Stereotype in culture and language. What is a stereotype - the most common stereotypes of modern society

Ebbeke syndrome. Conditions of a “lightning attack of fear”, occurring with a peculiar optical phenomenon. Luminous points, spots, and geometric figures appear in the field of vision, which are repeated as if in the form of negative imprints. Accompanied by a depressive mood background and suicidal thoughts. It was originally described in psychopathic individuals of the hysterical circle. There are observations regarding the appearance of E.s. with temporal epilepsy in children.

Evalda biotonus. A set of hypothetical energy processes (biopotential) that determines the capabilities of a person’s mental activity, his temperament and the level of affective response. The biotonus indicator complements the characterogram and makes it possible to individually predict psychogenic reactions. The concept of G. Ewald is a further development of the concept of E. Kretschmer (see. Kretschmer psychobiogram).

Eviration (lat. eviratus – effeminate). 1. The loss of masculine mental properties found in men - true (innate) homosexuals, their replacement with feminine ones - flirtatiousness, mannerisms, characteristic facial, pantomimic and behavioral reactions; 2. The delusional belief of the male patient that he has female genital organs and corresponding functional manifestations (pregnancy, menstruation, lactation, etc.). It is observed in schizophrenia.

Ego (lat. Ego - I). The middle authority in the three-member psychoanalytic personality structure created by S. Freud. Occupies an intermediate position between “It” (Id) and super-Ego (super-Ego). At the same time, “It” seems to be a receptacle of instincts, unconscious drives, and the super-Ego performs the function of censorship, not allowing into the Ego unacceptable for social reasons, base, for example, incestuous, impulses and drives. Thus, according to S. Freud, the relationship between the individual and the surrounding reality is regulated.

Selfishness. A personality trait or mental state in which one’s own interests are in the foreground, the desire to acquire personal advantages and avoid inconveniences, deprivations, and self-care. It is observed both in mentally healthy people with the corresponding character traits, and in psychopathy and some mental illnesses (the initial stages of mental disorders of late age, schizophrenia, etc.).

Selfishnessaltruistic (fr. altruisme - selfless concern for the welfare of others, from lat. alter – another). The principle proposed by H. Selye as a measure to prevent the creation of stressful, especially distressing, situations in interpersonal relationships. The rule is not to cause harm, to wish good to others, so as not to give them a reason to be hostile towards you, to wish harm. It forms the basis of the complex of psychoprophylactic and psychotherapeutic measures proposed by N. Selye aimed at achieving optimal functioning of the individual.

Egophony (Greek aix - goat, phone - voice). In psychiatry: a voice whose timbre, pitch, modulations, and intonations resemble the bleating of a goat. Observed in hysteria, senile psychosis, progressive paralysis. In the clinic of internal medicine, a similar symptom is observed with exudative pleurisy (a type of bronchophony).

Egocentrism (ego + lat. centrum – center). 1. Personal characteristics characterized by highlighting the motives of one’s own mental life, one’s own views, interests while ignoring the interests and judgments of others. It is observed in patients with epilepsy and psychopathic individuals. 2. Delusional E. is observed in the process of delusional formation, when the patient, according to K. Conrad, cannot make a “Copernican turn”, that is, when he is in captivity of his own “I” - everything that happens around, according to the patient’s ideas, has a direct impact on him attitude.

see also The phenomenon of appropriation.

Egrotogeny (lat. aegrotus - sick, Greek -genes – generating, causing). [Liebig S.S., 1968]. The negative psychological impact of some patients on others in a certain group, which leads to the appearance of new symptoms of a neurotic nature or the strengthening of existing ones. One of the variants of psychogenics.

Esophagospasm (anat. oesophageus – esophagus + spasm). Dyskinesia of the esophagus, characterized by periodic spasms. It is observed in neurotic conditions - hysterical and systemic neuroses.

Syn.: esophagism.

Eybulia (Greek eu - good, right, bule - will). Normal state of will, absence of volitional disorders.

Eidetism (Greek eidos - appearance, image). Ability to retain exceptionally clear and bright images objects seen. It is most often observed in adolescents. Often noted among artists [E. Munch]. In pathology, it is sometimes associated with hallucinatory (visual) experiences.

Eisoptrophobia (Greek eisoptron - mirror + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of mirrors. The symptom can also be observed in the structure of dysmorphophobia syndrome (anti-mirror symptom, when the patient is afraid to see the supposed changes in his face).

Syn: spectroscopy.

Euthanasia (hey + Greek thanatos – death). Deliberately hastening death by failing to provide medical care or killing a patient in a terminal condition, ostensibly with the aim of preventing further suffering. Contradicts the principles of medical ethics. Hiding behind E.'s ideas, the German Nazis killed thousands of sick people during the Second World War.

Euphoria (Hey + Greek phero carry, carry). Increased carefree mood, complacency, combined with carelessness, insufficiently critical attitude towards one’s condition; serene bliss. Unlike manic and hypomanic states, E. is characterized by a lack of intellectual vitality and desire for activity; it occurs with a slowdown in mental activity (up to perseveration), in the presence of dementia. Observed in organic psychoses (Pick's disease, progressive paralysis, etc.)

Euphoria is indifferent. A state of emotional elation, characterized by the superficiality of affective manifestations. E. Bleuler considered it characteristic of patients with schizophrenia and saw its manifestations in their speech, when expressions indicating a joyful mood and depression coexist in one sentence. The author considered E.i. as a special case of splitting in the sphere of affectivity and speech.

Eichophobia (Greek euchos - desire, wish + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of uttering or listening to good wishes, superstitious avoidance of them. Often reinforced by obsessive rituals.

Ekbom syndrome. Cm. Dermatozoal delirium, Beers–Conrad syndrome.

Depressive equivalents. 1. [Kannabikh Yu.V., 1914]. Paroxysmal conditions characterized by somatic complaints (headache, migraine, tachycardia, intermittent pain in the heart), which are companions of hypothymia, but not the main and leading symptom of cyclothymic depression. Thus, in contrast to the ideas about somatic cyclothymia (cyclosomia) D.D. Pletnev and E.K. Krasnushkin and from modern ideas about larval depression E.d. were not considered by the author as the main symptoms of cyclothymic depression, but were interpreted as an integral part of the depressive syndrome.

2. . Hypochondriacal conditions that dominate in clinical picture depressive phase of circular psychosis and often masking the main psychopathological symptoms. Both phase repetition of hypochondriacal equivalents of depression and their alternation with typical circular phases are possible.

Psychoepileptic equivalents[Ozeretskovsky D.S., 1928]. Paroxysmal obsessive desires, with aggressiveness directed against the closest people. Characterized by an affect of fear. Changes in perception (psychosensory synthesis), thinking and affectivity are noted. There are no generalized disorders of consciousness and subsequent amnesia. Refers to the described M.O. Gurevich special conditions.

Thymopathic equivalents. Psychopathological conditions or transient disturbances in the activity of any organs or systems, observed as a manifestation of affective disorders, most often depressive or manic phases of MDP, latent depression, schizoaffective attacks.

Epileptic equivalents. Paroxysmal, short-term disorders of mental activity occurring without tonic-clonic seizures. Most often - dysphoria, twilight and special states, phenomena of ambulatory automatism, poriomania (an irresistible desire for aimless wandering), attacks of visual and auditory hallucinations. They are not always a substitute for an epileptic seizure; in some cases, according to modern data, the described phenomena act as an aura or are observed after a seizure. Concept of E.e. Recently it has been significantly narrowed: minor seizures (absences) have been removed from it.

Equipotentialism (lat. aequus - equal, potentia strength, power). A trend in neuropathology and psychiatry that completely denied the focal nature of such disorders as aphasia, agnosia, apraxia, etc. Arose in connection with the revision of the classical, narrowly localizationist doctrine of aphasia. An example of E. is P. Marie’s theory of unified aphasia, according to which there is a unified aphasia (Wernicke’s aphasia), which includes three elements: amnestic, agnostic and dysphasic. The form of aphasic syndrome depends on the ratio of the severity of these elements in the clinical picture of aphasia. Motor aphasia, according to P. Marie, is Wernicke's aphasia, which is accompanied by the phenomena of anarthria. E. considers aphatic-agnostic-apractic syndromes as the result of a holistic lesion of the undifferentiated brain, correlating their clinical originality with the degree of massiveness of this lesion. According to A.R. Luria, both of these directions are psychomorphological and consider clinical syndromes in direct connection with the morphological substrate of the brain without attempting to analyze them physiologically.

Equifinality (lat. aequus - equal, proportionate, finalis finite). A principle that asserts the similarity of psychopathological manifestations of various mental illnesses at the final stages of their development.

Exaltation (lat. exaltatio- rise, inspiration). Elevated mood with excessive enthusiasm, increased self-esteem. In earlier times, this term was used to refer to hypomania.

Exacerbation (lat. exacerbo– irritate, burden). Exacerbation, worsening of the clinical picture of the disease. It may be the result of the course of a pathological process, manifested by aggravation of the disease state or the manifestation of a relapse replacing remission.

Existential analysis (lat. existentio – existence). A movement in foreign psychology and psychiatry that emerged in the 20s of our century. It is based on the ideas of the “philosophy of existence”. Psychopathological categories are considered from the position of existential philosophy, involving the categories of space and time. The central concept is existence (human existence) as an undivided integrity of subject and object. Existence is manifested by care, fear, determination, conscience. They are all defined through death. A person can understand his essence and existence in emergency situations - in struggle, suffering, death. E.a. antinosological. The study of nosological forms is replaced by the study of the subject's biography. Mental illness from the perspective of E.a. is understood as a perversion of the “structure of being in the world”, revealed a priori. The objective clinical-psychopathological study of a mentally ill person and the etiopathogenesis of the disease is opposed to what existentialists consider to be more significant and important is rapprochement with the patient in existential communication, as with a partner in coexistence. The object of study in psychiatry is not the mentally ill, but the sphere of interpersonal relationships. Since the relationships between people in society are very individual, diverse and unique, they are therefore useless from the point of view of E.a. and the search for any objective criteria on which psychiatric diagnosis could be based. E.a. closely aligns with psychoanalysis and the pragmatism of A. Meyer.

Exogeny (Greek exo - outside, outside, genea birth, generation). The conditioning of mental illnesses by external causes outside the body. Exogenous include somatogenic (somatically caused, according to K. Schneider) psychoses in the broad sense of the word - infectious, intoxicating, post-traumatic, caused by diseases of internal organs.

Exogenous type of reaction. Cm. Exogenous type reactions.

Exogenous (exo + Greek -genes – generating, causing). Caused by the influence of external factors, exogenous.

Exometamorphopsia (Greek exo - outside, outside, meta – for something morphe – appearance, shape, opsis – vision). Cm. Metamorphopsia.

Exorcism (Greek exorkizo - conjure). Exorcism of demons. The use of medieval methods of spells and reprimands for the treatment of mental disorders in order to expel the devil who has settled in the body of the patient, causing the mental disorders allegedly observed in him. It originates from long-standing ideas about obsession as the essence of the origin of psychosis. It was widespread in the Middle Ages, but is also found today, being close to witchcraft, witchcraft and other ritual methods of influencing bad, black forces in a person.

Exophthalmos (exo + Greek ophthalmos – eye). Protrusion of eyeballs, bulging eyes. In severe cases, it can be combined with non-closure of the eyelids when closing the eyes, widening of the palpebral fissures. Observed in thyrotoxicosis, brain tumors, hydrocephalus.

Eclampsia (Greek eklampsis - outbreak, sudden occurrence). Severe form of late toxicosis of pregnancy. Occurs against the background of nephropathy, usually in the second half of pregnancy. Toxic edema and spasm of cerebral vessels play a role in the pathogenesis. Epileptiform convulsions are characteristic (see. Eclamptic convulsions) and impaired consciousness with psychomotor agitation, visual and auditory hallucinations. Convulsions can occur in series, in the form of status. A coma may develop (a dangerous sign). In this case, arterial hypertension is noted. E. can occur without convulsions, characterized by disorders of consciousness, edema, arterial hypertension in the presence of pathology in the urine (proteinuria).

Ecmnesia (Greek ek – outside, beyond, mnesis - memory) . A form of memory disorder, a violation of time awareness, in which the line between past and present is blurred. Either the events of a past life are transferred to the present (for example, a patient suffering from Alzheimer’s disease, in the list of newspapers she receives, names “Kievlyanin”, “Kopeyka”, published before the revolution), or current events are transferred to the past (“shift of the situation to the past” in senile dementia, Alzheimer's disease).

Eknoya (Greek ek– outside, noeo- perceive) . The dominance of one specific affect over all mental manifestations. P.B. Gannushkin attributed to E. a group of psychopathic individuals, whom he called fanatics of feeling, to which adherents of religious sects primarily belong. These are easily suggestible people who quickly fall under the influence of others: they serve not so much an idea as a certain person to whom they are ecstatically devoted and in whose name they are ready to sacrifice themselves. The same replacement of an idea with a corresponding affect is observed, according to P.B. Gannushkin, with paranoid delusions of jealousy, the essence of which is determined not so much by the thought of the possibility of betrayal, but by the pointless feeling of jealousy that persistently possesses these patients. E. also includes psychopathic individuals of an anxious, phobic nature, whose mental life is dominated by a feeling of fear, which is attached to everything that happens around them. Thus, the concept of E. is devoid of homogeneous psychopathological content.

Economo triad. The main and mandatory signs of the acute stage of epidemic encephalitis: fever, pathological drowsiness and oculomotor disorders.

Exhibitionism (lat. exhibeo - exhibit). A form of sexual perversion. Violation of psychosexual orientation to an object. It is characterized by the desire to expose the genitals in front of people of the opposite sex in order to induce sexual arousal and pleasure. It occurs, as a rule, in men. E. also includes a tendency to make cynical statements and show pornographic drawings to representatives of the other sex. When E. is combined with sadism, the patient enjoys seeing the reactions of shame and fear in a woman; when combined with masochism, the desire to experience a feeling of fear of punishment, shame.

Exquisite (lat. ex - from, cuaero – search diligently). Selective, demonstrative, characteristic. Often used incorrectly as a synonym for the term "casuistic", that is, rarely encountered.

Expansive (lat. expansio – extension). 1. Passionate, unrestrained in expressions of feelings, emotive; 2. Occurring with elevated mood, revival in the motor-volitional sphere, for example, E. form of progressive paralysis.

Experimental psychological methods. Methods of experimental psychological research of human mental properties (memory, attention, rate of sensorimotor reactions, level and nature of mental activity, affective and personal properties). In psychiatry they have auxiliary diagnostic value. For this purpose, pathopsychology uses methods such as functional tests (presenting the subject with a task simulating a problem situation, the solution of which he must find) and psychological tests, which study standardized individual reactions to stimuli, clearly regulated by the degree of difficulty and time of task completion. Indicators in tests are compared with average indicators characteristic of a given population.

Psychiatric examination. Examination of a person’s mental state, inpatient or outpatient, to resolve issues of his ability to work (medical labor examination), sanity and capacity (forensic psychiatric examination), suitability for military service (military psychiatric examination). In addition, psychiatrist experts take part in the work of general military medical commissions and medical-pedagogical commissions that resolve issues of educating children in regular or auxiliary schools. E.p. uses clinical observation and examination data, analysis of anamnestic information (subjective and objective), available documentation reflecting the subject’s previous requests for medical help, and laboratory test data.

Forensic psychiatric examination. It is carried out to examine individuals in order to resolve the issue of their sanity, legal capacity and ability to serve a sentence, if the assumption of mental illness arose during their stay in places of detention. Appointed by judicial and investigative authorities. E.s.-p. Defendants, witnesses and victims may be subject to. In addition to medical data, court case materials are used. Produced by special forensic psychiatric commissions, the decisions of which are provided to the authorities that appointed the E.S.-p.

Forensic psychological examination. It is appointed by judicial investigative authorities in cases where the person being examined does not suffer from a mental illness, but there are indications that he has known psychological characteristics that may play a role in the commission of an offense, for example, with the assumption of physiological affect. It is carried out by psychologists who have sufficient professional training and use in their work data from pathopsychological research, information about the peculiarities of the formation of the subject’s personality and his mental state during the period of the offense and the period immediately preceding it, materials from medical and legal documentation. By decision of the judicial investigative authorities, if necessary, a comprehensive forensic psychological and psychiatric examination is prescribed.

Explosiveness (English explosive - hot-tempered). Cm. Explosiveness.

Expressive (lat. expressus – obvious, expressive). 1. Expressive, reflecting an emotional state, for example, E. facial expressions; 2. Being an expression of internal processes, states, for example, E. speech.

Ecstasy (Greek ekstasis - frenzy, admiration). Elevated mood, experience of delight, extraordinary happiness. In some mental illnesses, E. is a form of affective disorder that occurs with disorders of consciousness and impaired contact with others. It can be observed as a property of personal accentuation in psychopathy. An example of E. psychopathic is an ecstatic aura in patients with epilepsy.

Exteriorization (lat. exterior– external, external). I. In psychology: conditionality of external actions, statements, etc. internal psychological structures, which in turn develop on the basis of the internalization of social factors, external human activity, and their reflection in the psyche; 2. In psychiatry: a subjectivist tendency to isolate a number of psychopathological phenomena (blaming hallucinations, delusional ideas of sinfulness, self-blame) from the facts of previous wrong, “vicious” actions that underwent intrapsychic processing and caused unique complex experiences of guilt.

Exteroceptive (extero + lat. capio – accept, accept). Related to exteroception.

Exteroceptor (extero + lat. capio – accept, accept). A receptor that perceives stimuli coming from the external environment.

Syn: extrareceptor, external receptor.

Exteroception (extero + lat. capio – accept, accept). The body's perception of irritations coming from the external environment.

Syn.: exteroception, external reception.

Extroversion (extra + lat. verto – turn). A personal property characterized by an outward orientation of interests and activities. The opposite of introversion. Cm. Eysenck personality questionnaire, Jung's personality typology.

Syn: extraversion.

Extracampal (lat. extra - outside, campus- field). Being out of sight, for example, extracampal hallucinations.

Extramural (extra + lat. murus – wall). Located outside of some confined space. For example, E. psychiatry - community psychiatry.

Eccentricity (the ex + lat. centrum – center). Strangeness, unusual behavior, actions. It manifests itself in eccentric manners, artificiality of poses, exaggerated gestures and facial expressions, a peculiar manner of speech and writing, and a desire for extravagance in clothing. Observed in hysteroid psychopathy.

Excitation (lat. excito – to disturb, excite). State of excitement.

Ectogenic. Harmful external factors that play a role in the origin of mental disorders.

Syn: exogenous.

Ectogenesis (lat. ecto – external, genesis – origin). Causation of mental disorders and diseases by external factors.

Ectogeny. Cm. Exogeny.

Engram Ecphoria (Greek ekphoreo – endure, ep – located inside gramma - record). Reviving in memory traces of past memorization, its fragments (engrams) and recreating from them a relatively holistic, systematized picture. In this case, engrams act as constituent elements of memory. In the neuropsychological study of writing and speech, special attention is paid to the possibility of patients reproducing engrams automated in the process of life experience (last name, first name, address, etc.).

Electropuncture (electro + lat. punctum – dot). One of the methods of reflexology based on the effect of electric current on biologically active points using special electrodes.

Syn.: galvanopuncture.

Electrosleep. Cm. Gilyarovsky–Liventsev–Segal–Kirilova electrosleep method.

Electrosubcorticogram (electro + lat. sub – under, cortex bark, Greek gramma - record, drawing, diagram). A curve reflecting changes in the biopotentials of the subcortical structures of the brain.

Electrosubcorticography (electro + subcortical + graphy). A method for studying the activity of subcortical structures of the brain using specially inserted electrodes to record their bioelectrical activity.

Electroshock (Greek elektron - amber, a compound of words meaning "electric", fr. choc - shock). Cm. Cerletti-Bini method.

Syn: electrocom.

Electroencephalogram (electro + encephalogram). A curve reflecting changes in the biopotentials of the brain. It is obtained using an electroencephalograph at various leads.

Syn.: EEG.

Electroencephalograph (electro + greek enkephalos – brain, grapho write, depict). Device for recording brain biopotentials.

Electroencephalography (electro + encephalography). A method for recording the electrical activity of the brain through intact scalp. It is used in psychiatry mainly for the diagnosis of organic diseases of the brain, helps to establish the presence of a pathological organic process and its topic. Recordings of biocurrents are carried out at rest (background EEG) and under various loads (hyperventilation, use of sound and visual stimuli, administration of pharmacological substances). Analysis of EEG indicators can be carried out using a computer.

Electroencephalopathy (electro + Greek enkephalos – brain, pathos - suffering, illness). Encephalopathy due to electrical trauma.

Electroencephaloscope (electro + encephalo + Greek skopeo- watch, observe). A device for studying brain activity using electroencephaloscopy.

Electroencephaloscopy (electro + encephaloscopy). A method for studying the activity of the brain, based on the simultaneous recording of the biopotentials of many of its areas with a display on the screen of a cathode ray tube in the form of a mosaic of luminous dots, continuously changing their brightness in accordance with the degree of excitation of the neurons of these areas.

Ellis syndrome(Ellis N.N., 1910). A form of sexual perversion in which sexual pleasure is achieved through contact or manipulation with liquids - water (during washing, bathing) or urine (sniffing or drinking urine). The second symptom is called urolagnia and is considered a manifestation of masochism or fetishism (see. Fetishism).

Syn.: Havelock Ellis syndrome, undinism (undine – mermaid).

Elpenora syndrome. A variant of the drowsy state with disorientation and incomplete understanding of the surroundings. It is often observed in those suffering from alcoholism, who, upon sudden awakening, being in a state of incomplete consciousness, can display aggressive and destructive tendencies. Elpenor – character of the Odyssey, the youngest of the hero’s companions. Having fallen asleep on the roof of Circe's palace, he was suddenly awakened by the voices and noise of his comrades' tags, sleepily stepped in the direction opposite to the stairs, fell from a great height and died due to a fracture of the cervical vertebrae.

Syn.: intoxication with sleep.

Ellusion (eng. elusion - evasion, evasion). A method of psychological defense aimed at preserving one’s “I” in a situation of conflict with others by escaping reality into the world of fantasy and dreams. With E., the boundary between fantasy and reality seems to blur, one replaces the other. An example of E. is the life of Emma Bovary in Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary. Cm. Bovarism.

Emasculation (lat. e(x)- from, from, masculus– male). Castration of males by bilateral removal of the seminal glands.

Embololalia (Greek embolon - wedge, plug, lalia speech, chatter). Frequent use of the same words and phrases. Cm. Speech embolus.

Syn.: embolophrasia.

Embryopathy (Greek embrion - uterine fetus, embryo, pathos - illness, suffering). Designation of pathological conditions that arise in the embryonic period. See for example Alcohol embryopathy.

Alcoholic embryopathy. Cm. Alcohol embryopathy.

Emotivity (lat. emoveo - excite). Hypersensitivity, in which emotional reactions occur quickly, reach great strength and, often, turn out to be excessively long-lasting.

Syn: emotionality.

Emotions. A person’s experience of his relationship to objective reality and to himself, satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his own actions. The formation of E. of different levels and complexity occurs as a result of the development of certain forms of communication between the organism and the external environment. Emotions are distinguished between biological, associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of vital needs (hunger, thirst, sexual desire) and higher, associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of spiritual (social, moral, cognitive, etc.) needs. According to their sensory coloring, emotions are divided into positive and negative. They talk about detained E. in cases where, for one reason or another (mainly social), a person is forced to suppress them.

Emotions are ictal (lat. ictus – seizure). Characterized by sudden onset and short duration. Most often these are emotional reactions of depression and fear. They can be observed with any organic lesion of the brain, but especially with temporal lobe epilepsy with the location of the epileptogenic focus in the hippocampal-amygdala-temporal region, with its subclinical course.

Emotions, forms according to Astvatsaturov[Astvatsaturov M.I., 1936]. There are two main forms of emotions, considered as elements of receptor function - thalamic and cortical. Thalamic emotion is a phylogenetically old, primitive, unconscious mental reaction in the form of an unclear experience of pleasant and unpleasant, manifests itself in mental illness in the form of endogenous depression, melancholy, anxious mood, fear (see. Vital melancholy And Vital depression). The diffuse, unconscious, inexplicable nature of these experiences creates an affective preconditioning that contributes to the emergence of hallucinatory and delusional images. Cortical emotion is a phylogenetically later superstructure containing gnostic components (see. Gnostic feelings). Forms of emotions according to M.I. Astvatsaturov correspond to the forms of sensitivity according to N. Head - protopathic thalamic and epicritic cortical.

Emotional dullness. Cm. Affective dullness.

Emotional islands. The principle of constructing psychotherapy for schizophrenia, which attaches primary importance to the creation of affective contact, leading to a breakthrough in autism and contributing to the reconstruction of personal relationships. Thus, we are talking about influencing the basic schizophrenic mechanisms. Accordingly, occupational therapy for schizophrenia is also considered as a means of breaking through autism, and the main tasks of the psychotherapist in the treatment of delusions are put forward (modification of delusions in order to eliminate or reduce its contradiction with reality, encapsulation of delusions, correction of delusions while preserving the behavioral tendencies caused by them). The role of affective contact in the psychotherapy of schizophrenia, especially paranoid, is emphasized by Soviet psychotherapists [Zavilyanskaya L.I., 1968, 1987; Posvyansky P.M., 1974].

Empathy (Greek empatheia - empathy). Understanding the emotional state of another person through empathy. The concept of E. summarizes ideas about sympathy that are similar in content and the provisions of the concept of empathy. E. can be emotional, intellectual (cognitive), and predicative (predicting the experiences of another person and his affective reactions in specific situations). There are also special forms E. – empathy and sympathy. Empathy is experiencing the emotional state of another based on identification with him; sympathy is concern for the feelings of another. The study of E. is important for solving a number of socio-psychological problems. In psychiatry, the concept of E. is used when developing methods of social rehabilitation, when studying the genesis of unmotivated crimes, etc.

Empodistokoimes (Greek empodizo - let, koimesis – dream). Difficulty falling asleep, for example, with neurasthenia, with an overdose of certain medications.

Emprostotonus (Greek emprosthotonos - pulled forward). Cm. Camptocormia.

Emphyomenic (Greek emphyo - graft, plant) [Shipkovensky N., 1956]. Vaccinated, developing due to mental retardation. For example, vaccinated schizophrenia (pfropfschizophrenia), vaccinated cyclophrenia (pfropfcyclophrenia).

Angelman syndrome. It is characterized by a combination of mental underdevelopment with epileptiform seizures and violent manifestations (grimaces, laughter). Muscle tone is generally reduced, ataxic movements. The gait is uncertain. Microcephaly, excessive tongue protrusion, pyramidal and, more often, extrapyramidal signs are observed. The peculiar motor skills of patients resemble the movements of puppets.

The onset of the disease is in early childhood – from 10 to 42 months. The first manifestations are in the form of childhood convulsions - general, focal or myoclonic. Patients need constant care and supervision.

Etiology unknown. In two of the seven cases described in the world literature, aminoaciduria was noted.

Endogenesis (Greek endo - inside, genesis origin). The occurrence of mental illnesses and their course in connection with hereditary factors. The concept of E., like exogeny, was introduced by P.J. Mobius.

Endogeny (endo + Greek genesis – birth, origin). Pathological processes, diseases of endogenous origin.

Endogenous opiates. A group of neuropeptides that have an analgesic effect and can compete with morphine and other opiates for binding the corresponding receptors. Participate in the pathogenesis of endogenous psychoses. Includes endorphins and enkephalins.

Endogenous. Emerging, developing endogenously.

Endocrinopathy (endo + Greek krino – separate, highlight, pathos - suffering, illness). Common name disorders of the endocrine glands, endocrine disorders.

Enilism (Greek oinos - wine). Wine alcoholism.

Encopresis (Greek ep - prefix to indicate time, kopros – feces). Cm. Fecal incontinence.

Enuresis (en + uron – urine). Cm. Urinary incontinence.

Enuretic absence. A type of non-convulsive epileptic seizure, manifested by loss of urine.

Encephalitis (encephal + it). Inflammation of the brain. The term is often used to designate a group of diseases that are not always clearly inflammatory in nature, or even of non-inflammatory etiology, the common feature of which is diffuse and progressive brain damage. An example of E. non-inflammatory origin is E. allergic, E. acute periaxial (Schilder’s disease), etc.

Therefore, we should talk about E. in the strict sense of the word, that is, as inflammatory diseases of the brain caused by an infectious factor: E. dysentery, influenza, rheumatic, etc.

Epidemic encephalitis. An inflammatory disease of the brain that occurs in epidemics. The causative agent is unknown, although the theory of viral etiology is generally accepted. Manifests itself in acute and chronic stages. The acute stage is characterized by hyperkinetic and mental (delirium) disorders or, much more often, manifested by hypersomnia (lethargy). Lethargy may be the initial symptom of the acute phase, but more often follows delirious agitation. The chronic stage is characterized by neurological (postencephalitic parkinsonism) and mental disorders. In accordance with the prevailing mental disorders in the clinical picture, F.F. Detenhoff distinguished following forms: 1) pseudoparalytic; 2) paroxysmal - convulsive with mental changes, equivalent to attacks of fear, fainting and cataleptic, hypersomnic and narcoleptic, forms with impaired sensory synthesis and optic-vestibular disorders, oneiric; 3) schizophrenia-like – catatonoid, hallucinatory-paranoid, heboid and schizophasic; 4) psychopath-like; 5) neurosis-like.

Synonym: lethargic encephalitis, Economo encephalitis.

Epidemic encephalitis, psychosensory form[Gurevich M.O., 1941]. A form of epidemic encephalitis in which parkinsonism, delirium, and dementia do not reach significant severity. Psychosensory disorders and paresthesia are typical.

Encephalosis (encephal + oz). Atrophic diseases of the brain of presenile and old age (Pick's and Alzheimer's diseases, senile dementia) are classified into a single group in accordance with Meygnant's concept of the abiotrophic process. The view of atrophic diseases of the cerebral cortex in late age as a consequence of an abiotrophic process leading to dementia and the collapse of the functions of speech, gnosis and praxis is also accepted in modern French psychiatry [Eu N., Bernard P., Brisset Ch., 1961]. The combination of these diseases into one group, according to most researchers, is conditional, since a single biological or pathomorphological characteristic of the diseases included in encephalosis is impossible and their combination is justified only clinically.

Encephalomyelitis (encephalo + myelitis). Combined inflammation of the brain and spinal cord.

Encephalopathy (encephalo + Greek pathos - suffering, illness). Organic brain lesions characterized by dystrophic changes. Differentiation of E. is made according to etiopathogenetic characteristics - E. anoxic, arteriosclerotic, post-traumatic, hypertensive, hypoglycemic, etc.

The term E. is used mainly to designate persistent and irreversible mental disorders that arise as a result of organic (exogenous-organic) disease of the brain. In this respect, it coincides with the concept of chronic organic psychosyndrome: Most often, the term E. is used to refer to residual manifestations of traumatic brain injury. In contrast to post-traumatic cerebrasthenia, in post-traumatic encephalopathy, along with asthenic disorders, focal neurological symptoms, characterological changes are observed (coarsening of emotions, a tendency to excessive affective reactions, excitability, conflict, litigious tendencies, frequent hysteriform manifestations) and varying degrees of severity, signs of intellectual-mnestic reduction. The line between post-traumatic dementia and post-traumatic dementia is relative, conditional, determined by the depth of intellectual decline.

Syn.: cerebropathy.

Aeonism. Sexual perversion associated with incorrect awareness of one’s gender, a change in psychosexual orientation towards the opposite sex. It is often accompanied by a desire to change one’s gender through surgery on the genitals and a requirement to issue documents proving that one belongs to the opposite sex. It is often combined with transvestism. Changes in psychosexual behavior are not amenable to psychotherapeutic correction. A negative attitude towards treatment is typical. Named after the diplomat of Louis XV, Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, who suffered from this sexual perversion.

Syn: transsexualism.

Mental epidemics. Collective induced psychoses (see), common in Western Europe during the Middle Ages and most often associated with religious fanaticism, the prevalence of mystical prejudices and superstitions. They affected the population of large cities and regions, usually proceeded with increasing psychomotor agitation, often the ideas of obsession and Manichaeism dominated in the statements of patients (see. Tarantism). They were brutally suppressed by the Inquisition. In Russia, epidemics that did not acquire such a degree of prevalence were observed even before the revolution in the economically backward regions of Eastern Siberia (measurement).

Episode (Greek epeisodion - incident, incident). Form of the course of mental disorders. The onset is characteristically acute; the picture of a mental disorder unfolds quickly, without visible warning signs. The end of E. is also rapid, usually accompanied by amnesia of the experience. The course is short-lived. E. states arise without any connection with external causes. A typical example of E. is epileptic twilight disorders of consciousness and dysphoria.

Epilepsy (Greek epilepsy - seizure, epileptic seizure). A chronic endogenous organic disease that occurs with repeated paroxysmal disorders (convulsive and non-convulsive) and the formation of dementia with characteristic personality changes. With E., acute and prolonged psychotic states are observed.

It begins mainly in childhood or adolescence. There is evidence of a hereditary predisposition. Organic brain lesions play a significant role in etiopathogenesis - intrauterine damage to the fetus, consequences of traumatic brain injury, neuroinfections. In pathogenesis, the central place belongs to the presence of epileptogenic and epileptic foci (see).

E. abdominal. E., occurring with abdominal seizures (see). According to H. Gastaut, it is not recommended to use this term, since abdominal seizures are observed in various forms of E. - generalized and focal, which deprives it of specificity.

E. adversive. Occurs with adversive seizures (see), a variant of focal E.

E. acousticogenic. Seizures are triggered by auditory, especially unexpected, stimuli.

Syn.: E. auditory reflex, E. acoustic, E. audiogenic, E. audiosensory.

E. alcoholic(V. Magnan, 1883). It is characterized by grand mal seizures that occur in chronic alcoholics during periods of excessive alcohol consumption or abstinence, but subsequently the seizures occur autochthonously. Initially, the emergence of E.a. was associated with the abuse of wormwood vodka (absinthe), but this was not confirmed in the future.

Currently E.a. is considered as a second disease, developing according to the pathogenetic mechanisms of epileptic disease, which loses its original connection with its predecessor and plays a causal role in chronic alcoholism. The process of “epileptization” begins with the formation of alcoholic encephalopathy with parallel metabolic changes occurring, including an increase in the level of the endogenous convulsant kynurenine (Gromov S.A., Efimov O.F., Kartashev E.V., Ryzhov I.V. , 1991).

E. arithmetic. A type of reflex epilepsy in which the occurrence of convulsive seizures is provoked by performing arithmetic operations.

E. temporal. A form of focal E., in which the epileptic or epileptogenic focus is localized in the temporal lobe. Characterized by seizures with sensory symptoms (auditory, olfactory, gustatory), adversive, aphasic, mental, often in combination with autonomic disorders and oral automatisms.

Syn.: E. temporal lobe, E. psychomotor.

E. secondary. Cm. E. symptomatic.

E. generalized. Occurs with primary generalized seizures.

E. genoina. The general name for forms of E. that occur with primary generalized seizures, not associated with obvious organic brain damage or identified metabolic disorders (that is, non-symptomatic forms of E.).

Syn.: E. essential, E. cryptogenic, E. idiopathic.

E. children's room. Seizures begin before the age of 3 years and may disappear at an older age. The seizures are myoclonic (see), akinetic (see), often one-sided and moving. Focal, especially somatomotor, seizures are extremely rare.

Syn.: E. infantile.

E. jacksonian. Cm. Bravais-Jackson epilepsy.

E. diencephalic. Occurs with diencephalic seizures.

E. daytime. It occurs with seizures that occur during the daytime, while awake. Wed: E. nocturnal.

E. occipital. The form of E. is focal with the localization of an epileptic or epileptogenic focus in the occipital cortex. Visual illusory and hallucinatory seizures are characteristic.

E. insular (anat. insula – island). The form of E. is focal due to damage to the insulo-periinsular region. Seizures are often in the nature of taste illusions and hallucinations and vegetative manifestations (epigastric, abdominal).

E. infantile. Cm. E. children's room.

E. Kozhevnikova. Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.

E. continuum (lat. continuus – continuous, long-lasting). Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.

E. cortical. Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.

E. cryptogenic (Greek kryptos - hidden, secret, –genes – generating, causing). Cm. E. genoina.

E. larvated (lat. larva – mask). Cm. E. mental.

E. frontal. The form of E. is focal with the localization of an epileptic or epileptogenic focus in the cortex of the premotor region of the frontal lobe. Seizures are often subclinical in nature, amnestic with preserved consciousness, but when the discharge spreads to motor prerolandic and subcortical structures, they acquire the character of adversive, somatomotor or secondarily generalized.

E. local. Cm. E. focal.

E. small. It occurs in the form of small epileptic seizures.

E. metabolic. Occurs in newborns and infants in connection with metabolic disorders (pyridoxine, amino acid, water-salt, carbohydrate, fat) in the presence of a hereditary predisposition or organic pathology of the brain.

E. migraine. Seizures occur in people who have suffered from migraines for a long time, or alternate with migraine attacks. According to H. Gastaut, such a mechanism of pathogenesis seems doubtful and this term is not recommended.

E. myoclonic. According to H. Gastaut, the term is incorrect - we are talking about myoclonic seizures in Unferricht-Lundborg disease and Kozhevnikov epilepsy, as well as in primary generalized E.

E. mitral (anat. valvula mitralis – mitral valve of the heart) [Lichtenstein E.I., 1956]. Epileptiform syndrome resulting from brain hypoxia with heart failure in patients with mitral valve disease.

E. musicogenic. A rare form of reflex E. Characterized by musicogenic seizures of a polymorphic nature and a sound aura. Described by I.P. Merzheevsky, observed in diffuse organic brain lesions with a predominant temporal, often bilateral, localization.

Syn.: musical E., musicolepsy.

E. morpheic. Seizures are mainly observed during sleep, either at night or during the day.

Syn.: E. hypnic.

E. soft. It occurs with rare seizures and is characterized by mildly expressed intellectual-mnestic and characterological changes.

E. hereditary. It is caused by a significantly enhanced hereditary predisposition and occurs with primary generalized epileptic seizures (tonic-clonic, myoclonic and typical absences). The disease most often begins in childhood.

E. nocturnal. Seizures occur predominantly or exclusively during nighttime sleep. Wed: E. daytime. see also E. morpheic.

E. opercular (anat. operculum insulae cerebri- tegmentum of the cerebral insula). The form of E. is focal, in which the epileptic or epileptogenic focus is located in the walls of the Sylvian fissure and peri-insular region. Seizures of a complex nature, with hypersalivation, chewing movements and a state of stunning. They are often preceded by a sensation of a specific taste.

E. organic. The most common type of E. symptomatic.

E. parietal. E. focal form. Localization of the lesion in the parietal cortex. Characteristic are subclinical seizures, which, when the discharge of excitation passes to adjacent sensory and motor structures, are replaced by somatomotor, adversive, aphasic, etc.

Syn.: E. parietal.

E. primary generalized. Characterized by primarily generalized seizures (tonic-clonic, absences and bilateral myoclonus), occurring more often in childhood and adolescence. It is not symptomatic, which gives grounds to talk about a connection with a hereditary predisposition.

Syn.: E. idiopathic, E. essential, E. true, E. genuine.

E. anterior temporal. A variety of E. temporal. Localization of the lesion in the anterior temporal lobe. The seizures are of the nature of affective or chewing and swallowing automatisms.

E. intermittent. It is observed in newborns and infants and is characterized by intermittent seizures (convulsions move from one limb to another, from one half of the body to the other). Children's E. form.

E. late. The onset is typical in adulthood and old age. Usually a consequence of organic progressive diseases of the brain (cerebral atherosclerosis).

E. puberty. The appearance of seizures is associated with hormonal changes occurring during puberty, which temporarily increase the convulsive susceptibility.

E. postrolandova. E. focal form. Localization of the lesion in the cortex of the post-Rolandic region. Seizures are somatosensory and somatomotor in nature.

Syn.: E. postcentral.

E. post-traumatic. Form of E. organic, caused by traumatic brain injury. Seizures are focal, their nature depends on the location of the lesion. Sometimes secondary generalization of seizures occurs.

Syn.: E. traumatic.

E. prerolandova. E. focal form. The lesion is localized in the prerolandic region of the cerebral cortex. Jacksonian seizures are common.

Syn.: E. precentral.

E. awakening. Seizures occur soon (1-2 hours) after waking up. Most often, this is primarily generalized E. Signs of mental degradation are expressed relatively mildly, but characterological deviations are still more significant than in epileptoid psychopaths.

E. mental. Nonconvulsive form of E. Diagnosis is based on the presence of personality changes characteristic of E., paroxysmal symptoms of disorders observed mainly in the sphere of affects and drives, mental epileptic equivalents, and epileptic psychoses. H. Gastaut denies the legitimacy of distinguishing mental E., but gives a completely different definition of it, referring to it all forms of E. with disturbances of consciousness during a seizure and especially in the post- and interictal periods, which does not correspond to the generally accepted understanding.

Syn.: psychoepilepsy, E. masked, E. larvated, E. non-convulsive.

E. psychomotor. A form of temporal E., manifested by adversive or aphasic epileptic seizures.

E. psychosensory[Gurevich M.O., 1936]. A type of mental illness in which the clinical picture of attacks is dominated by the syndrome of psychosensory disorders and special conditions that differ from total twilight states by the absence of amnesia and partial disturbances of consciousness. Special conditions are similar to psychosensory disorders due to the presence of sensory synthesis disorders.

Psychosensory disorders in true (genuine) E. are characterized by complete reintegration and reversibility of symptoms, while in symptomatic E. there remain residual, although mildly expressed, symptoms of a focal nature, especially vestibular ones.

H. Gastaut refers to psychosensory epileptic seizures as illusory or hallucinatory, but these terms cannot be considered equivalent.

E. residual. Epileptiform syndromes in patients with residual symptoms of organic brain damage, often in early childhood. Unlike symptomatic epilepsy, residual epilepsy occurs due to inactive, non-processual organic pathology, and convulsive seizures are usually caused by the presence of exogenous harmful substances [Bershtein G.I., 1950].

E. reflex. A rare form of E. in which seizures occur reflexively and are provoked by sensitive stimuli. There are E.r. visual and auditory (acousticogenic) depending on the modality of the stimulus.

E. family. It is observed in several members of the same family and is associated with a hereditary constitutional predisposition. If such a predisposition plays a significant role, they speak of E. hereditary.

E. senile. Isolation as an independent form is not justified, since we are talking about symptomatic E. or epileptiform seizures, for example, in Alzheimer's disease.

E. symptomatic. Seizures are a consequence and symptom of a certain pathological condition. There are such forms as E. metabolic and organic (infections, intoxications, head injuries).

E. syphilitic. The form of E. is symptomatic, observed in vascular and meningoencephalitic manifestations of neurosyphilis.

E. vascular. The symptomatic form of E. is observed in vascular diseases of the brain, especially with the presence of lesions in specific areas of the cerebral cortex (cerebral atherosclerosis, hypertension). It occurs with large convulsive seizures and fainting.

E. television. A type of visual reflex E., observed in photosensitive subjects, especially when located close to the TV screen, in low lighting in the room.

E. thetanoid (Greek tetanos - convulsive tension, –eides– similar, similar). E.'s form, in which convulsive seizures are tonic in nature, there is no clonic component.

E. toxoplasma. A form of symptomatic (organic) E., observed in toxoplasmosis. The nature of the seizures depends on the location of the pathological foci.

E. heavy. It is characterized by frequent primary generalized seizures with a tendency to develop status epilepticus, episodes of twilight stupefaction, intensive progression of intellectual-mnestic and characterological disorders.

E. uncusa (lat. uncus hyppocampii - uncinus of the hippocampal gyrus). A type of temporal E., localization of the focus in the anterior-internal part of the temporal lobe, especially in the uncus of the hippocampal gyrus. Seizures with impaired sense of smell (illusions and hallucinations) are typical.

E. morning. Cm. E. awakening.

E. focal. Characterized by polymorphic focal seizures with possible secondary generalization. Occurs at any age, usually due to organic brain damage.

Syn:. E. partial, E. focal, E. local.

E. photogenic (Greek phos - light, –genes – generating, causing). Visual reflex E.

E. centrencephalic. The generalized primary form of E. is hereditary. Absence seizures, myoclonus, and tonic-clonic seizures are typical.

E. endocrine-toxic[Sereysky M.Ya., 1926]. The form of E. is symptomatic, characterized by minor seizures and the presence of endocrine disorders (most often hyperthyroidism). Sometimes these painful signs appear simultaneously, but sometimes endocrine pathology precedes the appearance of seizures. Premorbid patients are characterized as epileptoids.

E. essentiala (lat. essentialis – related to the essence). Cm. E. genoina.

Epileptiform (epilepsy + lat. formis – similar, similar). Similar to epileptic paroxysms, clinically reminiscent of epilepsy. The term is most often applied to seizures.

Epileptic. Related to epilepsy.

Epileptoidia (epilepto + Greek -eides – like). Cm. Epileptoid psychopathy.

Epileptology (epilepto + Greek logos – teaching, science). A branch of medicine that studies the clinical picture, etiopathogenesis and treatment methods of epilepsy.

Epistaxophobia (Greek epistazo - drip, ooze + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of nosebleeds.

Epithymic character (Greek epi - above, thymos - feeling). Cm. Epileptoidia.

Syn.: epileptoid character.

Epiphenomenalism (Greek epi - above, phainomenon – phenomenon, occurrence). A doctrine that considers the psyche, consciousness, as a phenomenon that only accompanies physiological processes, a superstructure over them that does not play an active role in human life and activity. E. denies the active reflection of reality by the psyche and its significance as a creative factor that determines a person’s position in the world around him. E., with its methodological and epistemological principles, contradicts dialectical materialism.

Epiphrenia (epi + Greek phren – mind, reason). A term introduced by N. Shipkovensky to designate epilepsy by analogy with schizophrenia and cyclophrenia.

Epstein's symptom. Observed in neuroses in children. When excited upper eyelid does not fall, which gives the patient’s face an expression of fear.

Ergazia (Greek ergasia - work, action, activity). Concept to denote the coordinated and purposeful activity of all somatic and mental functions in the norm. From the disorders, E. A. Meyer and his followers derive various kinds of ergastic reactions that are specific to certain types of mental pathology. Ergasiatry, according to A. Meyer, is a synonym for psychiatry. Cm. Mayer ergasiology.

Ergasiophobia (ergasia + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of performing any action or movement.

Occupational therapy (lat. ergon - work, occupation, Greek therapy - treatment). Occupational therapy.

Ergotism (fr. ergot - ergot). Food poisoning due to consumption of products containing ergot horns. After the warning signs (gastrointestinal disorders, muscle cramps, headaches, increased fatigue, forgetfulness, decreased mood, fears), a state of confusion with hallucinations develops, psychomotor disorders(excitement or stupor). Neurologically - symptoms reminiscent of tabes, but without pupillary disorders (ergotine pseudotabes). Epileptiform seizures. In severe cases, death or dementia.

Ereitopathy (Greek ereuthos - blush, pathos - illness, suffering). Tendency to easily occurring redness of the skin in the face, neck, and chest. It can be a constitutional sign, often observed in neuroses, being a symptom of vegetative dystonic disorders.

Ereytophobia (ereito + phobia). 1. Obsessive fear, fear of blushing; 2. Neurotic fear that occurs when looking at objects painted red, possibly resembling blood.

Eremophobia (Greek: eremos– desert + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of being in a deserted place, of being alone.

Erethism (Greek erethizma - irritation, excitement). Increased excitability and irritability, when severe, occurs with aggressive and destructive tendencies. It is observed in oligophrenia (eretic oligophrenia is the opposite of its torpid forms), post-encephalitic and post-traumatic characteropathy.

Erysichthon syndrome. It is observed in obese sclerotic people with hyperlipidemia and is characterized by a desire for excesses in food, despite warnings from doctors and relatives about possible harmful consequences, which are often justified. Erysichthon is a farmer in Greek mythology who offended Demeter, the goddess of harvests and grain, by destroying the trees in the garden dedicated to her. He was punished by the goddess, who sent upon him an indomitable appetite and an insatiable hunger. The more he ate, the hungrier he became. As a result, Erysichthon ate his property, sold his daughter into slavery for food, and finally ate himself.

Erythrophobia (Greek erythros– red + phobia). Cm. Ereytophobia.

Erogenous zone (grey, eros – love, passion, –genes – generating, causing). An area of ​​skin or mucous membrane, irritation of which leads to sexual arousal and orgasm (in the genital area, mammary glands, etc.). E.z. often have an individual character, different for men and women.

Eroticism (Greek eros - desire, passion). A general name for various manifestations of sexual desire.

Erotographomania (erotic + graphomania). A type of graphomania, an attraction to writing love letters and erotic stories by mentally ill, psychopathic individuals.

Eroticomania (erotic + dromomania). An irresistible attraction to vagrancy associated with sexual excesses (love affairs, rape, etc.).

Erotomania. Cm. Erotomanic delirium.

Esquirol's principles for the study of mental illness: 1) analysis of symptoms of mental disorder; 2) searching for the causes of the disease; 3) description of the course of the disease and possible options for its outcome; 4) establishment general principles treatment of the disease.

Esthesioneurosis (Greek aisthesis - feeling, perception). Neuroses occurring with severe symptoms of sensory impairment.

Etiology (Greek aitia - cause, logos – teaching, science). 1. The doctrine of the causes of diseases; 2. Origin, cause of the disease, pathological condition.

Etiopathogenesis (etio + pathogenesis). A set of ideas about the causes and mechanisms of disease development.

Etiotropic (ethio + Greek tropos – turn, direction). Aimed directly at the cause of the disease. The term applies to treatments, such as the treatment of progressive paralysis with penicillin.

Ethnic factors (Greek ethnos - people). Categories specific to different ethnic groups. According to the difference E.f. the characteristics of culture inherent in a people are highlighted, including features of material production, human reproduction and life (demographic structure, family structure, social structures, etc.), spiritual reproduction (worldview, methods of socialization of children and adolescents, beliefs, cultural traditions, socio-legal and moral -ethical standards), communication (features of communication between individuals, the most characteristic methods of communication, etc.). The originality of E.f. studied by ethnopsychology and ethnopsychiatry (transcultural psychiatry).

Ethnopsychiatry. A section of social psychiatry devoted to the study of ethnic and cultural factors in the development and course of mental illness.

Ethnotherapy (Greek ethnikos - tribal, folk, therapy - treatment). . Immersion, the return of the patient to his individual and collective childhood, to ancient cultural patterns and archetypes through group classes, individual conversations, visual arts therapy, psychodrama, elements of ethnology, folk traditions, the art of dance, pantomime, etc. This contributes to the patient’s self-discovery, self-affirmation, and his search for his place in life through a sense of the natural, ancient-labor, pagan-festive within himself. The technique is close to religious experiences, the depth psychological concept of C. Jung, however, a number of its techniques are quite acceptable and can be applied in the work of a psychotherapist who takes other philosophical positions.

Ethology (Greek ethos- custom, habit, logos– science, teaching). The branch of biology that studies the behavior of animals in natural conditions. Particular attention is paid to the study of genetically determined forms of behavior. Transferring E.'s conclusions to the study of forms of human behavior is of interest, but it should be taken into account social status a person whose behavior cannot be reduced to purely biological mechanisms and can only be explained by them.

Eupareinia (Greek eu - good, perfect, correct, pareunos roommate). Simultaneous, harmonious onset of orgasm in a man and woman during sexual intercourse. Compare: dyspareunia.

Ephebophilia (Greek ephebos - young man philia – Love). 1. A type of male homosexuality, attraction to teenagers and young men; 2. Attraction of older women to boys and young men.

etheromania (ether + mania). A type of drug addiction in which the object of addiction is ethyl ether, a derivative of ethyl alcohol, usually used for anesthesia.

The effect is amphomimetic (lat. effectus – result of action Greek amphi – at both sides, mimetos – imitator). A dual response of the body to external stimuli, in which signs of sympathico- and parasympathicotonia are simultaneously detected, for example, increased blood pressure and bradykinesia.

Effeminization (lat. e(f) – from, from, femina- woman). Violation of gender consciousness - a woman feels like a man. Symptom opposite to evaporation (see).

Echoes are epileptic. Stereotypical epileptic automatisms (their photographic repetition, cliché).

Sonography (Greek echo - echo, echo, grapho write, depict). Manifestation of echolalia in writing. When asked to respond in writing to a question asked, the patient responds by literally reproducing the question. Depending on whether the question was asked orally or in writing, acoustic and optical echography are distinguished. It is a manifestation of reflex automatism, observed with changes in the structure of the brain, perhaps of a functional origin.

Echokinesia (Greek echo - echo, echo, kinesis- movement). Cm. Echopraxia.

Echolalia (echo + Greek lalia – speech). 1. True E., characterized by automatic, involuntary and meaningless reproduction of speech addressed to the patient. The patient repeats what he heard in the same words and with the same intonation, which distinguishes true E. from mitigated E. 2. Mitigated, facilitated E., in which the patient repeats the question of the interlocutor, transforming it. It is not so much a subspecies as a stage in the development of echolalic disorders, often preceding (especially with Pick’s disease) the identification of true E.

Echology (echo + Greek logos – word, speech). A symptom of a speech disorder, characterized by the fact that the patient, in response to an alternatively constructed question, repeats the last word. When rearranging the words of the question, he again repeats the last word, which was previously the first. For example: Answer yes or no! (No); Answer anyway - no or yes! (Yes). K. Leonhard brings E. closer to perseveration and considers it especially characteristic of catatonia of speech readiness. The latter was identified by the author as a form of systemic schizophrenia (see. Leonhard's taxonomy of schizophrenia). Its main symptoms are: passing speech (see) of the “speech closure” type, as well as perseveration, associations by consonance, neologisms. Speech manifests itself in the form of impulsively arising and immediately extinguishing responses - reactions in connection with questions asked (pathological speech readiness). There is no spontaneous speech.

Echomimia (echo + Greek mimia – imitation). Involuntary repetition by mentally ill patients of facial movements of others. Observed in catatonia.

Echomnesia (echo + Greek mnesis- memory) . Subjective experience of repetition of the same events, for example, repeated (up to 40-80 times) experience of meeting a certain person in the same room. Observed in intoxication psychoses (dibenamine). E. is similar to the symptom described by B.A. Glazov for quinine intoxication.

Echopathy (echo + Greek pathos – suffering, illness). Involuntary repetition by a mentally ill person of facial expressions, gestures, postures, words or expressions of others. Observed in catatonia.

Echopraxia (echo + Greek praxis – action). Involuntary repetition by a mentally ill person of the actions and gestures of others. Symptom of catatonia.

Echosymptoms. A general name for various types of echo phenomena.

Echothymia (echo + Greek thymos – mood). Cm. The imitation reaction is pathological.

Echophrasia (echo + Greek phrasis – speech, speech pattern). Cm. Echolalia.

Echoencephalography (Greek echo - echo + enkephalos - head brain + grapho – write, depict). Cm. Echoencephaloscopy.

Echoencephaloscope (echo + encephaloscope). A device for morphological examination of the brain using ultrasound echoscopy.

Echoencephaloscopy (echo + encephalo + gr. skopeo watch) is a method of ultrasound examination of the brain. It is used to identify intracranial structural dislocation pathology based on the determination and measurement of the lateral displacement of medially located brain structures (M-echo signal). Used in the diagnosis of tumors, abscesses, gummas, subdural and epidural hematomas, acute cerebrovascular accidents, bruises and some other brain diseases.

Syn: echo-ES, echoencephalography.

This is an organodynamic concept. comes from the need to overcome the dualistic opposition between the roles of organic and psychological factors in the origin of mental illnesses, combines the main provisions of Jackson's theory of level activity of the brain and the dissolution that occurs in mental illnesses with Janet's concept of psychological automatism about various evolutionary levels of consciousness, explained by the degree of reduction in “mental stress” . The level of consciousness is considered in accordance with the intensity of psychic energy. The intensity of psychic energy is determined by the depth of organic damage. Depending on the level at which disintegration (dissolution) occurs, two types of mental illness are distinguished. Acute psychoses are considered as a pathology of consciousness, chronic psychoses and neuroses are considered as a pathology of personality.

All mental illnesses, according to N. Eu, have a common cause in the form of organic brain damage, leading to disturbances in energy supply, as a result of which there is a loss of contact with reality, and social adaptation is disrupted. The negative and positive symptoms of N. Eu are to a certain extent similar to the primary and secondary symptoms of E. Bleuler. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is determined not so much by the presence of negative symptoms, which can also be observed with neuroses, but by their systemic increase, leading to adaptation disorders. The predominance of positive symptoms is considered as a manifestation of the body's resistance and is considered characteristic of schizophrenic reactions, in contrast to nuclear schizophrenia.

In contrast to the nosological system of E. Kraepelin, a taxonomy of mental disorders according to levels of dissolution is put forward.

E.o.c. is neo-Jacksonian and to a certain extent eclectic. Its positive significance is in the development of some general pathological patterns in psychiatry, in establishing differences in the patterns of psychosis determined by the levels of damage, in the tendency to distinguish between negative and positive symptoms in psychopathology.

Ejaculate (lat. ejaculor – throwing away). Seminal fluid released during ejaculation.

Ejaculation (lat. ejaculatio – throwing away). Ejaculation that occurs during sexual intercourse or forms of sexual activity that replace coitus (masturbation, etc.), as well as during wet dreams.

E. detained characterized by prolonged non-emission of semen, and sometimes a complete absence of ejaculation. Sexual intercourse is protracted and exhausting.

Syn.: E. prolonged, E. delayed.

E. premature (lat. ejaculatio praecox) occurs prematurely, at the very beginning of sexual intercourse, sometimes even before the penis is inserted into the vagina.

Syn.: E. accelerated.

Cultures are partly similar and partly different in solving common problems. For each pair of cultures being compared, the area of ​​agreement is perceived as correct and is usually not noticed. The area of ​​difference causes surprise, irritation, rejection and is perceived as a typical national trait - a cultural stereotype.

Russian stereotype: lazy, irresponsible, melancholic.

American stereotype: naive, aggressive, unprincipled, workaholic.

German stereotype: insensitive, bureaucratic, overzealous at work.

French stereotype: arrogant, hot-tempered, hierarchical, emotional.

A concept close to the concept of culture is national mentality - an integrating characteristic of people living in a particular culture, which allows us to describe the uniqueness of these people’s vision of the world around them and explain the specifics of their response to it.

Topic 5. The concept of “culture shock”. Strategies for overcoming intercultural conflict

The phenomenon of cross-cultural shock is widely known. Almost everyone who worked or lived abroad for a relatively long period has encountered it.

Cross-cultural shock is a state of confusion and helplessness caused by the loss of normal values ​​and the inability to answer the questions: where, when and how to do the right thing?

Especially often, collisions that arise on the basis of cross-cultural errors occur during first meetings and acquaintances. It is in these situations that managers and executives, especially those who do not speak foreign languages ​​and do not have much experience in contacts with foreigners, should be extremely attentive and careful.

Six forms of culture shock:

stress due to the efforts made to achieve psychological adaptation;

a sense of loss due to deprivation of friends, position, profession, property;

a feeling of loneliness (rejection) in a new culture, which can turn into denial of this culture;

violation of role expectations and sense of self-identity; anxiety that turns to resentment and disgust after recognizing cultural differences;

feeling of inferiority due to inability to cope with the situation.

The main cause of culture shock is cultural differences. Symptoms of culture shock can be very different: from exaggerated concern for the cleanliness of dishes, linen, and the quality of water and food to psychosomatic disorders, general anxiety, insomnia, and fear.

Cross-cultural shock, characterized by a state of indecision, helplessness, depression, and dissatisfaction with oneself. Almost without exception, businessmen have experienced this condition. This is connected not only with moving to another country, but also with a change in type of activity, change in official position, transfer from one company to another, etc.

Many researchers believe that the basis of cross-cultural shock is a violation of intercultural communications. There are usually four classic phases of cross-cultural shock.

The phase of euphoria, joyful revival.

This phase is often called the “honeymoon” of cross-cultural shock. This period is characterized by a high degree of expectations and a desire to focus on positive values.

The phase of culture shock itself, frustration and irritation. Symptoms of this phase include homesickness, anxiety, depression, fatigue, irritability and even aggression. For many, this condition is accompanied by the development of an inferiority complex, a reluctance to accept a new culture, and a limitation of communication only with their compatriots.

Phase three is the phase of gradual adaptation, recovery. During this period, the new cultural environment is comprehended, a positive perception of the surrounding world returns, and a sense of hope for the best grows.

The fourth phase is the phase of complete adaptation, reverse culture shock. This phase is characterized by awareness of the values ​​of the new culture and at the same time a critical understanding of the culture of one’s own country.

Success in the market largely depends on the cultural adaptability of the company, its employees, and their competence in the field of intercultural communications. Cultural incompetence and inflexibility in intercultural communication expose the success of the company to risk, including monetary risk. If an unsuccessful transaction is made, here too, perhaps, an important role is played by the inability to communicate with a foreign partner, ignorance of the customs, history, and culture of the partners’ country, the volume of sales and purchases may decrease, and the attitude of buyers towards the company will worsen. An important component of the effectiveness of cross-cultural contacts is knowledge of foreign languages. Language plays an important role in collecting information and evaluating it, language gives access to understanding the culture of other people, they become more open. Cross-cultural research shows that without knowledge of a foreign language it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to seriously study and understand the culture of another country. Entering the global world and successfully conducting international business requires the formation of cross-cultural literacy. Another barrier in intercultural communications can be stereotyping, simplified perception and standardization of reality phenomena. A manager who trusts his previous experience and stereotype often makes mistakes. His communication skills are difficult and most often lead to cross-cultural shock. Strictly speaking, stereotyping paralyzes creative thinking and has a detrimental effect on the ability to perceive new things.

In a cross-cultural environment, an important place is occupied by the system of values, norms and traditions of a particular country. Respectful attitude not only to the cultural heritage of the country, but knowledge of the religious and ethical norms of a given country is necessary for a manager associated with international activities. Unfortunately, the most important reason for the disruption of cross-cultural communication and the occurrence of cross-cultural shock is still ethnocentrism, which is associated with a sense of superiority that representatives of one culture experience in relation to others. There is nothing more destructive to cooperation than a disdainful attitude towards a partner, the desire to impose your system of values ​​and views on him. The manifestation of ethnocentrism and egocentrism is always detrimental to business and is usually accompanied by a loss of competitiveness. It is impossible in modern conditions to achieve business success without respecting the culture and traditions of other countries, just as it is impossible to achieve career success in a company whose business culture the manager does not accept and condemns. In business, as in any activity, the golden rule of morality still applies: Treat others the way you want to be treated.

The severity of culture shock and the duration of intercultural adaptation depend on many factors: internal (individual) and external (group).

In the first group of factors, the most important are the individual characteristics of a person: gender, age, character traits. Therefore, recently researchers believe that the education factor is more important for adaptation. The higher it is, the more successful the adaptation is. Education, even without taking into account cultural content, expands a person’s internal capabilities. The more complex a person’s picture of the world, the easier and faster he perceives innovations.

In connection with these studies, scientists have made attempts to identify a certain universal set personal characteristics, which a person preparing for life in a foreign country with a foreign culture must have. Usually called the following features personalities: professional competence, high self-esteem, sociability, extroversion, openness to different views, interest in other people, a tendency to cooperate, tolerance of uncertainty, internal self-control, courage and perseverance, empathy. If the cultural distance is too great, adaptation will not be easier. The internal factors of adaptation and overcoming culture shock also include the circumstances of a person’s life experience. The most important thing here is the motives for adaptation. Having knowledge of the language, history and culture certainly makes adaptation easier.

Foreign companies operating in Russia bring new methods of communication, new models for organizing work processes, and new requirements for the professionalism of employees. Despite the fact that many employees of international companies have a good command of a foreign language, orientation in a complex cultural environment can be very difficult, which affects decision-making and simply communication between employees. A prerequisite for successful staff interaction is the development of cross-cultural competencies.

Ways to resolve an individual’s conflict with an alien environment:

Ghettoization (from the word "ghetto"). This phenomenon occurs when immigrants, having arrived in a foreign country, due to certain internal or external reasons They withdraw into their own circle, minimizing communication with the surrounding society and its culture. They often settle in the same area of ​​the city, where they speak their native language, and retain the consumption patterns to which they are accustomed in their homeland. In many large and even medium-sized Western cities you can see Chinese and Indian quarters. Brighton Beach in New York is a cultural enclave created in America by immigrants from the Soviet Union unable or unwilling to re-socialize. In such cultural ghettos, restaurants offering national cuisine, souvenir shops of the corresponding country, etc. are concentrated. In these areas, a corresponding demand is formed for the attributes of the culture of the country where the residents of the area or their ancestors came from.

Assimilation is a way of overcoming culture shock, the opposite of ghettoization. In this case, the individual strives to renounce his own culture as quickly as possible and adopt the culture of the host country. Such people in America are much more American than those whose ancestors landed in the New World hundreds of years ago.

An intermediate strategy in which immigrants strive to assimilate a new culture, but at the same time enrich it with the one they brought with them. So, Italian spaghetti, pizza became national dishes USA, and Indian and Chinese cuisine are part of consumption in the UK, USA and many other countries.

Partial assimilation is the abandonment of one’s culture and the adoption of a new one only in certain areas. Thus, most often, immigrants are forced to adapt to the norms accepted in a given country at work. However, in the family they often try to maintain their national culture and remain committed to national cuisine, apartment decoration style. They often remain committed to their traditional religion.

Colonization is the imposition by immigrants of their cultural values, norms, and language local residents. In this case, the consumption style is introduced to new soil and becomes dominant either in the country as a whole or in certain groups of the population. A classic example of cultural colonization was the creation of empires of Western European countries in Asia and Africa, accompanied by the implantation of elements of European culture there.

However, the Americanization of life in Western Europe after World War II is sometimes cited as an example of cultural colonization. With this approach, cultural shifts in post-Soviet Russia can also be called cultural colonization.

Cognitive dissonance – (from the English words: cognitive – “cognitive” and dissonance – “lack of harmony”) is a state of an individual characterized by a collision in his consciousness of conflicting knowledge, beliefs, behavioral attitudes regarding some object or phenomenon, in which the existence of one element the denial of the other follows, and the feeling of psychological discomfort associated with this discrepancy. Dissonance may arise due to differences in cultural practices.

Stereotypes as a cultural phenomenon

Human consciousness is endowed with the property of reflecting the objective reality surrounding a person, and this reflection is a subjective image of the objective world, i.e. a certain model, a picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The result of the reflection of a fragment of the world picture in the individual’s consciousness is a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a content point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.

The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, Yu. D. Apresyan, V. A. Ryzhkov, Yu. E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, V.A. Maslova).

Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of ​​the typical features that characterize a nation. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives.

In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with “ a naive picture peace." We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.

A stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as “a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals, which makes it possible to distribute group members into categories and perceive them in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations.” However, the stereotype does not only apply to groups of subjects. It also expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of socialization of the individual [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are formed under the influence of social conditions and previous experience.

In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think about examples).

Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of the queue in different cultures ah are different, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.

According to Harutyunyan, “a peculiar National character feelings and emotions, ways of thinking and acting, stable and national features of habits and traditions, formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, the characteristics of the historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture.” In other words, a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.

Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination and functioning of all elements of human culture.

The culture of interethnic communication is a system of specific of this ethnic group stereotypical forms, principles, methods of communicative activity. The system of ethnocultural stereotypes is specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.

Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as “guides” of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and without meaning to, we establish a distance in the process of intercultural communication.

The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Typically, perception comes through the prism of one’s ethnic “I,” that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior determined by ethnicity. Now, when ethnic differences dominate people’s behavior more and more, determining the nature of perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.

The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences, which are easily perceived during intercultural interaction. Formed in the zone of ethnocultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual traits of one’s own and other ethnic groups, stereotypes are consolidated on a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.

Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.

So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of ​​an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell.

Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify one’s “one.”

The formation of ethnic consciousness and culture as regulators of human behavior are based on both innate and acquired in the process of socialization factors - cultural stereotypes, which are acquired from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and recognize himself as an element of them. .

The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.

We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will say about a bright moonlit night: it is so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it is so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.

The culturosphere of a certain ethnic group contains a number of elements of a stereotypical nature, which, as a rule, are not perceived by speakers of another culture; These elements are called lacunae by Yu. A. Sorokin and I. Yu. Markovina: everything that the recipient noticed in a foreign cultural text, but does not understand, that seems strange to him and requires interpretation, serves as a signal of the presence in the text of national-specific elements of the culture in which a text has been created, namely gaps.

The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes of the general picture of the world. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.

A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “our own people.”

So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture; it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.

To describe the language of a particular region in the light of linguoculturology, we use the scheme proposed by N. I. Tolstoy in ethnolinguistics: literary language corresponds to elite culture, dialects and dialects - folk culture etc.

This scheme can be used in the linguocultural description of any other region.

The brightest linguistic feature, which reflects the culture of the people, are phraseological units and proverbs, metaphors and symbols. For example, mythologems, archetypes, standards, stereotypes, customs, rituals, and beliefs are fixed in language.

The national and cultural identity of phraseological units, metaphors, and symbols is formed through cultural connotation. And yet we maintain that language is not the repository of culture.

The unit of language - the word - is only a signal, the function of which is to awaken human consciousness, to touch upon certain concepts in it that are ready to respond to this signal.

Language is only a mechanism that facilitates the encoding and transmission of culture. Texts are the true guardian of culture. It is not language, but text that reflects the spiritual world of man. It is the text that is directly related to culture, because it is permeated with many cultural codes; it is the text that stores information about history, ethnography, national psychology, national behavior, i.e. about everything that makes up the content of culture. In turn, the rules for constructing a text depend on the cultural context in which it appears.

The text is created from linguistic units of lower levels, which, with appropriate selection, can strengthen the cultural signal. Phraseologisms are primarily such units.

Maslova V.A. Linguoculturology - M., 2001.

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A cultural stereotype is a certain canon of thoughts and perceptions, a stable reproduction of leisure activities and forms of behavior. On the one hand, a cultural stereotype helps an individual navigate situations; an entrenched form of prejudice plays a role negative role, prevents us from objectively assessing the contradictions that arise during the development of social relations and the ambiguity of people’s actions.

In a broad sense, a cultural stereotype as part of a worldview can be considered as a carrier of collective ideas, as an imprint of power relations, as a manifestation of implicit knowledge, as a component of motivation to social practice. Its diverse study is relevant, first of all, from the position of the anthropological version of cultural studies, which, by studying the specifics of the subject of cultural activity, is aimed at providing him with pragmatic, adaptation-appropriate knowledge.

The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is related to the needs modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself . It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities.

Despite all the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional setting and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and the rethinking of already known ones. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself is still a problem.

Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, a prejudice, a cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences.

Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype is generally understood as a relatively stable and simplified image social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, emerging in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.

At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ significantly from them in their psychological basis.

The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means , in which society is interested (or not interested).

In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of hidden subjective attitudes.

By their nature, stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and interactions of individuals. Having this nature, stereotypes have a number of qualities: integrity, value, stability, conservatism, emotionality, rationality, etc. Thanks to these qualities, stereotypes perform their various functions and tasks, of which for the process of intercultural communication special meaning have the following:

explanation of human actions by providing ready and simple information about their specific sociocultural characteristics;

anticipating various forms of behavior from communication partners;

formation of the foundations of one’s own behavior in relation to interlocutors and partners;

protection of traditions, customs, habits, one’s culture, apology for one’s own co-cultural group;

providing members of society with appropriate standards, models, and standards of behavior;

stabilization and integration of relations between sociocultural groups in society.

Stereotypes are rigidly “built-in” into our value system, are an integral part of it and provide a kind of protection for our positions in society. For this reason, stereotypes are used in every intercultural situation. The mechanisms of intercultural perception activate the selective application of the norms and values ​​of the native culture. Without the use of these extremely general culturally specific ways of assessing both one’s own group and others cultural groups, it is impossible to get by. Representatives of another group are identified by such characteristics as gender, ethnicity, speech characteristics, appearance, skin color, marriage customs, religious beliefs, etc. cultural stereotype tradition

The relationship between the cultural background of a person and the character traits attributed to him is usually not adequate. People belonging different cultures, have different understandings of the world, which makes communication from a “single” position impossible. Guided by the norms and values ​​of his culture, a person himself determines which facts and in what light to evaluate, which significantly affects the nature of our communication with representatives of other cultures.

For example, when communicating with Italians who are animatedly gesturing during a conversation, Germans, accustomed to a different style of communication, may develop a stereotype about the “eccentricity” and “disorganization” of Italians. In turn, Italians may have a stereotype about Germans as “cold” and “restrained”, etc.

Depending on the methods and forms of use, stereotypes can be useful or harmful for communication. Stereotyping helps people understand a situation and act in accordance with new circumstances in the following cases:

if it is consciously adhered to: the individual must understand that the stereotype reflects group norms and values, group traits and characteristics, and not specific qualities characteristic of an individual from a given group;

if the stereotype is descriptive and not evaluative: this involves the reflection in the stereotypes of real and objective qualities and properties of people of a given group, but not their assessment as good or bad;

if the stereotype is accurate: this means that the stereotype must adequately express the characteristics and traits of the group to which the person belongs;

if the stereotype is only a guess about the group, but not direct information about it: this means that the first impression of the group does not always provide reliable knowledge about all individuals of this group;

if the stereotype is modified, i.e. based on further observations and experience with real people or comes from the experience of a real situation.

In situations of intercultural contacts, stereotypes are effective only when they are used as a first and positive guess about a person or situation, and are not considered as the only correct information about them.

Stereotypes become ineffective and impede communication when, based on them, they mistakenly assign people to the wrong groups, incorrectly describe group norms, when they confuse stereotypes with a description of a particular individual, and when it is not possible to modify stereotypes based on real observations and experience. In such cases, stereotypes can become a serious obstacle to intercultural contacts.

In general, the following reasons are distinguished, because of which? stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication:

if stereotypes fail to reveal the individual characteristics of people: stereotyping assumes that all members of the group have the same traits. This approach applies to the whole group and to the individual over a period of time, despite individual variations;

if stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs until people begin to accept them as true;

if stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions. While retaining the real characteristics of the stereotyped group, stereotypes distort reality and give inaccurate ideas about the people with whom intercultural contacts are made.

People retain their stereotypes, even if reality and their life experiences contradict them. In this regard, in a situation of intercultural contacts, it is important to be able to effectively deal with stereotypes, i.e. be aware of and use them, and also be able to refuse them if they do not correspond to reality.

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