many theories that reveal the secrets of da Vinci's paintings. The most famous of them says that when writing his masterpieces, Leonardo used a special graphic code.

Using a device of several mirrors, researchers were able to find out that the secret of the looks of the heroes from the paintings “Mona Lisa” and “John the Baptist” lies in the fact that they are looking at a creature in a mask, reminiscent of an alien. The secret code in Leonardo's notes was also deciphered using an ordinary mirror.

Hoaxes surrounding the work of the Italian genius led to the emergence of a number of works of art, the author of which was the writer. His novels became bestsellers. In 2006, the film “The Da Vinci Code” was released, based on work of the same name Brown. The film was met with a wave of criticism from religious organizations, but set box office records in its first month of release.

Lost and unfinished works

Not all of the master’s works have survived to this day. The works that have not survived include: a shield with a painting in the form of the head of Medusa, a sculpture of a horse for the Duke of Milan, a portrait of the Madonna with a spindle, the painting “Leda and the Swan” and the fresco “The Battle of Anghiari”.

Modern researchers know about some of the master’s paintings thanks to surviving copies and memoirs of da Vinci’s contemporaries. For example, the fate of the original work “Leda and the Swan” is still unknown. Historians believe that the painting may have been destroyed in the mid-seventeenth century on the orders of the Marquise de Maintenon, wife of Louis XIV. Sketches made by Leonardo's hand and several copies of the canvas made by Leonardo have survived to this day. by different artists.

The painting showed a young naked woman in the arms of a swan, with babies hatched from huge eggs playing at her feet. When creating this masterpiece, the artist was inspired by a famous mythical plot. It is interesting that the painting based on the story of Leda’s copulation with Zeus, who took the form of a swan, was painted not only by da Vinci.

Leonardo's lifetime rival also painted a painting dedicated to this ancient myth. Buonarotti's painting suffered the same fate as da Vinci's work. Paintings by Leonardo and Michelangelo simultaneously disappeared from the collection of the French royal house.

Among unfinished work brilliant Italian The painting “Adoration of the Magi” stands out. The canvas was commissioned by the Augustinian monks in 1841, but remained unfinished due to the master’s departure to Milan. The customers found another artist, and Leonardo saw no point in continuing to work on the painting.

Researchers believe that the composition of the canvas has no analogues in Italian painting. The painting depicts Mary with the newborn Jesus and the Magi, and behind the pilgrims are riders on horses and the ruins of a pagan temple. There is an assumption that Leonardo depicted himself at the age of 29 among the men who came to the son of God.

• In 2009, researcher of religious mysteries Lynn Picknett published the book “Leonardo da Vinci and the Brotherhood of Zion,” naming the famous Italian one of the masters of a secret religious order.
• It is believed that da Vinci was a vegetarian. He wore clothes made of linen, neglecting outfits made of leather and natural silk.
• A group of researchers plans to isolate Leonardo's DNA from the master's surviving personal belongings. Historians also claim to be close to finding da Vinci's maternal relatives.
• The Renaissance was the time when noble women in Italy were addressed with the words “my lady”, in Italian - “ma donna”. In colloquial speech the expression was shortened to "monna". This means that the title of the painting “Mona Lisa” can be literally translated as “Lady Lisa”.

• Rafael Santi called da Vinci his teacher. He visited Leonardo's studio in Florence and tried to adopt some features of his artistic style. Raphael Santi also called Michelangelo Buonarroti his teacher. The three artists mentioned are considered the main geniuses of the Renaissance.
• Australian enthusiasts have created the largest traveling exhibition inventions of the great architect. The exhibition was developed with the participation of the Leonardo da Vinci Museum in Italy. The exhibition has already visited six continents. During its operation, five million visitors were able to see and touch the works of the most famous engineer of the Renaissance.

No one knows what the birth of a genius depends on. Scientists have been struggling with the mystery of genius for centuries, looking for the reasons and conditions in which talented children could be born, but so far to no avail.

A man who is known to the whole world died long ago, but his name remains well known and there is no doubt about his genius: the greatest inventor, engineer and scientist, who was ahead of his own time, Leonardo da Vinci, left his descendants with riddles and ideas that he will puzzle over for years to come. more than one generation.

The uniqueness of da Vinci also lies in his amazing versatility - he was interested in and capable of everything - from painting to mechanics, he was interested in the structure of the human body no less than in artificial structures. Spiteful critics can talk as much as they like about the fact that Leonardo’s drawings and sketches are not finished, that it is very difficult to build the planned machines and mechanisms based on them. However, the fact remains: not a single person in the entire history of mankind has given so many inventions that were ahead of their time, not a single name has acquired the same mystical and mysterious aura as the name of Leonardo da Vinci.

Painting and medicine, history and biology, mechanics and poetry - all this was combined in one person. Leonardo da Vinci wrote with both hands and in both directions, danced, fenced, and was a sculptor. Unique talent is revealed in different areas!

Military-technical ideas and inventions of da Vinci

Military-technical ideas were very close to him. The first tanks were born in the imagination of a scientist, and he strongly promoted the idea of ​​​​creating a chariot covered with sheets of armor on top. The semicircular shape would make it possible to withstand the onslaught of the enemy, and the cannon with which the “tank” should be equipped could adjust the firing angle using a reinforced lifting block.

Initially, the chariot was supposed to be driven by horses. However, being shy animals, they could ruin the whole thing. Therefore, having improved his idea, Leonardo replaced horses with people. The crew of the “combat vehicle” would consist of eight people pulling this colossus. Needless to say, the combat effectiveness of such chariots would be very low; tanks would have to wait for their turn to be implemented for several more centuries.

Underwater exploration

Da Vinci loved water very much, and it is not surprising that for the study underwater world he needed a device that would allow him to breathe underwater. An inquisitive mind coped with this task, and the first scuba gear was invented precisely famous Italian. Leather was used to make the “diver’s” suit, glass lenses made it possible to look around, and for excessive admiration for the beauty of the underwater world, a bag was provided to relieve natural needs. The air was supplied through specially fixed reed tubes for this purpose. At the point of their articulation with the skin, Leonardo provided springs that prevent the skin from collapsing under water pressure. The scuba diver took with him bags of sand - ballast, an air tank (in case of an emergency ascent), a knife and rope, as well as a horn for signaling the ascent to the top.

Leonardo da Vinci's inventions in the field of aeronautics

All his life Leonardo dreamed of heaven. He considered the impossibility of flying in the clouds to be a terrible injustice and worked in every possible way to eliminate it. Among the drawings and sketches that have survived to this day, there is a model of a flight device, which is considered to be a prototype of a helicopter. Absence modern materials, used in aircraft construction and in the military industry, significantly complicated the scientist’s work, but he looked for options among what was available to him.

For example, in the case of a “helicopter,” the propeller of the device had to be made of starched flax. And it was supposed to be set in motion to start it manually. The idea remained unfulfilled. Leonardo lost interest in it, switching to a natural wing created by nature.

• Long and unsuccessful, but certainly interesting from the point of view of modern researchers, there were attempts to create a device that flies like a bird and has the ability to lift a person into the air. Having rejected this idea, Leonardo da Vinci became interested in gliding flight. The structure was attached to a person’s back, allowing it to be controlled and changed the direction of flight. The part that was directly attached to the body was the widest and most motionless, but the tips could be bent using thin cables, thus changing the flight vector.
• As surprising as it sounds, the parachute was also invented by Da Vinci. He described it as a fabric dome, with a height of approximately 7.2 m. The scientist argued that with such a device you can jump from any height without fear for your health. The technical implementation of this invaluable idea was achieved only at the beginning of the twentieth century - a backpack rescue parachute, which was attached to the back and opened in the air, was created by the Russian inventor Gleb Kotelnikov.

Leonardo da Vinci also developed self-propelled cars

But the great Italian looked not only in the sky and under water for inspiration for his discoveries and ideas. Fortunately, he was no less interested in earthly affairs. After all, it was Leonardo who invented the first...car! A spring mechanism drove a cart with three wheels, and an additional fourth wheel was located in front on a wooden lever and served to turn the car. The rear wheels were driven by a gear system. Such a miracle of technology, for the movement of which two people applied force, was brought to life only more than a hundred years later, and real cars appeared even later.

Finally, it is worth mentioning a large number of “everyday” inventions that are successfully used to this day (somewhat modified and modernized, but this fact does not detract from the merits of Leonardo da Vinci). He invented a device that made it possible to drill wood and earth, a wheeled pistol lock, recognized during the inventor’s lifetime, a telescope with two lenses, a bicycle, a catapult, a searchlight - this list can be continued for a very long time.

Leonardo left behind about thirteen thousand pages of manuscripts, and not all of them have been fully deciphered to date. And found in 2005 secret archive Leonardo allows us to hope that there are still secrets and mysteries that the inquisitive, brilliant inventor left behind.

Leonardo da Vinci was born in the town of Vinci (or near it), located west of Florence, on April 15, 1452. He was the illegitimate son of a Florentine notary and a peasant girl, was brought up in his father’s house and, being the son of an educated man, received a thorough primary education.

1467 - at the age of 15, Leonardo apprenticed to one of the leading masters of the Early Renaissance in Florence, Andrea del Verrocchio; 1472 - joined the guild of artists, studied the basics of drawing and other necessary disciplines; 1476 - he worked in Verrocchio’s workshop, apparently in collaboration with the master himself.

By 1480, Leonardo already had large orders, but 2 years later he moved to Milan. In a letter to the ruler of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, he introduced himself as an engineer, military expert and artist. The years he spent in Milan were filled with various activities. Leonardo da Vinci painted several paintings and the famous fresco “The Last Supper” and began to diligently and seriously keep his notes. The Leonardo we recognize from his notes is an architect-designer (the creator of innovative plans that were never implemented), an anatomist, a hydraulic engineer, an inventor of mechanisms, a creator of decorations for court performances, a writer of riddles, puzzles and fables for the entertainment of the court, musician and painting theorist.

1499 - after the expulsion of Lodovico Sforza from Milan by the French, Leonardo leaves for Venice, visits Mantua on the way, where he participates in the construction of defensive structures, and then returns to Florence. At that time, he was so passionate about mathematics that he didn’t even want to think about picking up a brush. For 12 years, Leonardo constantly moved from city to city, working for the famous in Romagna, designing defensive structures (never built) for Piombino.

In Florence he enters into rivalry with Michelangelo; This rivalry culminated in the enormous battle compositions that the two artists painted for the Palazzo della Signoria (also Palazzo Vecchio). Then Leonardo conceived a second equestrian monument, which, like the first, was never created. Throughout all these years, he continues to fill out his notebooks. They reflect his ideas relating to a variety of subjects. This is the theory and practice of painting, anatomy, mathematics and even the flight of birds. 1513 - as in 1499, his patrons are expelled from Milan...

Leonardo leaves for Rome, where he spends 3 years under the auspices of the Medici. Depressed and upset due to the lack of material for anatomical research, he engages in experiments that lead nowhere.

The kings of France, first Louis XII, then Francis I, admired the works of the Italian Renaissance, especially Leonardo's Last Supper. Therefore, it is not surprising that in 1516 Francis I, well aware of Leonardo’s versatile talents, invited him to the court, which was then located in the castle of Amboise in the Loire Valley. As the sculptor Benvenuto Cellini wrote, despite the fact that the Florentine worked on hydraulic projects and the plan of the new royal palace, his main occupation was the honorary position of court sage and adviser.

Fascinated by the idea of ​​​​creating an aircraft, the Florentine first developed the simplest apparatus (Daedalus and Icarus) based on wings. His new idea is an airplane with full control. But it was not possible to bring the idea to life due to the lack of a motor. The scientist’s also famous idea is a vertical take-off and landing device.

Studying the laws of fluid and hydraulics in general, Leonardo made a great contribution to the theory of locks and sewer ports, testing ideas in practice.

Famous paintings by Leonardo - “La Gioconda”, “The Last Supper”, “Madonna with an Ermine”, and many others. Leonardo was demanding and precise in everything he did. Even before painting, he insisted on fully studying the subject before starting.

Leonardo's manuscripts are priceless. They were fully published only in the 19th and 20th centuries. In his notes, Leonardo da Vinci noted not just thoughts, but supplemented them with drawings, drawings, and descriptions.

Leonardo da Vinci was talented in many fields; he made significant contributions to the history of architecture, art, and physics.

Leonardo da Vinci died in Amboise on May 2, 1519; By this time, his paintings were usually distributed to private collections, and his notes lay in various collections, almost completely forgotten, for several more centuries.

Secrets of Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci encrypted a lot so that his ideas would be revealed gradually, as humanity could “ripen” to them. He wrote with his left hand and in very small letters, from right to left, so that the text looked like a mirror image. He spoke in riddles, made metaphorical prophecies, and loved to make puzzles. Leonardo da Vinci did not sign his works, but they are present identification marks. For example, if you take a closer look at the paintings, you may find a symbolic bird taking off. There are, apparently, a lot of such signs, which is why one or another of his hidden “brainchildren” are unexpectedly discovered on famous paintings, through centuries. So, for example, it was with “ Madonna Benoit”, which for a long time, traveling actors carried with them as a home icon.

Leonard discovered the principle of scattering (or sfumato). The objects on his canvases have no clear boundaries: everything, like in life, is blurry, penetrates one into another, which means it breathes, lives, awakens imagination. To master this principle, he advised practicing: looking at stains on walls, ashes, clouds or dirt that appear from dampness. He specially fumigate the room where he worked with smoke in order to look for images in clubs.

Thanks to the sfumato effect, the flickering smile of Gioconda appeared: depending on the focus of the view, it seems to the viewer that Gioconda is smiling either tenderly or sinisterly. The second miracle of the Mona Lisa is that it is “alive.” Over the centuries, her smile changes, the corners of her lips rise higher. In the same way, the Master mixed the knowledge of various sciences, so his inventions find more and more applications over time. From the treatise on light and shadow come the beginnings of the sciences of penetrating force, oscillatory motion, and wave propagation. All of his 120 books have been distributed around the world and are gradually being revealed to humanity.

Leonardo da Vinci preferred the analogy method to all others. The approximate nature of an analogy is an advantage over the precision of a syllogism, when a third inevitably follows from two conclusions. But the more bizarre the analogy, the further the conclusions from it extend. Take, for example, Da Vinci’s famous illustration, which proves the proportionality of the human body. A human figure with outstretched arms and spread legs fits into a circle, and with closed legs and raised arms, into a square. This “mill” gave rise to various conclusions. Leonardo was the only one who created designs for churches in which the altar is placed in the middle (symbolizing the human navel), and the worshipers are evenly spaced around. This church plan in the form of an octahedron served as another invention of the genius - the ball bearing.

The Florentine loved to use contrapposto, which creates the illusion of movement. Everyone who saw his sculpture of a giant horse in Corte Vecchio involuntarily changed their gait to a more relaxed one.

Leonardo was never in a hurry to finish a work, because unfinishment is an integral quality of life. Finishing means killing! The Florentine's slowness was the talk of the town; he could make two or three strokes and leave the city for many days, for example, to improve the valleys of Lombardy or to create an apparatus for walking on water. Almost every one of it significant works- “unfinished”. The master had a special composition, with the help of which he seemed to specially create “windows of incompleteness” in the finished painting. Apparently, he left a place where life itself could intervene and correct something...

He played the lyre masterfully. When Leonardo's case was heard in the Milan court, he appeared there precisely as a musician, and not as an artist or inventor.

There is a version that Leonardo da Vinci was a homosexual. While the artist was studying in Verrocchio's studio, he was accused of molesting a boy who posed for him. The court acquitted him.

According to one version, Gioconda smiles from the realization of her secret pregnancy.

According to another, the Mona Lisa was entertained by musicians and clowns while she posed for the artist.

There is another assumption, according to which, “Mona Lisa” is a self-portrait of Leonardo.

Leonardo da Vinci, apparently, did not leave a single self-portrait that could be unambiguously attributed to him. Experts doubt that Leonardo's famous self-portrait of Sanguine (traditionally dated 1512-1515), depicting him in old age, is such. It is believed that this is probably only a study of the head of the apostle for the Last Supper. Doubts that this is a self-portrait of the artist began to be expressed in the 19th century; the last one to express them was recently one of the leading experts on Leonardo da Vinci, Professor Pietro Marani.

Scientists at the University of Amsterdam and American researchers, having studied the mysterious smile of Mona Lisa using a new computer program, unraveled its composition: according to them, it contains 83 percent happiness, 9 percent disdain, 6 percent fear and 2 percent anger.

Leonardo loved water: he developed instructions for underwater diving, he invented and described a device for underwater diving, Breathe-helping machine for scuba diving. All of Leonardo da Vinci's inventions formed the basis of modern underwater equipment.

Leonardo was the first of the painters to begin dismembering corpses in order to understand the location and structure of the muscles.

Observations of the Moon in the waxing crescent phase led the researcher to one of the important scientific discoveries - Leonardo da Vinci found that sunlight reflected from our planet and returned to the moon in the form of secondary illumination.

The Florentine was ambidextrous - he was equally good with his right and left hands. He suffered from dyslexia (impaired reading ability) - this ailment, called “word blindness,” is associated with reduced brain activity in a certain area of ​​​​the left hemisphere. It is a well-known fact that Leonardo wrote in a mirror manner.

Relatively not so long ago, the Louvre spent $5.5 million to move the artist’s most famous masterpiece, La Gioconda, from the general public to a room specially equipped for it. Two thirds were allocated for La Gioconda State Hall, occupying a total area of ​​840 sq. m. The huge room was rebuilt into a gallery, on the far wall of which the famous work of the great Leonardo now hangs. The reconstruction, which was carried out according to the design of the Peruvian architect Lorenzo Piqueras, lasted about 4 years. The decision to move the Mona Lisa to a separate room was made by the administration of the Louvre due to the fact that in its original place, surrounded by other paintings Italian masters, this masterpiece was lost, and the public was forced to stand in line to see the famous painting.

2003, August - a painting by the great Leonardo worth 50 million dollars, “Madonna with a Spindle,” was stolen from Drumlanrig Castle in Scotland. The masterpiece was stolen from the home of one of the richest landowners in Scotland, the Duke of Buccleuch.

It is believed that Leonardo was a vegetarian (Andrea Corsali, in a letter to Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici, compares him to an Indian who did not eat meat). The phrase often attributed to Leonardo: “If a person strives for freedom, why does he keep birds and animals in cages? .. man is truly the king of animals, because he cruelly exterminates them. We live by killing others. We are walking cemeteries! At an early age I gave up meat" taken from English translation novel by Dmitry Merezhkovsky “Resurrected Gods. Leonardo da Vinci."

Leonardo da Vinci created designs for a submarine, a propeller, a tank, a loom, a ball bearing and flying cars.

While building canals, Leonardo made an observation that later entered geology under his name as a theoretical principle for recognizing the time of formation of the earth's layers. He concluded that our planet is much older than the Bible indicated.

Da Vinci's hobbies even included cooking and the art of serving. In Milan, for thirteen years he was the manager of court feasts. He invented several culinary devices to make the work of cooks easier. Leonardo's original dish - thinly sliced ​​stewed meat with vegetables placed on top - was very popular at court feasts.

In Terry Pratchett's books there is a character whose name is Leonard, whose prototype was Leonardo da Vinci. Pratchett's Leonard writes from right to left, invents various machines, practices alchemy, paints pictures (the most famous is the portrait of Mona Ogg)

A considerable number of Leonardo's manuscripts were first published by the curator of the Ambrosian Library, Carlo Amoretti.

Italian scientists made a statement about the sensational discovery. According to them, an early self-portrait of Leonardo has been discovered. The discovery belongs to the journalist Piero Angela.

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Introduction

1. Biography

1.1 Childhood

1.2 Verrocchio's workshop

1.3 Defeated teacher

1.4 Professional activity, 1472-1513

2. Achievements

2.1 Art

2.2 Science and engineering

2.3 Anatomy and medicine

2.4 Invention

2.5 Thinker

2.6 Literary heritage

3. Image in modern mass consciousness

4. Editions of works

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The Renaissance was rich in prominent figures. But Leonardo, born in the town of Vinci near Florence on April 15, 1452, stands out even from the general background of other famous people of the Renaissance.

This supergenius of the beginning of the Italian Renaissance is so strange that it causes scientists not just amazement, but almost awe, mixed with confusion. Even general review his capabilities plunge researchers into shock: well, a person cannot, even if he has seven spans in his forehead, be at once a brilliant engineer, artist, sculptor, inventor, mechanic, chemist, philologist, scientist, seer, one of the best singers of his time, swimmer , creator musical instruments, cantatas, equestrian, fencer, architect, fashion designer, etc. His external characteristics are also striking: Leonardo is tall, slender and so beautiful in face that he was called an “angel”, while he is superhumanly strong (with his right hand - being left-handed! - he could crush a horseshoe).

Leonardo da Vinci has been written about more than once. But the theme of his life and work, both as a scientist and as a man of art, is still relevant today.

revival of Leonardo scientist inventor heritage

1. BIOGRAPHY

1.1 Detstin

Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in the village of Anchiano near the small town of Vinci, not far from Florence at “three o’clock in the morning”, that is, at 22:30 according to modern time [source not specified 792 days]. A noteworthy entry in the diary of Leonardo’s grandfather, Antonio da Vinci (1372-1468) (literal translation): “On Saturday, at three o’clock in the morning on April 15, my grandson, the son of my son Piero, was born. The boy was named Leonardo. He was baptized by Father Piero di Bartolomeo." His parents were the 25-year-old notary Pierrot (1427-1504) and his lover, the peasant woman Katerina. Leonardo spent the first years of his life with his mother. His father soon married a rich and noble girl, but this marriage turned out to be childless, and Piero took his three-year-old son to be raised. Separated from his mother, Leonardo spent his whole life trying to recreate her image in his masterpieces. At that time he lived with his grandfather.

(Figure 1. Leonardo da Vinci)

In Italy at that time, illegitimate children were treated almost as legal heirs. Many influential people of the city of Vinci took part in the further fate of Leonardo.

When Leonardo was 13 years old, his stepmother died in childbirth. The father remarried - and again soon became a widower. He lived to be 77 years old, was married four times and had 12 children. The father tried to introduce Leonardo to the family profession, but to no avail: the son was not interested in the laws of society.

Leonardo had no last name modern sense; "da Vinci" simply means "(originally) from the town of Vinci." His full name is Italian. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, that is, “Leonardo, son of Mr. Piero from Vinci.”

1.2 Verrocchio's workshop

In 1466 Leonardo da Vinci entered Verrocchio's workshop as an apprentice artist.

Verrocchio's workshop was located in the intellectual center of what was then Italy, the city of Florence, which allowed Leonardo to study the humanities, as well as acquire some technical skills. He studied drawing, chemistry, metallurgy, working with metal, plaster and leather. In addition, the young apprentice was engaged in drawing, sculpture and modeling. In addition to Leonardo, Perugino, Lorenzo di Credi, Agnolo di Polo studied in the workshop, Botticelli worked, and such famous masters as Ghirlandaio and others often visited. Subsequently, even when Leonardo’s father hires him to work in his workshop, he continues to collaborate with Verrocchio .

In 1473, at the age of 20, Leonardo da Vinci qualified as a master at the Guild of St. Luke.

1.3 Defeated teacher

In the 15th century, ideas about the revival of ancient ideals were in the air. At the Florentine Academy the best minds Italy created a theory of new art. Creative youth spent time in lively discussions. Leonardo remained aloof from his busy social life and rarely left his studio. He had no time for theoretical disputes: he improved his skills. One day Verrocchio received an order for the painting “The Baptism of Christ” and commissioned Leonardo to paint one of the two angels. This was a common practice in art workshops of that time: the teacher created a picture together with student assistants. The most talented and diligent were entrusted with the execution of an entire fragment. Two Angels, painted by Leonardo and Verrocchio, clearly demonstrated the superiority of the student over the teacher. As Vasari writes, the amazed Verrocchio abandoned his brush and never returned to painting.

1.4 Professional activities, 1472- 1513

In 1472-1477 Leonardo worked on: “The Baptism of Christ”, “The Annunciation”, “Madonna with a Vase”.

In the second half of the 70s, the “Madonna with a Flower” (“Benois Madonna”) was created.

At the age of 24, Leonardo and three other young men were put on trial on false, anonymous charges of sodomy. They were acquitted. Very little is known about his life after this event, but it is likely (there are documents) that he had his own workshop in Florence in 1476-1481.

In 1481, da Vinci completed the first large order in his life - the altar image “The Adoration of the Magi” (not completed) for the monastery of San Donato a Sisto, located near Florence. In the same year, work began on the painting “Saint Jerome”

In 1482, Leonardo, being, according to Vasari, a very talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent him to Milan as a peacemaker to Lodovico Moro, and sent the lyre with him as a gift. At the same time, work began on the equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza.

Leonardo da Vinci, Lady with an Ermine, 1490, Czartoryski Museum, Krakow

1483 -- work began on “Madonna in the Grotto”

1487 - development of a flying machine - an ornithopter, based on bird flight

1489--1490 -- painting “Lady with an Ermine”

1489 -- anatomical drawings of skulls

1490 - painting “Portrait of a Musician”. A clay model of the monument to Francesco Sforza was made.

1490 -- Vitruvian Man -- famous drawing, sometimes called canonical proportions

1490--1491 -- "Madonna Litta" created

1490--1494 -- "Madonna in the Grotto" completed

1495--1498 -- work on the fresco "The Last Supper" in the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan

1499 -- Milan is captured by the French troops of Louis XII, Leonardo leaves Milan, the model of the Sforza monument is badly damaged

1502 -- enters the service of Cesare Borgia as an architect and military engineer

1503 -- return to Florence

1503 -- cardboard for the fresco “Battle of Andjaria (at Anghiari)” and the painting “Mona Lisa”

1505 -- sketches of birds flying

1506 - return to Milan and service with King Louis XII of France (who at that time controlled northern Italy, see Italian Wars)

1507 -- study of the structure of the human eye

1508--1512 - work in Milan on the equestrian monument to Marshal Trivulzio

1509 -- painting in St. Anne's Cathedral

1512 -- “Self-Portrait”

1512 - move to Rome under the patronage of Pope Leo X

2. ACHIEVEMENTS

2.1 Art

Our contemporaries know Leonardo primarily as an artist. In addition, it is possible that da Vinci could also have been a sculptor: researchers from the University of Perugia - Giancarlo Gentilini and Carlo Sisi - claim that the terracotta head they found in 1990 is the only sculptural work of Leonardo da Vinci that has come down to us. However, da Vinci himself, at different periods of his life, considered himself primarily an engineer or scientist. He did not devote much time to fine art and worked rather slowly. Therefore, Leonardo’s artistic heritage is not large in quantity, and a number of his works have been lost or severely damaged. However, his contribution to the world artistic culture is extremely important even against the background of the cohort of geniuses that the Italian Renaissance produced. Thanks to his works, the art of painting moved to a qualitatively new stage of its development. The Renaissance artists who preceded Leonardo decisively rejected many conventions medieval art. This was a movement towards realism and much had already been achieved in the study of perspective, anatomy, and greater freedom in compositional solutions. But in terms of painting, working with paint, the artists were still quite conventional and constrained. The line in the picture clearly outlined the object, and the image had the appearance of a painted drawing. The most conventional was the landscape, which played a secondary role. Leonardo realized and embodied a new painting technique. His line has the right to be blurry, because that’s how we see it. He realized the phenomenon of light scattering in the air and the appearance of sfumato - a haze between the viewer and the depicted object, which softens color contrasts and lines. As a result, realism in painting moved to a qualitatively new level.

(Figure 2. Mona Lisa (1503--1505/1506)

Leonardo was the first to explain why the sky is blue. In the book “On Painting” he wrote: “The blueness of the sky is due to the thickness of illuminated air particles, which is located between the Earth and the blackness above.”

Leonardo, apparently, did not leave a single self-portrait that could be unambiguously attributed to him. Scientists have doubted that the famous self-portrait of Leonardo's sanguine (traditionally dated 1512-1515), depicting him in old age, is such. It is believed that perhaps this is just a study of the head of the apostle for the Last Supper. Doubts that this is a self-portrait of the artist have been expressed since the 19th century, the latest to be expressed recently by one of the leading experts on Leonardo, Professor Pietro Marani.

2.2 Science and Engineering

His only invention that received recognition during his lifetime was a wheel lock for a pistol (started with a key). At the beginning, the Wheel Pistol was not very widespread, but by the middle of the 16th century it had gained popularity among the nobles, especially among the cavalry, which was even reflected in the design of the armor, namely: Maximilian armor began to be made with gloves instead of mittens for the sake of firing pistols. The wheel lock for a pistol, invented by Leonardo da Vinci, was so perfect that it continued to be found in the 19th century.

Leonardo da Vinci was interested in the problems of flight. In Milan he made many drawings and studied the flight mechanism of birds different breeds And bats. In addition to observations, he also conducted experiments, but they were all unsuccessful. Leonardo really wanted to build a flying machine. He said: “He who knows everything can do everything. Just find out - and there will be wings!

At first, Leonardo developed the problem of flight using wings driven by human muscle power: the idea of ​​​​the simplest apparatus of Daedalus and Icarus. But then he came to the idea of ​​​​building such an apparatus to which a person should not be attached, but should maintain complete freedom in order to control it; the apparatus must set itself in motion own strength. This is essentially the idea of ​​an airplane.

Leonardo da Vinci worked on a vertical take-off and landing apparatus. Leonardo planned to place a system of retractable staircases on the vertical “ornitottero”. Nature served as an example for him: “look at the stone swift, which sat on the ground and cannot take off because of its short legs; and when he is in flight, pull out the ladder, as shown in the second image from above... this is how you take off from the plane; these stairs serve as legs...” Regarding landing, he wrote: “These hooks (concave wedges) which are attached to the base of the ladders serve the same purpose as the tips of the toes of the person who jumps on them, without his whole body being shaken by it, as if he was jumping on his heels.”

Leonardo da Vinci proposed the first design of a telescope with two lenses (now known as the Kepler telescope). In the manuscript of the “Atlantic Codex”, sheet 190a, there is an entry: “Make glasses (ochiali) for the eyes to see the big moon” (Leonardo da Vinci. “LIL Codice Atlantico...”, I Tavole, S.A. 190a),

Leonardo da Vinci may have first formulated simplest form the law of conservation of mass for the movement of fluids, describing the flow of a river, however, due to the vagueness of the formulation and doubts about the authenticity, this statement has been criticized.

2.3 Anatomy and medicine

During his life, Leonardo da Vinci made thousands of notes and drawings on anatomy, but did not publish his work. While dissecting the bodies of people and animals, he accurately conveyed the structure of the skeleton and internal organs, including small parts. According to clinical anatomy professor Peter Abrams, scientific work da Vinci was 300 years ahead of her time and in many ways superior to the famous Gray's Anatomy.

2.4 Inventions

List of inventions, both real and attributed to Leonardo da Vinci:

(Figure 3. Parachute)

(Figure 4. Wheel lock)

(Figure 5. Bicycle)

(Figure 6. Tank)

(Figure 7. Lightweight portable bridges for the army)

(Figure 8. Spotlight)

(Figure 9. Catapult)

(Figure 10. Robot)

(Fig. 11. Two-lens telescope)

2.5 Thinker

The creator of “The Last Supper” and “La Gioconda” also showed himself as a thinker, early realizing the need for theoretical justification of artistic practice: “Those who devote themselves to practice without knowledge are like a sailor setting off on a journey without a rudder and compass... practice should always be based on good knowledge of theory."

Demanding from the artist an in-depth study of the objects depicted, Leonardo da Vinci recorded all his observations in a notebook, which he constantly carried with him. The result was a kind of intimate diary, the like of which is not found in all world literature. Drawings, drawings and sketches are accompanied here short notes on issues of perspective, architecture, music, natural science, military engineering and the like; all this is sprinkled with various sayings, philosophical reasoning, allegories, anecdotes, fables. Taken together, the entries in these 120 books provide materials for an extensive encyclopedia. However, he did not strive to publish his thoughts and even resorted to secret writing, full transcript his records have not yet been completed.

Recognizing experience as the only criterion of truth and opposing the method of observation and induction to abstract speculation, Leonardo da Vinci not only in words, but in deeds deals a mortal blow to medieval scholasticism with its predilection for abstract logical formulas and deduction. For Leonardo da Vinci, speaking well means thinking correctly, that is, thinking independently, like the ancients, who did not recognize any authorities. So Leonardo da Vinci comes to deny not only scholasticism, this echo of feudal-medieval culture, but also humanism, a product of still fragile bourgeois thought, frozen in superstitious admiration for the authority of the ancients. Denying book learning, declaring the task of science (as well as art) to be the knowledge of things, Leonardo da Vinci anticipates Montaigne's attacks on literary scholars and opens the era of a new science a hundred years before Galileo and Bacon.

...Those sciences are empty and full of errors that are not generated by experience, the father of all certainty, and are not completed in visual experience...

No human research can be called true science unless it has gone through mathematical proof. And if you say that sciences that begin and end in thought have truth, then I cannot agree with you on this, ... because such purely mental reasoning does not involve experience, without which there is no certainty.

2.6 Literary heritage

After the death of Leonardo da Vinci, his friend and student Francesco Melzi selected from them passages related to painting, from which the “Treatise on Painting” (Trattato della pittura, 1st ed., 1651) was subsequently compiled. The handwritten legacy of Leonardo da Vinci was published in its entirety only in the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition to its enormous scientific and historical significance, it also has artistic value due to its concise, energetic style and unusually clear language. Living in the era of the heyday of humanism, when Italian language considered secondary compared to Latin, Leonardo da Vinci delighted his contemporaries with the beauty and expressiveness of his speech (according to legend, he was a good improviser), but did not consider himself a writer and wrote as he spoke; his prose is therefore an example spoken language intelligentsia of the 15th century, and this saved it in general from the artificiality and eloquence inherent in the prose of humanists, although in some passages of the didactic writings of Leonardo da Vinci we find echoes of the pathos of the humanistic style.

Even in the least “poetic” fragments by design, Leonardo da Vinci’s style is distinguished by its vivid imagery; Thus, his “Treatise on Painting” is equipped with magnificent descriptions (for example, famous description flood), with amazing mastery of verbal transmission of pictorial and plastic images. Along with descriptions in which one can feel the manner of an artist-painter, Leonardo da Vinci gives in his manuscripts many examples of narrative prose: fables, facets (joking stories), aphorisms, allegories, prophecies. In fables and facets, Leonardo stands on the level of the prose writers of the 14th century with their simple-minded practical morality; and some of its facets are indistinguishable from Sacchetti’s short stories.

Chessboard480.svg h8 black queen a7 white king d6 white queen a5 white pawn b5 black pawn h5 black rook d4 white knight e4 black king h4 black bishop b3 black pawn h3 black knight a2 black bishop b2 white pawn c2 white rook f2 white rook b1 white knight d1 white bishop f1 black rook g1 black knight

(Fig. 12. Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da Vinci. Checkmate in three moves from the manuscript).

Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da Vinci. Checkmate in three moves from the manuscript “On the Game of Chess”

Allegories and prophecies are more fantastic in nature: in the first, Leonardo da Vinci uses the techniques of medieval encyclopedias and bestiaries; the latter are in the nature of humorous riddles, distinguished by brightness and precision of phraseology and imbued with caustic, almost Voltairean irony, directed at the famous preacher Girolamo Savonarola. Finally, in the aphorisms of Leonardo da Vinci his philosophy of nature, his thoughts about the inner essence of things are expressed in epigrammatic form. Fiction had a purely utilitarian, auxiliary meaning for him.

A special place in the artist’s heritage is occupied by the treatise “On the Game of Chess” (Latin “De Ludo Schacorum”) - a book by the Italian monk-mathematician Luca Bartolomeo Pacioli from the Monastery of the Holy Sepulchre. Latin. The treatise is also known as “Dispelling Boredom” (Latin: “Schifanoia”). Some of the illustrations for the treatise are attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, and some researchers claim that he also compiled some of the chess problems from this collection.

3 . IMAGE IN MODERN MASS CONSCIOUSNESS

Leonardo is an example historical figure, transformed by mass consciousness into the image of a “magician of science.” He was a brilliant artist and an unsurpassed mechanical engineer, although far from being the most educated person of its time. The source of myth-making was his notebooks, where he sketched and described both his own technical ideas and what he discovered in the works of predecessor scientists or the diaries of travelers, “spied” on other practitioners (often with his own improvements). Now he is perceived by many as the inventor of “everything in the world.” Considered outside the context of other Renaissance engineers, his contemporaries and predecessors, he appears in the eyes of the public as the man who single-handedly laid the foundation of modern engineering knowledge.

Leonardo da Vinci is the main character of the story by writer Keith Reed "Signor da V."

In the books of science fiction writer Terry Pratchett, there is a character named Leonard, whose prototype was Leonardo da Vinci. Pratchett's Leonard writes from right to left, invents various machines, practices alchemy, paints pictures (the most famous is the portrait of Mona Ogg).

Leonardo is a minor character in the game Assassin's Creed 2. Here he is shown as still a young but talented artist, as well as an inventor.

4 . PUBLICATIONS OF ESSAYS

* Leonardo da Vinci. Selected natural science works. -- M. 1955

* Fairy tales and parables of Leonardo da Vinci

* Natural science writings and works on aesthetics (1508).

* Leonardo da Vinci. "Fire and the Cauldron (story)"

CONCLUSION

In the history of science, which is the history of human knowledge, people who make revolutionary discoveries are important. The most striking example of a person who made such discoveries is Leonardo da Vinci.

Leonardo da Vinci - Italian artist, sculptor, architect, scientist, engineer, naturalist. Of course, in all areas of his activity throughout his life, he showed the highest intelligence and creativity, which was reflected in both his scientific achievements and engineering inventions. Researchers continue to see Leonardo da Vinci primarily as an artist, but at the same time they perceive him as a generally perfect personality, harmoniously developed.

The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have passed through the entire history of world culture and science and had a huge influence on it...

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Website about Leonardo da Vinci

2. Leonardo da Vinci. Artist's website.

3. All paintings and biography of Leonardo da Vinci

4. Leonardo Da Vinci: The Encrypted Life. “Echo of Moscow” program from the series “Everything is so”

5. Large collection of works by Leonardo da Vinci

6. Da Vinci at artcyclopedia.com

7. Da Vinci on Web Gallery of Art

8. Detailed biography, scientific discoveries and creativity of Leonardo da Vinci on istorya.ru

9. Works of Leonardo da Vinci in the Hermitage

10. Biography of Leonardo da Vinci

11. Homer Bautdinov, Leonardo da Vinci

12. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4

13. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%B4 %D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8#.D0.94.D0.BD.D0.B5.D0.B2.D0.BD.D0.B8. D0.BA.D0.B8

14. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%B4 %D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8#.D0.98.D0.B7.D0.B4.D0.B0.D0.BD.D0.B8. D1.8F_.D1.81.D0.BE.D1.87.D0.B8.D0.BD.D0.B5.D0.BD.D0.B8.D0.B9

15. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B %D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA

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