Nationality in war and peace. Return of Karataev to peasant life in unusual conditions
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Ivanova Elena Anatolyevna. Stereotype as a cultural phenomenon: Dis. ...cand. Philosopher Sciences: 09.00.11 Moscow, 2000 172 p. RSL OD, 61:01-9/32-8
Introduction
Chapter 1. Development of scientific and philosophical ideas about the concept of stereotype.
1. Mythological roots stereotype 11
2. The emergence of the term “stereotype” and the degree of its research in science 29
Chapter 2. Stereotype and problem intercultural dialogue.
1. East - West as one of the stereotypical models of culture and the problem of intercultural dialogue 56
2. Ethnic, national, religious stereotypes 74
Chapter 3. Creative and stereotypical activities as phenomena of cultural activity.
1. Culture of the masses and them stereotypical characters 100
2. Creative and stereotypical activities 114
Conclusion 134
Sources and comments 144
Bibliography 162
Introduction to the work
Relevance of the problem. Research on various aspects of stereotypes and related problems is relevant for many reasons. A stereotype is a unique phenomenon that inevitably, against the will of the individual, manifests itself at all levels of consciousness: when operating with images of social interactions, actions with objects, natural and cultural connections, during direct contacts with people and acts of any activity. Stereotypes are observed at the mental level and directly affect behavior.
A stereotype is a cultural phenomenon. Stereotyped forms of behavior include any relatively stable, repeated acts of activity that serve as a means of transmitting social experience, which are based on certain algorithms of action. For example, rituals, customs, etiquette, labor traditions, games, holidays,
education and more other processes subject to certain
« regulation.
Ethnic, national, religious stereotypes are associated with
one of global problems humanity - ethnic conflicts.
I Ethnostereotypes unite communities of people into a certain
sociocultural system. In times of crisis, consolidating “our own”
Ethnostereotypes differentiate “outsiders” to the same extent.
Ethnostereotype can play a positive and constructive role in
preservation traditional features and features of national culture,
and also, when certain conditions, lead to genocide
relation to other peoples and ethnic groups. In order to avoid ethnic, national, religious and related military conflicts, one must know and manage the system of dynamic stereotypes, which changes along with changes in life, life support systems, etc. Knowledge of some stereotypical models of culture, for example, the East-West dichotomy, helps to solve the problem of intercultural dialogue.
The phenomenon of stereotype and the process of stereotyping can be observed, taking into account certain specific features, throughout the history of mankind. However, the very concept of a stereotype, as well as a number of problems associated with the phenomenon of stereotyping, arose only in the 20th century. together with developments in the areas of ideology, propaganda, and manipulation of public consciousness. On modern stage Research in these areas continues to be particularly relevant. Stereotype research is used for political and commercial purposes, since a stereotype can be a certain stimulator of a single emotional background by highlighting effective, impressive components of information by reducing other, “less significant” elements of information about an object, by simplifying and schematizing the content. Continue to remain relevant practical developments in the field of creating mechanisms for the formation and destruction of certain stereotypes associated with ideological and political phenomena, as well as the needs in the field of marketing, advertising and public relations.
However, it should be noted: society is faced with the fact that stereotyping of thinking, affecting practical actions
individuals and groups in economic, political, social, ideological and other spheres of life, in some cases can not only hamper social development, but also cause significant moral and material damage. Being a natural, deterministic phenomenon of individual and social consciousness, stereotypes sometimes become a dangerous phenomenon.
/ STEREOTYPICAL ACTIVITY CAN DISPLACE THE SECOND, I"""
the opposite type of cultural phenomenon: creative activity, without which human progress is impossible. Stereotyping and standardization are modern phenomena that affect all spheres of life: science, culture, art, personal communication. On a global scale, complete crowding out of creative activity can lead to a catastrophe of civilization.
In this regard, the study of the phenomenon of stereotype and the problem of stereotyping is associated with deepening the theoretical and methodological foundations of various fields of knowledge, and also has broad social and practical significance. A comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of stereotypes, ways and methods of influencing stereotypes, mechanisms of their formation and destruction is caused by the modern needs of science and practice.
The degree of development of the topic. The topic of stereotype has been and is being given special attention in philosophical, scientific and other literature.
Many authors point to the mythological roots underlying the stereotype. In particular, in national science this is done by S. A. Muradyan, O. 10. Semendyaeva and others. “Traditional” references to mythology create the illusion that mythological roots are
an indisputable fact, an axiom underlying the analysis of the stereotype and
stereotyping. However, in domestic science there are no separate
research revealing the mythological essence,
The peculiarity of stereotypes is as a phenomenon of individual and social consciousness with certain characteristics and functions, as well as social and psychological mechanisms, a phenomenon that plays a significant role in life social groups, society and in international relations - is revealed to a certain extent in the works of Soviet and Russian sociologists, social psychologists and philosophers: V. A. Yadov (“Social Stereotype”), G. M. Kondratenko (“Issues of the theory of the press in the light of social psychology” ), K.K. Platonov (" Brief dictionary systems of psychological concepts"), A. A. Bodaleva ("Formation of the concept of "another person as a person"), S. A. Muradyan ("Stereotype in philosophical argumentation"), Zh. Karbovsky ("Stereotype as a phenomenon of consciousness") and others. P. N. Shikhirev provides analysis and systematization of a number of Western concepts of stereotype in his works (“Studies of stereotype in American social science"), O. Yu. Semendyaeva (" Critical analysis the concept of "stereotype" in social psychology of the USA") V. S. Ageev ("Psychological study of social stereotypes") and others.
The theme of the stereotype has been developed in sufficient detail in American sociological, socio-psychological, etc. scientific literature. Western Studies in the field of stereotype are associated with the names of W. Lippmann (Lippmann W., Public Opinion), G. W. Allport (Allport G. W., The Nature of Prejudice), T. Adorno (Adorno T. W., The Authoritarian Personality), J. G. Martin (Martin J. G., The Tolerant Personality), B.
Bettlheim and M. Janowicz (Bettlheim V. and Janowicz M., Social Change and predjudice), P. O'Hara R., Media for Millions, P. Taguiri R., Person Perception, E W. Vinacke (E. W., Stereotypes as Social Concepts), E. Bogardus (E. Bogardus, Srereotypes versus Sociotypes), G. Tajfel (H. Tajfel, Human groups and social categories), etc. The works of the above-mentioned Western researchers contain various interpretations of a stereotype as a certain formation with certain psychological mechanisms, formed under the influence of certain external and internal factors. Common to American Studies stereotype is that most of them are devoted to anthropostereotypes, their impact in social, political spheres and national relations. A stereotype is considered as a phenomenon associated with the formation of various social types personality (authoritarian, tolerant, etc.), whose practical actions, according to some American researchers, I determine! the nature and content of social and political processes in one country or another.
The stereotype in connection with the problems of intercultural dialogue, the East-West dichotomy, the development of Oriental studies and some other aspects of cross-cultural interaction were considered to one degree or another in domestic science by Yu. M. Lotman (“Current problems of semiotics and culture”), B. F. Porshnev (" Social Psychology and history"), A. V. Sagadeev ("Stereotypes and auto-stereotypes in comparative studies of Eastern and Western philosophy"), I. S. Urbanaeva and Z. P. Morokhoeva ("On the specifics of the spiritual culture of the East: criticism of some stereotypes of bourgeois oriental studies" ) and others, in foreign countries - A. Schweitzer
(Schweitzer A., Die Weltanschauung der indischen Denker), G. Grimm (Grimm G., Die Wissenschaft des Buddismus), H. Roetz (Roetz H., Mensch und Natur im alten China), J. Newson (Newson J., Dialogue and Development), L. Abegg (Abegg L., Ostasien denkt anders), etc.
Numerous articles and individual scientific studies are devoted to the problem of ethnic, national and religious stereotypes: L. N. Gumileva (“Ethnogenesis and the Earth’s biosphere”), Yu. V. Bromley (“On the question of the influence of features cultural environment on the psyche"), L. E. Shklyar ("Ethnicity. Culture. Personality"), V. P. Trusov and A. S. Filippov ("Ethnic stereotypes"), D. Katz and K. Braley (Katz D., Braly K., Racial prejudice and stereotypes), O. Klineberg (Klineberg 0., The scientific study of national stereotypes), X. Triandis and V. Vassiliou (Triandis N., Vassiliou V., Frequency of contact and racial stereotyping), H. Schoenfild (N. , An experimental study of some problems relating to stereotypes), L. Edwards (Edwards L., Four dimensions in political stereotypes) and mh. etc.
However, stereotypes in connection with the problems of intercultural dialogue have not yet been fully studied, and effective models for resolving conflicts in which ethnic, national, and religious stereotypes are used have not been developed. In science and society there is no clear answer to the question: does modern conditions the likelihood of conflict-free cultural interaction.
Creative and stereotypical activities as types cultural phenomena discussed in scientific articles S. A. Arutyunova (“Custom, ritual, traditions”), E. S. Makaryan (“Theory of culture and modern science"), V. D. Plakhova (" Traditions and Society "), I. A. Beskova
(“Specifics of thinking of creative individuals”), N. S. Zlobina (“Culture and social progress”), N. N. Ivanova (“Understanding culture and its significance for the analysis of problems of cultural progress”) and others.
The culture of the masses and their stereotypical symbols are analyzed by G. Lebon ("Psychology of Peoples and Masses"), 3. Freud ("Mass Psychology and Analysis of the Human Self"), Jose Ortega y Gasset ("Revolt of the Masses"), E. Canetti (“Mass and Power”), S. Moscovici (“The Age of Crowds”), G. Bloomer (“Collective Behavior”).
This study is an attempt to synthesize various aspects of the stereotype as a cultural phenomenon.
The purpose of the study is to develop a holistic view and theoretical analysis various aspects of the stereotype as a cultural phenomenon. To achieve this goal, the following are set: tasks:
Consider the mythological roots of the stereotype;
analyze. the meaningful evolution of the concept of “stereotype” and its cognitive function;
Show the features of stereotypical ideas about models
culture and analyze the problem of intercultural dialogue on
example of the East-West dichotomy;
consider various modifications of ethnocultural stereotypes;
systematize and analyze modern philosophical ideas about creative and stereotypical activities as types of cultural activity.
Theoretical and methodological basis This work is research in different areas knowledge: philosophy, cultural studies, history, oriental studies, sociology, psychology, etc. When working on the dissertation, the principles of systematicity and historicism, meaningful retrospection, and comparative studies are used. Scientific novelty research is:
Philosophical and methodological development of the problem of stereotype
as a cultural phenomenon operating at various levels
public and individual consciousness;
In the explication of the "stereotype", which allows you to record
manifestation of the corresponding phenomenon in various social
spheres;
comparative analysis and classification of a number of domestic and foreign concepts of stereotype;
identifying the role and significance of stereotypes in the socio-cultural life of society, in interethnic relations;
consideration of stereotypes in connection with problems of intercultural dialogue;
Analysis of creative and stereotypical activities as
phenomena of cultural activity;
Consideration of some aspects of the stereotype that allows
if necessary, neutralize their negative impact on
ethnic, national, religious relationships, as well as
creative progress.
Theoretical and practical significance The work is that the main conclusions and provisions of this study can be used:
For subsequent theoretical development of the problem
stereotyping of individual and social consciousness and
applied research of the stereotype phenomenon;
When analyzing and resolving ethnic, national, religious
conflicts, as well as other problems related to intercultural
dialogue;
when developing direct methods for forming creative personalities with flexible dialectical thinking;
when developing specific activities that help overcome the inertia of thinking and behavior of social actors;
When analyzing some problems of mass culture;
When preparing courses on theoretical and applied
disciplines addressing the problems of stereotype and stereotyping.
Mythological roots of the stereotype
Stereotype as a phenomenon has been studied by different schools of research. The modern scientific and philosophical understanding of a stereotype implies the content in it of such elements-characteristics as binaryness, inconsistency, standardization, schematism, symbolism, emotionality, categoricalness, stability and many others. etc. It should be noted that scientists are looking for the roots of the above-mentioned elements in mythology, since myth is one of the most important phenomena human culture, which is based on the basic models of personal and social stereotypical behavior, certain “codes” of individual and social human existence.
The ambiguity of mythology was noted in Giambattista Vico’s work “Foundations of a new science of the general nature of nations,” which is considered to be the beginning modern interpretations mythology (1). G. Vico discovers in mythology new way cognition, which has special features: the principle of plurality, a sense of connection between all elements of existence, a tendency to ambiguity, and, as noted above, a predilection for ambiguity.
In the era of German romanticism, F. Schelling develops a theory of mythology, polemically directed against classical allegorism. According to this concept, mythological image does not “mean” something, but “is” this something, i.e. itself is a meaningful form, located in organic unity with its content - a symbol.
F. Nietzsche considered mythological symbols to be basic, and the process of their destruction was extremely dangerous for modern civilization. Nietzsche saw in mythology the living conditions of any culture. Culture, according to Nietzsche, can develop only within the horizon outlined by mythology. The disease of modernity, according to Nietzsche, is historical - and it consists in the destruction of the closed horizon of mythology by excess historical events: getting used to thinking under the sign of more and more new value symbols. In refusal mythological symbols, according to the theory of F. Nietzsche, there is a danger of self-destruction of civilization (2).
M. Müller created the linguistic concept of the emergence of myth as a result of a “disease of the tongue”: primitive denoted abstract concepts through concrete signs using metaphorical epithets. When the original meaning of the latter was forgotten or obscured, then, due to semantic shifts, a myth arose. Muller saw the gods primarily as solar symbols, while A. Kuhn and V. Schwartz (they, like M. Muller, were representatives romantic tradition schools of studying mythology of the second half of the 19th century) saw in them a figurative generalization of meteorological (thunderstorm) phenomena. Later, astral and lunar myths and the symbols associated with them came to the fore.
The connection of the symbol with mythology, in particular such aspects as the transformation of myth into allegory and history; analogy turned into myth and metaphor; the influence of language on the formation of myth; material and verbal personification in myths and many others. others studied the “anthropological” or “evolutionary” school (its representatives: E. Tylor, E. Lang, G. Spenceo, etc.) developed in the 19th century. in England and was the result of the first scientific steps of comparative ethnography (3).
The connection of the symbol with magic and ritual was considered by J. J. Frazer. He saw in magic the oldest form universal worldview. Fraser's position served Starting point to spread ritualistic doctrine (4).
The English ethnographer B. Malinovsky laid the foundation for the functional school in ethnology. According to Malinovsky, myth codifies thought, strengthens morality, offers certain rules of behavior and sanctions rituals, rationalizes and justifies social institutions. Malinowski argues that myth is not just a story told or a narrative that is allegorical, symbolic, etc. meanings. Myth is experienced by the archaic consciousness as a kind of oral “sacred scripture”, as a certain reality influencing the world and man (5).
East - West as one of the stereotypical models of culture and the problem of intercultural dialogue
Since ancient times, the opposition of East to West has become one of the stereotypical models of culture. IN modern world the contrast between the cultures of the West and the East can be seen in all spheres of life and creativity: in science, politics, morality, religion, literature, etc. The East in the scientific sense does not study the West, in contrast to which it actively cultivates research in the field of Oriental studies: a science that arose in Western Europe and comprehensively studies history, economics, languages, ethnography, culture, etc. East. The emergence of Oriental studies as a special branch of knowledge is associated with the era of the initial accumulation of capital and the beginning of European expansion into the countries of the East.
The first stage of Oriental studies: in the 15th - 16th centuries. descriptive writings by travelers appear mainly about the countries of the Middle East; in Europe, the first university departments for teaching ancient Hebrew and Arabic languages were created (in the 16th century in Paris, in the 17th century in England); in the first half of the 18th century. - expansion of language learning groups (Persian, Turkish, Chinese, etc.); prerequisites arise scientific research East.
Second stage of Oriental studies: second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century The scientific foundations of the analysis are laid. The special development of Eastern philology, the beginning of comparative linguistics, the discovery of ancient written languages.
Third stage: second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century Orientalists appear in the countries of the East themselves. Objects of research and study trends are expanding. On the one hand, there is the deepening of academic research (in Europe, dictionaries of Oriental languages are published, periodical Orientalist publications of a philological nature appear, and congresses of Orientalists have been held since 1873), on the other hand, they are trying to use the knowledge of the East for practical purposes during the period of colonialism.
New and modern times: academic research ongoing ( archaeological excavations- discovery of some ancient civilizations, creation of summary works on history, literature, philosophy, etc. East, etc.) and the number of sociological works is sharply increasing, research is being conducted related to the construction of economic models and forecasting social and political processes. Oriental studies itself on various historical stages has also been actively studied both in the West and in the East. i
Summarizing many of the theses of both Oriental studies itself and works studying it, we can conclude that science is widespread certain stereotypes perceptions of the East. Standard stereotypes of Western Orientalism include the tendency to diametrically oppose the East to the West. This approach is based on a geographical phenomenon: East is one of the four cardinal directions and the direction opposite to west, the part of the horizon where the sun rises. West is the part of the horizon where the sun sets. When it is day (light) in the East, it is night (darkness) in the West. This fact in different eras it was interpreted differently by different peoples and found a special reflection in the consciousness. "For the Egyptians and Greeks, the West - the place where the sun sets - is the place where the kingdom of spirits should be. According to St. Jerome, the west is the dwelling place of the devil. Thus, if the East symbolizes the kingdom of Christ, then the West is the kingdom of the devil (the death of the sun ). IN early middle ages The Scandinavian peoples believed that in the West there was a poisoned sea of destruction and an abyss of waters." (1)
Culture of the masses and their stereotypical symbols
The mass (crowd) has own culture, which has a certain classification and has a number of characteristics. On the use of factors influencing the variability of opinions and beliefs of the masses, as well as certain symbols associated with them, principles, methods and other forms of religious beliefs, ideologies, propaganda, political and social institutions, education and upbringing, advertising and many others are built. etc.
Under culture in in this case implies the activity of people to reproduce and renew, or destroy or consume the results and products of social existence. The concept of stereotypical in this context means, first of all, a stable and standard pattern. Different authors define the concept of masses in different ways.
For Gustav Le Bon, mass is adequate to the concept of crowd. “The word ‘crowd’ means,” writes Le Bon, “in in the ordinary sense an assembly of individuals, whatever their nationality, profession, or sex, and whatever the accidents which brought about the assembly. Nose psychological point From perspective, this word takes on a completely different meaning. Under certain conditions - and, moreover, only under these conditions - an assembly of people has completely new features, different from those that characterize the individuals that make up this assembly. The conscious personality disappears, and the feelings and ideas of all the individual units that form the whole, called the crowd, take the same direction. Formed collective soul, which, of course, is temporary, but also has very specific features. The meeting in such cases becomes... an organized crowd or a spiritualized crowd, constituting a single being and subject to the law of spiritual unity of the crowd." (1) Freud's definition of the masses is primarily associated with mass psychology, which he considers, comparing it with the concept of the individual "I ". (2)
José Ortega y Gasset uses different terms: mass and crowd. The crowd, according to the definition of José Ortega y Gasset, is a quantitative and visible concept. “Expressing it in sociological terms, we come to the concept of social mass. Every society is a dynamic unity of two factors, minorities and the masses” (3). Mass for Ortega y Gasset - the type of people found in all social classes, a type characteristic of the modern era, predominant and dominant in society (4). The researcher also calls a mass a “cluster” or “crowding” of people (5).
S. Moscovici prefers to use the term crowd. He says that whenever people gather together, a crowd soon begins to be outlined and visible. They acquire a certain common essence that suppresses their own; they are instilled with a collective will that silences their personal will (6).
E. Canetti uses two concepts: mass and flock. The phenomenon of the emergence of mass, according to Canetti, is associated with the fear of touch: “What stronger people compressed, the more they feel that they are not afraid of each other" (7). Canetti also claims that the mass has its origins in the pack. "A pack is a group of excited people, eager to have more of them." (8)
G. Bloomer distinguishes the concepts of crowd, mass, as well as crowd and public. Bloomer considers crowding to be the main type of elementary human interaction. By this term he means a circular reaction: “in a crowd of people, people circle aimlessly and randomly around each other, like the intertwining movements of sheep that are in a state of excitement.” (9)
The mass, according to Bloomer, is represented by people engaged in mass behavior, such as those who are excited by some national event, or are participating in a land boom, or are interested in some murder trial, the reports of which are published in press, or are involved in some kind of large-scale migration (10).
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of the queue in different cultures are different, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or just stand in line, in a number of European countries they tear off the ticket at special apparatus and after that they follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell.
Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify one’s “one.”
At the heart of the formation ethnic consciousness and culture, both innate and acquired in the process of socialization factors lie as regulators of human behavior - cultural stereotypes, which are acquired from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and recognize himself as an element of them.
The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.
We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will talk about light moonlit night: it’s so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it’s so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.
The culturosphere of a certain ethnic group contains a number of elements of a stereotypical nature, which, as a rule, are not perceived by speakers of another culture; These elements are called lacunae by Yu. A. Sorokin and I. Yu. Markovina: everything that the recipient noticed in a foreign cultural text, but does not understand, that seems strange to him and requires interpretation, serves as a signal of the presence in the text of national-specific elements of the culture in which a text has been created, namely gaps.
The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes big picture peace. Important role The frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives plays a role in the formation of stereotypes, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.
A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “their own.”
So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.
To describe the language of a particular region in the light of linguoculturology, we use the scheme proposed by N. I. Tolstoy in ethnolinguistics: the literary language corresponds elitist culture, dialects and dialects - folk culture, etc.
This scheme can be used in the linguocultural description of any other region.
The brightest linguistic feature, which reflects the culture of the people, are phraseological units and proverbs, metaphors and symbols. For example, mythologems, archetypes, standards, stereotypes, customs, rituals, and beliefs are fixed in language.
The national and cultural identity of phraseological units, metaphors, and symbols is formed through cultural connotation. And yet we maintain that language is not the repository of culture.
The unit of language - the word - is only a signal, the function of which is to awaken human consciousness, to touch upon certain concepts in it that are ready to respond to this signal.
Language is only a mechanism that facilitates the encoding and transmission of culture. Texts are the true guardian of culture. Not the language, but the text displays spiritual world person. It is the text that is directly related to culture, because it is permeated with many cultural codes; it is the text that stores information about history, ethnography, national psychology, national behavior, i.e. about everything that makes up the content of culture. In turn, the rules for constructing a text depend on the cultural context in which it appears.
The text is created from linguistic units lower levels, which at appropriate selection can strengthen the cultural signal. Phraseologisms are primarily such units.
Maslova V.A. Linguoculturology - M., 2001.
The people in the novel "War and Peace"
It is believed that wars are won and lost by generals and emperors, but in any war, a commander without an army is like a needle without a thread. After all, it is soldiers, officers, generals - people who serve in the army and take part in battles and battles - who become the very thread with which history is embroidered. If you try to sew with only one needle, the fabric will be pierced, perhaps even marks will remain, but there will be no result of the work. Likewise, a commander without his regiments is just a lonely needle, which is easily lost in the haystacks formed by time, if there is no string of his troops behind him. It is not sovereigns who fight, it is the people who fight. Sovereigns and generals are just needles. Tolstoy shows that the theme of the people in the novel “War and Peace” is the main theme of the entire work. The people of Russia are people of different classes, both the high society and those who make up middle class, and ordinary people. They all love their homeland and are ready to give their lives for it.
The image of the people in the novel
Two main storylines The novel reveals to readers how the characters are formed and the destinies of two families - the Rostovs and the Bolkonskys. Using these examples, Tolstoy shows how the intelligentsia developed in Russia; some of its representatives came to the events of December 1825, when the Decembrist uprising occurred.
The Russian people are represented in "War and Peace" different characters. Tolstoy seemed to have collected the features inherent in ordinary people, and created several collective images, embodying them in specific characters.
In Platon Karataev, met by Pierre in captivity, they embodied character traits serf peasants. Kind, calm, hard-working Plato, talking about life, but not thinking about it: “He, apparently, never thought about what he said and what he would say...”. In the novel, Plato is the embodiment of a part of the Russian people of that time, wise, submissive to fate and the tsar, loving their homeland, but going to fight for it only because they were caught and “given as soldiers.” His natural kindness and wisdom revive the “master” Pierre, who is constantly looking for the meaning of life and cannot find and comprehend it.
But at the same time, “When Pierre, sometimes amazed by the meaning of his speech, asked to repeat what was said, Plato could not remember what he said a minute ago.” All these searches and tossing are alien and incomprehensible to Karataev, he knows how to accept life as it is at this very moment, and he accepts death humbly and without grumbling.
Merchant Ferapontov, an acquaintance of Alpatych, typical representative merchants, on the one hand stingy and cunning, but at the same time burning their property so that it does not fall to the enemy. And he doesn’t want to believe that Smolensk will be surrendered, and he even beats his wife for her requests to leave the city.
And the fact that Ferapontov and other merchants themselves set fire to their shops and houses is a manifestation of patriotism and love for Russia, and it already becomes clear that Napoleon will not be able to defeat the people who are ready to do anything to save their Motherland.
The collective image of the people in the novel “War and Peace” is created by many characters. These are partisans like Tikhon Shcherbaty, who fought the French in their own way, and, as if playfully, destroyed small detachments. These are wanderers, humble and religious, such as Pelageyushka, who walked to holy places. The militia men, dressed in simple white shirts, “to prepare for death,” “with loud talking and laughter,” were digging trenches on the Borodino field before the battle.
In difficult times, when the country was in danger of being conquered by Napoleon foreground All these people had one main goal - the salvation of Russia. Before her, all other matters turned out to be petty and unimportant. At such moments, people show their true face, and in “War and Peace” Tolstoy shows the difference between the common people, ready to die for their country, and other people, careerists and opportunists.
This is especially evident in the description of the preparations for the battle on the Borodino field. A simple soldier with the words: “The whole people want to attack...”, some officers, for whom the main thing is that “for tomorrow big rewards should have been given out and new people brought forward,” soldiers praying in front of the Smolensk icon Mother of God, Dolokhov asking Pierre for forgiveness - all these are strokes of the overall picture that confronted Pierre after his conversation with Bolkonsky. “He understood that hidden... warmth of patriotism that was in all those people he saw, and which explained to him why all these people were calmly and seemingly frivolously preparing for death” - this is how Tolstoy describes the general state of people before the Battle of Borodino.
But the author does not at all idealize the Russian people; in the episode where the Bogucharov men, trying to preserve their acquired wealth, do not let Princess Marya out of Bogucharov, he clearly shows the meanness and baseness of these people. In describing this scene, Tolstoy shows the behavior of the peasants as alien to Russian patriotism.
Conclusion
In an essay on the topic “The Russian people in the novel “War and Peace”” I wanted to show Lev Nikolaevich Tolstov’s attitude towards the Russian people as a “whole and unified” organism. And I want to end the essay with a quote from Tolstov: “... the reason for our triumph was not accidental, but lay in the essence of the character of the Russian people and troops, ... this character should have been expressed even more clearly in an era of failures and defeats...”
Work test
