Book by N. Tseda “The Spirit of the Samurai – the Spirit of Japan”

One of my good friends, having graduated from the department of Japanese philology, went to Tokyo for an internship and stayed there for long years. Since his youth, he idolized John Lennon and deified his Japanese wife Yoko Ono, so I was not very surprised when I learned that my friend married a Japanese woman. I was even proud of this acquaintance, because he married a girl from an ancient samurai family. With this he wiped the noses of all our fellow students. Because our Russian, Jewish and Tatar women had in their ancestors only old Bolsheviks, jewelers and shop owners in Gostiny Dvor- in general, a commoner. And then suddenly there are samurai! You can imagine how impatiently we all waited to see our friend Kolya and his samurai wife Myauka. "Some kind of cat name!" – our women delivered a unanimous verdict.

As soon as Kolya-san and Myauka arrived in Moscow, on the next day off, taking everything we needed for a long feast, we went to visit them on Sivtsev Vrazhek. The door was opened for us by a barefoot woman dressed in a silk kimono. Japanese girl with shining narrow eyes.

- Hello, girl! – my classmate Oleg said politely. - We are your dad's friends. He is at home?
“Dad is at home in Tokyo,” the girl said in a thin voice. “You need my friend Kolya, he’s not here.”
- Husband? – Oleg stared in shock at the miniature samurai. “Can we go into your blessed house and wait for him?”
- It’s impossible! - Meow said and smiled charmingly. - It’s necessary to pass!
– What should I hand over? – I didn’t understand.
- It is necessary to pass the time.
- Time? – Oleg asked in surprise. - How much time do you need to give up in order to see Kolya, who has become a servant? – he began to press on the Japanese woman, clearly intending to push her into the apartment.

But Meow gracefully pushed him aside and politely said:
- In a month it will be my day of freezing. We will take you and your blessed souls to visit. With impatience, she bowed and closed the door.

- No, well, you understand! – Oleg was indignant when we went outside. - They are looking forward to us! A month later!

It's hard to be a samurai

Patience is one of the main qualities that were brought up in future samurai. But first things first. Let's start with the fact that the Japanese are not the original inhabitants of the current Japanese islands. How the ancestors of modern Americans exterminated the indigenous population North America, so the ancestors of the Japanese for centuries constantly fought with the Ainu tribes, who fiercely defended their right to live on the land of their ancestors. During the Middle Ages, there was an internecine war between Japanese princes to expand their possessions, and the clergy defended the rights to monastic possessions and income from them. Warriors were needed on all these fronts, and they became the samurai. The word samurai (saburai) comes from the Japanese verb "saburahi" (to serve, protect the master) - in other words, samurai were mercenaries and served with their sword in exchange for material benefits. Initially, samurai were not aristocrats, but came from common people - peasants and artisans.

Since the competition between those who wanted to become a samurai was quite strong, the requirements for samurai were increased. Gradually, a samurai code emerged, which included a willingness to lay down one’s life for the owner, as well as politeness, tact, restraint and nobility. Later, good manners, education, knowledge of history, literature, and heraldry began to be valued. At the same time, the samurai inevitably developed contempt for the “ordinary” labor activity- the lot of the plebeians. Under a wealthy master, the samurai had enough time for physical training, education of the spirit, visiting theaters, reading, writing, calligraphy and a tea ceremony with sakura jam. If a samurai did not want to improve, he was supplanted by others who took a more active position in life.

This is how the caste of samurai arose - warriors of the highest qualifications, bearers of the chivalric spirit, selflessly devoted to the system they served. Historical chronicles indicate that samurai were a very large stratum of society and at different periods made up up to ten percent of the population.

However, as the country centralized, the situation began to change. In the 12th century, a military dictatorship was established, all power was concentrated in the hands of the supreme commander-in-chief, the shogun, and the role of the emperor was reduced to a minimum. The samurai class, which had already practically merged with the class of secular feudal lords, including the shogun himself, became the dominant political and military force countries. The institution of samurai, the flesh and blood of the Japanese way of life, existed for more than seven centuries (until 1868), its elements were transformed and preserved to this day, becoming one of the foundations of modern Japanese ideology.

Today's heirs of samurai traditions do not carry swords and do not rip open their bellies. Having exchanged the war colors of their ancestors for a suit and tie, and military equipment for a computer, they continue to serve their samurai god - the government agency or company for which they work. Daily painstaking work for the good of the homeland and patient overcoming life's adversities- the only meaning of existence of a modern Japanese.

Our friend Kolya, once in Tokyo, also took the path of the samurai and began to master the principles of Japanese philosophy, the main one of which is patience. He taught the Japanese the Russian language, he himself studied Japanese in depth, national history and literature, studied karate and judo, learned the art of sword fighting, took hieroglyphics lessons... In general, I immersed myself in Japanese reality according to full program. And when it got really bad and an icy melancholy took hold of his soul, he would get to the nearest yatai - an eatery on fresh air- and pulled back. I bought sake, yakitori with baked potatoes, slowly got into Russian condition and wandered off to sleep so that in the morning I could take the path of the samurai again.

Meowka-san

Our friend Kolya celebrated his Japanese wife's birthday in national style. A low long table, cushions on the floor, chopsticks, rice, bowls, sauces and sake in white bottles with hieroglyphs. Little Meow stood on high wooden shoes, dressed in a pink kimono with some kind of hood at the back and held a painted fan in her hand. Her high hair was pinned up with what looked like chopsticks, her face was covered in white, her eyebrows were lined in black, her lips in red. Our women looked at her with great interest. In addition to our company, the guests were the Japanese consul and his wife. Toasts followed by long translations into Japanese and back, polite muttering about the weather, silent eating of rice, quickly numb legs under the table - we endured all this for just over an hour. And then Oleg and I went out to smoke in the kitchen, found stocks of sake there and decided not to return to the table: we had already paid tribute to the Japanese ceremony! But soon Meow came to us.

- So why? – she asked sternly.
“Yes, we’re writing poetry,” Oleg said. - Do you want me to read it?
- Hoshu! – said the samuraisha and closed her narrow eyes.
“There is Mount Fuji,” Oleg began with a sense of familiarity. - At its foot lies a stone...
- How beautiful!
- Not all! ... Samurai Kolya is standing, Meowa lies at his feet...
- This is disgusting. Was Meow killed?
- No, she's just sleeping. Do you want a funny poem?
- Hoshu!
“A little boy was playing samurai and caught up with his grandfather at the barn with a stick. It took a long time to scrape him off the Kamaz: my grandfather turned out to be a special forces major!

Meow thought deeply, comprehending the contents of the quatrain.

“Actually, this is not funny,” Kolya commented as he entered. – Judge for yourself: the boy died a heavy death – his parents are in grief, his grandfather exceeded the limits of self-defense – prison awaits him. And the owner of the Kamaz is dissatisfied...

We were a little taken aback by this interpretation of folk poetry, but the effect of sake has already saved us from unnecessary delicacy.

- No, do you really think so? - Oleg attacked his friend Kolya, who used to be a great joker.

Kolya-san, seeing the misunderstanding in our eyes, began to patiently explain:
– It’s not customary for the Japanese to joke about such topics. Death is very serious. Everything related to murder and war is a closed topic for the Japanese. They feel uncomfortable when their country's "militaristic" past is extolled. The nationalists who dragged Japan into World War II, pursuing their political goals, sought to elevate in the eyes of their compatriots the image of a warrior hero, the heir to the samurai spirit. Due to the shameful defeat and bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the word "samurai" is now associated with massacre and death. For most Japanese, the cruel samurai rests in peace in the depths of historical memory and appears only in the form of a tragic action hero or a character in the Kabuki theater. The time of true samurai has come and gone, like fallen cherry blossoms,” Kolya-san finished his explanation on a poetic note, “but the true samurai spirit is also manifested in everyday life.

Our fourth friend Sasha slowly squeezed into the kitchen, hugging the consul, and the women pulled up. It immediately became more crowded, but also more comfortable, just like it used to be during my student years. Kolya-san picked up a clay glass of sake and continued soulfully:
– And it is also known that the samurai spirit is transmitted to those people who are close to the samurai. Claudia Novikova lives in the Far East, about whom films are made in Japan, novels are written and poetry is written. She is about 90 years old, and narrow-eyed (sorry, consul-san!) psychologists are struggling with the mystery of Baba Klava’s soul, trying to understand why she voluntarily gave up her beloved husband, with whom she lived in happiness for almost half a century, to another woman. Samurai Yasaburo was condemned after the war as a Japanese spy; he did not return to his homeland and became a ladies' hairdresser, Yakov Ivanovich, in the distant village of Progress. When his first wife, Japanese Hisako, found him, Baba Klava insisted that her beloved husband return to her in Japan. And she herself was left alone. “I returned to Hisako not my husband, but an old debt,” said the Russian woman. And this act of samurai in spirit is truly admired in Japan.

- Yeah! – our women sighed in unison and immediately asked. – How did you and Meowka meet?

“Yes, apparently the moment is ripe,” said Kolya-san. – Not far from the University of Tokyo, where I taught, there is a Shinto shrine called Yasukuni. It's like a monument to samurai and war victims, and everyone makes wishes here. I also wrote on a piece of paper: “I want to return to my homeland, but so that they don’t put me in prison!”

- I wanted a lot! – Oleg commented.

- Well, then, in general, yes! – Kolya agreed. “And then I saw a schoolgirl walking in a striped sailor suit, and her white knee-high socks were pulled down to her ankles. I looked at these golf socks, my soul sank so much, I remembered all my girls. I see that she also left a note in the temple. I contrived and read her innermost desire: “Let me get married!” Well, a schoolgirl, I think. It turned out that she was only five years younger than me. And then I found out that her dad was not only a minister, but also a hereditary samurai. “Well,” I think, “he’ll cut it up if anything happens!” But when I learned that I had to call him kaka (respectful address to the minister), I immediately felt better, as if I had secret weapon appeared.

- So your dad is a kaka? – Oleg asked Meowki joyfully.

The samuraisha poked him in the chest with her fan and said firmly:
- You should never confuse this, you should never confuse this!

- This is samurai style! – Sasha admired.

I must note that Meowka’s samurai spirit was very useful to her in Moscow life. The neighbors began to respect her. On the street, in shops and in transport, Meowa behaves in such a way that any manifestation of rudeness dies on the vine. And Kolya-san is now translating into Russian a treatise by the ancient Japanese philosopher Reiki Ryoho, who outlined the commandments of compassion and wisdom, achieving happiness and harmony. This work was highly revered by the samurai and is highly valued in modern Japan. Meowka's father will come to Moscow soon. Despite his busy schedule, he decided to take this trip because his daughter was about to give birth to a son. And this will be the first heir of the ancient samurai family, born in the capital of our homeland.

VLADIVOSTOK STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND SERVICE

FACULTY OF ORIENTAL STUDIES AND LINGUISTICS

Book by N. Tsed “The Spirit of the Samurai -

spirit of Japan"

Compiled by:

Grivanov Roman RV-00-01

Vladivostok

Introduction.

Samurai are one of the most famous and colorful characters in Japanese history. Thirteen centuries have passed since the first of them appeared and more than a hundred years have passed since the latter officially ceased to exist.

The influence of the military class that existed for more than a thousand years was so great in Japan that without it it is impossible to understand history, traditional culture, and indeed any facet of today's life in modern Japan.

When we hear the word samurai, we symbolize it not only with a professional warrior who skillfully destroys any target. But we also remember the samurai code of honor of Bushido, and the ease of a person’s confrontation with death, and at the same time, the transfer of his life to it through traditional rite seppuku.

We are still amazed by the samurai's mastery of weapons, as well as their ability to fight with their bare hands. One can only be amazed at the devotion of the samurai to their overlord, their ability to move away from the whole world and be left alone with themselves. Nikolai Tsed's work is entirely dedicated to them. His book examines the history of the formation of samurai, the philosophical and religious foundations of their worldview, ethics, martial arts, culture and much more. It is clear that the author knows and loves the subject of his story, he perfectly shows us Japan, its history, its traditions and customs and, of course, without which the story about all this would be incomplete - the samurai.

Who are they and where are they from?

The word "samurai" ("saburai"), derived from the Old Japanese verb "saburahi", has in the Japanese dictionary ancient language the following interpretation: “to serve a great man, a person of the upper class,” “to serve the master, to protect the master.” In Japan, a samurai was called a servant of a noble person, a servant of a feudal lord, serving his interests, protecting his estate, property and himself.

The beginning of the formation of the samurai class - the small-scale military-service nobility of Japan - can be attributed to a relatively late time - 7-12 centuries. In 645 After the victory in the struggle for power between two houses of the tribal nobility (Sumeragi and Nakotomi), a representative of the victorious coalition, the 36th Emperor of Japan, Kotoku, was enthroned. Kotoku's rise to power was Japanese history name "Taika coup". This revolution contributed to the development of the state and the establishment of a feudal mode of production. As a result of the reforms, all land ceased to be the property of the rural community; it was declared imperial property and given to the peasants for temporary use. The allotment peasantry turned into an estate of feudal society, which began to be called “remin”.

Along with the allotments of peasants, there were allotments of masters, but they differed significantly from peasant lands in size, depending on the title or position of the owner.

The owners of the plots sought to completely transfer the land to private use. Brutal exploitation, heavy taxation, numerous duties and the desire of large landowners to seize peasant plots to expand their estates caused discontent among the peasantry, which often turned into open resistance. One of the forms of peasant protest was escape from their lands. The fugitives began to be called “ronin.” Many of them were grouped into robber gangs, which, on the one hand, were engaged in robbery, on the other, they went to serve in private estates, and became servants at large Buddhist temples.

The need of estate owners for ronin, which they used as a military force to suppress peasant uprisings, fight detachments of fugitive peasants and neighboring feudal lords who sought to take over best lands, - on the other hand, led to the creation of a new class of early feudal society, divorced from the economy - the class of samurai or warriors (bushi).

("1") Since the 10th century, centrifugal tendencies, separatism of individual provinces, and political fragmentation, generated by the strengthening of feudal lords on the periphery, have increasingly developed in Japan. As large feudal estates grew and became stronger, small landowners who failed to increase their own could not resist the arbitrariness of the local administration; their lands faced the threat of being absorbed by large land magnates. They were also in danger from peasant detachments. That is, they were forced to place themselves under the protection and patronage of large feudal lords.

These phenomena were also important for the development and strengthening of feudal samurai squads, since every small landowner who enjoyed the protection of his overlord owed him military service. These warriors gradually turned from “palace samurai” into a new type of samurai - armed servants who received allowance from their master for faithful service.

Another equally important reason for the formation of the warrior class was the ongoing struggle since ancient times in the northeast of the country with the Ainu - the descendants of ancient population Japanese islands. Fortresses were created on the borders, and wealthy peasants skilled in archery and horse riding were recruited into special detachments. The border also attracted fugitive peasants fleeing feudal oppression. Over time, the government began to encourage the resettlement of fugitive peasants to the north. The settlers, who received weapons from the authorities, fought a more effective fight against the Ainu than military government expeditions.

The armament of the settlers significantly contributed to the emergence of the samurai stratum in the northern regions of the island of Honshu. Also a big role in in this case was influenced by the presence of cultural relations between the settlers and the Ainu.

In the process of constant wars with the aborigines, the northeastern feudal lords created their own samurai squads.

Thus, the emerging warrior class of Japan was formed as a specific group of society, which was influenced to a certain extent by both military and peaceful contacts with the warlike Ainu tribes.

The unification of the disparate samurai squads of Minamoto Yorichiomo (the war of the Taira and Minamoto clans 1180 - 85) laid the foundation for the formation of the future shogunate as the embodiment of samurai.

Philosophical foundations samurai worldview.

The military class of Japan would not have been the same without Zen Buddhism, Shintoism, the teachings of Confucius, all of these religious and philosophical systems had an impact big influence on the Japanese. In his book, N. Tsed talks about the emergence of each of these teachings and their arrival in Japan.

Zen.

At the beginning of the second millennium, the teachings of one of the most influential and subsequently popular branches of Buddhism, Zen, began to spread in Japan. Translated from Japanese, “Zen” means “immersion in silent contemplation,” mastery of external and spiritual forces to achieve “enlightenment.” The adoption of Zen by the warrior class was natural. Before the establishment of the shogunate system, warriors practiced the worship of Amida Buddha. The idea of Amidism was extremely simple. Its essence was the constant repetition of the name Amida. For any person to be “salved” (for “future birth”) it was enough just to repeat this prayer endlessly. However, with the transformation of samurai into a political force during the Kamakura period and the beginning of its development as an estate of feudal society, a simple appeal to the Amida Buddha, which did not develop anything in the warrior except lack of will and passivity, became insufficient. The samurai had to persistently cultivate the will, focus on self-control and composure.

It was at this time that Zen preachers appeared on the scene and argued that Full time job over oneself, the ability to highlight the essence of any problem and focus on it, no matter what to go towards the goal, are of great practical importance not only in monastic, but also in secular life. From this time on, Zen Buddhism became the spiritual basis of the warrior class. One of the main reasons that attracted samurai to the teachings of Zen was its simplicity. The samurai had absolutely no need to burden his mind with the study of religious literature.

Zen Buddhism impressed the samurai by developing in them self-control, composure, and will - qualities so necessary for a professional warrior.

Combined and connected with self-discipline was another quality instilled in Zen warriors - unquestioning obedience to the lord and commander.

The importance of Zen in military and sports training of samurai was also very great. A vital role in fencing, archery, unarmed wrestling, swimming, etc., the Japanese assigned it not to physical, but spiritual state person. The mental balance and self-control developed by Zen were prevalent here.

The main method (the path to knowledge of the truth) in teaching the Zen system was meditation - contemplation in a sitting position, in a completely calm position with crossed legs, without any thoughts. In the XIV-XVI centuries. Zen reached its peak and became the most influential Buddhist sect supported by the shogunal government. At that time, Zen Buddhism had a significant impact on the development of all areas of Japanese culture. It goes without saying that this culture was first adopted by the ruling class of medieval Japan itself, including the samurai class, which enjoyed cultural values created in the country. However, in connection with the development of Zen, samuraiism somewhat changed its views on life and death, culture and its perception.

Nevertheless, the classical idealistic principles of Zen increasingly diverged from the worldview developed by the samurai on the basis of the Zen “arts.” Development of science and related military equipment, metallurgy, mining, etc. expanded the range of interests of the samurai. New weapons and military art showed that the will alone for battle is not enough, knowledge based on books is needed, logical thinking, which cannot be considered as a product of contemplation according to the Zen system, education sufficient for its time and class. All this to some extent changed the dogmas of Zen in accordance with the spirit of the era. After the end of the period of internecine wars, the contradictions between Zen and the training of a warrior according to the Zen system became even more noticeable. Samurai who stopped participating in hostilities received more time for education in general. Many bushi, due to various circumstances, left their profession and became teachers, artists, and poets.

Despite the fact that the vast majority of samurai were heirs to the ideas of Zenshu, there were also representatives of the warrior class who followed the teachings of other sects of Buddhism. First of all, this must be said about the Nichiren sect, which arose in the middle of the 13th century. and preached the position of the inevitable transformation after a certain period of all beings and things into Buddha, since he is contained in everything, be it a person , animal or any inanimate object. Many samurai, being supporters of the dogmas of the Nichiren sect, were its members, but the majority of Nichiren adherents were still “free” samurai - ronin, peasantry and other “lower” strata of society.

Shinto (Way of the Gods).

An important place in the religious worldview of the samurai was occupied by the ancient cult of Shinto, which coexisted peacefully with Buddhism. The main feature of this Japanese religion was the veneration of the forces of nature, local deities, and ancestors. The Japanese considered the sacred sword - a symbol of samuraiism and the soul of the Japanese warrior - as one of the three main Shinto shrines.

("2") Shinto required samurai to obligately honor deceased ancestors and worship the souls of warriors, military leaders, deified heroes and emperors killed in battle.

Samurai believed in divine predestination and made their will completely dependent on the will of the gods.

Shinto, being the original religion of the Japanese, however, was rarely present in its pure form in the religious life of the samurai.

Buddhism was a more developed (at the same time world) religion than simple and archaic Shintoism. Therefore he was immediately accepted ruling circles countries. Nevertheless, the Shinto clergy did not want to give up their beliefs and relied on the people who continued to practice the traditional religion. This forced the Buddhist clergy and rulers ancient japan to follow the path of cooperation between two religions, which over time led practically to the syncretism of Shintoism and Buddhism.

The fusion of Shinto and Buddhism was reflected in the spiritual life of samurai. Often, before military campaigns or a decisive battle, Japanese warriors simultaneously worshiped the spirits of Shinto and the deities of Buddhism. As a result of such coexistence, many Shinto gods began to be endowed with the characteristics of Buddhist bodhisattvas, while the pantheon of Buddhism was replenished with Shinto deities accepted into it.

Confucius (Venerable Teacher Kun).

The motto of the teachings of Confucius is the concept of the Great Way: “Man is able to make the Way great, but it is not the way that makes a person great.” Confucius identifies the path with truth, which is not only the goal, but also everything that leads to it.

The entire philosophy of Confucius is permeated by one, clearly expressed idea - the desire to establish order and tranquility in the human world. One of the key roles in the implementation of this idea was assigned to the noble husband. This is a person who, having freedom of choice, consciously chooses to move forward and meet fate, although he could refuse the tests.

From the dogmas of Confucianism, samurai learned the principles of reverence for elders, respect for the lord and loyalty to him. But loyalty to the master could be expressed not only in constant service to him, readiness to fall for him at any moment. The vassal also showed his loyalty by following his master along the path of death, expressed in “following suicide,” which became a common form of duty by the 14th century.

Confucius gave the samurai the regulatory and behavioral basis on which all the ethical and moral activities of the military class were built. With the assimilation of the ideas of Confucius, the formation of samurai, according to the author, was completed.

Thus, the religious worldview of the samurai was composed of the dogmas of Buddhism and Confucianism, brought to Japan from China, and elements of the beliefs and customs of the local, national religion - Shinto, which came into close contact with them. Over time, the elements of these three religions intertwined and formed, as it were, a single whole. Other major religions and religious movements had a less significant influence on the warrior class.

Martial arts.

Samurai have always been famous as skilled warriors. This is not surprising; at the beginning, during the period of fragmentation, almost the entire life of a samurai was a war. Then, in the XVI - XVII centuries the situation has changed. With the advent of stability, various schools of martial arts flourished, this was due to the fact that the samurai was obliged to be able to fight - it was part of life. The book describes several fighting styles that are widespread in Japan.

Kendo is the art of sword fighting.

Jujutsu is the art of fighting without weapons. It was based on ancient methods of fighting in armor and was gradually modified and improved.

Judo is a martial art created by Jigoro Kano in the 19th century. Based on Taoist principles of improving body and spirit.

Karatedo literally means “the way of the empty hand.” A martial art that came from China to Okinawa and subsequently to Japan. Initially, it was a way of fighting an armed and armored enemy with the help of hands or “non-military” objects: sticks, sickles, tridents.

Aikido is a technique of throwing and grabbing aimed at stopping an attack. Originally it was a secret martial art. It became widespread only in the twentieth century.

Samurai culture.

The valor of a samurai was considered not only combat skill, but also the ability to appreciate beauty: to compose poetry, paint pictures, and be a skilled calligrapher. Of course, not all of them were great artists or poets; it is simply amazing to realize that people who lived during the period of incessant wars, people who were ready to sacrifice their lives at any moment, found time to create beautiful paintings and poetic works. Nikolai Tsed talks about many of them.

("3") Poetry.

Poetry was an integral part of the life of a samurai. It is difficult to find a biography or legend that does not use poetic lines. Mastery of versification in the style of renga or haiku was considered no less a merit than the ability to wield a sword.

At the very beginning of the 10th century. The emperor ordered work to begin on compiling a new poetic anthology. Led this work and brought it to completion famous poet Ki no Tsurayuki. “Kokin(waka)shu”, or “Kokinshu” (“Collection of old and new songs”), also consists of twenty scrolls, but includes only 1100 verses, thematically divided into seasonal cycles, songs of love, songs of separation, songs of wanderings, etc. . d. This anthology, despite different level her samples became another contribution to the classical baggage of Japanese medieval literature. Among its authors, “six immortal poets” have already been identified. The most famous of them are Ariwara no Narihira and the poetess Ono no Komachi. “Kokinshu” became firmly established in the lives of educated Heians. Knowledge of her poems was indispensable for any courtier. A person’s personal merits or demerits were judged depending on how well he understood Kokinshu (Chinese poetry and Manyoshu too) and composed poetry himself.

The tanka became the most popular poetic form. Precise, capacious images, metaphors, the skill of elegant allusion, special key and seasonal words made it possible to express admiration for the natural world, love experiences, and philosophical reflections on the frailty of life in a laconic form... After “Kokinshu” several more anthologies were compiled; Thangka art experienced both ups and downs in its artistic level.

By the 15th century a custom developed to compose poems together, three of them, as if passing each other a poetic baton (renga) of tercets and couplets. Famous poet the classical renga was Sogi (1421–1502). Renga, dividing the tanka into two parts, eventually gave life to a new, even shorter form - haiku, i.e. tercet (the terms “haikai” and “haiku” are equivalent).

The flourishing of haiku poetry is associated with the name of another great poet - Matsuo Basho (1644–1694). His poems are amazing: simple and sophisticated, sincere and wise, kind and sensitive.

Japanese poetry is inextricably linked with painting and the art of calligraphy.

Painting and calligraphy.

The art of calligraphy, in which the psychophysical aspects of the creative process are so important, associated with the spiritual and physical preparedness of the artist, with the requirement of maximum concentration, spontaneity of execution, has been greatly influenced by the aesthetics and practice of Zen Buddhism.

Calligraphy in Zen is both a means of meditation and a path of knowledge, a kind of teaching aid, and the spiritual testament of the master, in each case it is an example of the highest sincerity and dedication, harmonious expression and artlessness. It is no coincidence that the term “bokuseki” (“ink trace”), as calligraphy was called in Japan, has been used since the 15th century. used primarily in relation to the Zen movement.

The perception of calligraphy requires a certain level of intellectual and spiritual culture, because you need to not only understand what is written, it is extremely important to see and feel how it is written.

Although samurai were not professional artists, some of them created beautiful paintings and engravings. An example of this is Miyamota Musashi, an outstanding swordsman whose monochrome paintings evoke genuine admiration. And this warrior was also excellent at mastering the art of the tea ceremony.

Tea ceremony.

It is noteworthy that the tea ceremony, as one of the greatest phenomena of Japanese culture, was formed in a difficult, troubled time for the country, when internecine wars, feuds between feudal clans, and bloody battles made life unbearable. The tea ceremony, created by the great masters, with its aesthetics and philosophy, inseparable from Zen Buddhism, sought to counter this hopelessness with the worship of Beauty. This is, obviously, one of the reasons for the vitality of the tea ceremony, which in all its main features has been preserved to this day, although it has undergone changes in different historical periods.

In the XV-XVI centuries. The tea ceremony turned into a kind of ritual and philosophical mini-performance, in which every detail, object, order of things had its own special, unique meaning.

Over time, the ritual of the tea ceremony was canonized, and the sequence of actions and behavior became predetermined. Having already entered the simple wooden gates, the guests were immersed in a special world, leaving behind everything worldly and obeying only the laws of action. They walked through the tea garden in silent concentration. As is common practice in all Japanese houses When entering the tea pavilion, guests took off their shoes and left them at the doorstep. Bending low, they entered and sat down in silence, intently admiring the scroll in the tokonoma and the refined naturalness of the flower arrangement. The “host” of the tea ceremony paid great attention to the selection of flowers, as well as to the scroll. special meaning. It was believed that, like everything in the tea ceremony, the bouquet should be composed according to the principle of unity of contrasts, for example, a pine branch - a symbol of perseverance and eternity - was adjacent to a delicate and fragile camellia. Very often it was one wild flower or one branch.

After some time had passed, during which the guests could examine and evaluate the items in the tokonoma, the “host” of the tea ceremony (chajin) appeared. He bowed low to the guests and sat down opposite them, near the fireplace, above which a pot of water was already hanging. In front of the “owner” lay all the necessary items of tea utensils: a box with green tea, cup and wooden spoon. Each of these objects, carrying an important aesthetic and philosophical meaning, was often a real work of art. The history of these objects, as well as the associations they evoked, were of great importance.

The “owner” slowly poured green tea into a cup, then poured boiling water over it. Then, with clear, concentrated movements, he beat this mass with a bamboo whisk until the powder was completely dissolved and a light green matte foam appeared. The guests silently watched the sacrament taking place, listening to the rhythmic tapping of the whisk on the edges of the cup. Then the “owner,” with a bow, handed the cup to the main, most honored guest. He slowly, in small sips, sipped the tea - a green, bitter-tart mass that melted in the mouth - and, leisurely wiping the edges, returned the cup to the “owner”. Having passed around the circle, it again ended up with the “owner”, but then it was again passed from hand to hand, so that everyone could now carefully examine it, feel its rough surface and the warmth of the clay with their hands. The guests began to talk. Here it was impossible to talk about everyday affairs and problems, here they only talked about the beauty of a scroll in a tokonoma, about the grace of a pine branch in a bouquet, about the natural majesty of a tea cup.

The tea ceremony and garden taught us to see beauty in the ordinary and simple, to see beauty in the small, to realize the high value of everything that is given in this life. All this was necessary for the samurai - to get away from the bustle and dangers for a while. Simply put, the tea ceremony provided such a necessary thing for everyone as psychological relief.

Samurai ethics.

("4") B moral code samurai of the feudal era great importance Revenge was given as a form of moral satisfaction to the sense of justice. Loyalty to the overlord required indispensable revenge for insulting the master.

The principle of modesty was developed as a result of the subordinate position of ordinary soldiers, the inability for them to raise their heads before their master. The concept of “politeness”, which implied patience, absence of envy and evil, was also close to modesty.

Along with the above basic principles, samurai ethics included a number of secondary ones that were inextricably linked with the main ones and determined the actions and behavior of samurai. The ability to control oneself and manage one's feelings was introduced to great perfection by the samurai.

A sense of honor and self-esteem were instilled in samurai children from childhood. Honor and glory were valued more valuable than life, therefore, when one of these concepts was at stake, the samurai, without hesitation, gave his life for it.

For a samurai, lying was tantamount to cowardice. The samurai's word carried weight without any written obligations, which, in his opinion, were degrading.

All this is reflected in the philosophy of Bushido.

Bushido (Way of War)

One of the consequences of the formation of the warrior class was the formation of a specific worldview of the military nobility - bushido - the unwritten code of conduct of the samurai in feudal society, which was a set of rules and norms for the “true”, “ideal” warrior.

Bushido dealt with the attitude of samurai towards social community, to people of one class or another, to the state. Being merged with Eastern philosophy, bushido had the character of practical moral teaching. Samurai considered it a method of improving mental and physical hygiene. Bushido morally comprehended the philosophical world teaching as a whole and was called upon to teach the samurai " right life"in feudal Japanese society. It combined the theory of being and the study of the human psyche, and resolved issues related to the concept of the essence of the individual, his role in the world around him, the meaning of life, good and evil, moral values and the moral ideal.

A warrior brought up in the spirit of Bushido had to be clearly aware of his moral duty, in particular his personal responsibilities towards the overlord, he had to evaluate his actions and deeds himself, and morally condemn himself in the event of wrong actions, violation of their duties and duty.

Bushido, as a way of regulating the behavior of a warrior, did not rely directly on any special institutions that enforced compliance with moral standards. It was based on the power of conviction, public opinion, example, upbringing, tradition and the strength of the moral authority of individuals noted in the medieval history of Japan.

So, bushido is a special morality developed by the class of warriors who were part of the ruling class of Japan, which was a system of views, norms and assessments concerning the behavior of samurai, ways of educating samurai youth, creating and strengthening certain moral qualities and relationships.

Bushido developed in warriors a love of weapons, which was supposed to instill in the samurai a sense of self-respect and at the same time responsibility, since samurai ethics considered the indiscriminate use of the sword to be dishonorable and prescribed its use only when necessary.

The philosophy of Bushido was expressed in the books “Hgakure” (Hidden in the Leaves) and “Budoshoshinshu” (Words to Those Entering the Path of War), which were written by hereditary samurai Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659 - 1719) and Daidoji Yuzan (1636 - 1730).

Here are quotes from these books:

I realized that the Way of the Samurai is this death.

There is nothing beyond this moment.

It is not so important to know how to defeat others, it is important to know how to defeat yourself.

A samurai may lose his life, but never his honor.

Another important concept for the samurai was ritual suicide - hara-kiri.

("5") Harakiri (Seppuku).

Inextricably linked and closely adjacent to bushido, as part of morality, is the rite of hara-kiri, which appeared among the warrior class during the formation and development of feudalism in Japan. Samurai or other representatives of the upper strata of Japanese society committed suicide (by the hara-kiri method) in the event of an insult to their honor, committing an unworthy act (disgracing the name of a warrior in accordance with the norms of Bushido), in the event of the death of their overlord, or when the ritual was finally formed - by sentence trial as punishment for a crime committed.

Harakiri was the privilege of the samurai, who were proud of the fact that they could freely manage their lives, emphasizing fortitude, self-control, and contempt for death by performing the ritual.

IN literal translation hara-kiri means "to cut the stomach." However, the word hara-kiri also has hidden meaning. If we consider the composite binomial “harakiri” - the concept “hara”, then we can see that it Japanese correspond to the words “belly”, “soul”, “intentions”, “secret thoughts” with the same spelling of the hieroglyph.

According to the philosophy of Buddhism, in particular the teachings of the Zen sect, it is not the heart, but the abdominal cavity that is considered the main, central point of a person’s life and thus the seat of life.

Thus, the Japanese consider the stomach as an internal source of emotional existence, and opening it through hara-kiri means, as it were, the discovery of one’s innermost and true intentions and serves as proof of the purity of thoughts and aspirations.

However, hara-kiri did not suddenly appear in Japan. Speaking about it as a phenomenon that developed and came to its logical conclusion on Japanese soil, one cannot fail to take into account that among some other peoples East Asia and Siberia, there were previously ritual actions that were similar and somewhat vaguely reminiscent in essence of Japanese seppuku. Stagewise, they can be attributed to an earlier time than hara-kiri itself. This suggests that the ritual of cutting the belly early in the history of peoples Far East was more widespread and was borrowed by the ancient Japanese, who had ethnocultural contacts with representatives of these peoples. We are talking about the ritual of opening the abdomen among the Ainu, the aborigines of the Japanese islands, which consisted of cutting into the abdominal cavity and was closely reminiscent of Japanese hara-kiri.

So, it can be assumed that ideas and rituals associated with the human abdominal cavity were characteristic of many peoples of Asia and were generally similar. However, these performances and rituals reached their final completion only on Japanese soil, turning into the solemn action of opening the abdomen - the hara-kiri ritual.

Starting from the Heian era (IX-XII centuries), seppuku already became the custom of bushi, in which they committed suicide, dying from their own sword. Nevertheless, the ritual was not yet a mass phenomenon. Suicide by hara-kiri became widespread among samurai only at the end of the 12th century, during the struggle for power of two powerful clans - the Taira and the Minamoto. Since that time, the number of cases of hara-kiri has been constantly increasing; samurai committed seppuku for themselves, most often not wanting to surrender or in the event of the death of their master.

Following the death of the master, harakiri received the name “tsuifuku”.

During the period of internecine wars, hara-kiri became widespread among the samurai class. Opening the abdomen begins to dominate other methods of suicide.

Another reason for seppuku was the desire to prevent the threat of punishment from the feudal lord or the shogun's government for any act unworthy of the samurai's honor, an oversight or failure to carry out an order. In this case, harakiri was committed at one's own discretion or by the decision of relatives.

Harakiri was also performed as a sign of passive protest against any blatant injustice to preserve the honor of the samurai (for example, when it is impossible to commit blood feud), in the form of a sacrifice in the name of an idea, or when deprived of the opportunity to use his professional skills as a warrior as part of the feudal lord's squad (in case of loss of vassalage ).

In general, hara-kiri was a universal way out of any difficult situation in which samurai found themselves.

Samurai began to learn harakiri (as well as the use of weapons) from childhood. Experienced mentors in special schools explained to young men how to begin and complete seppuku, while maintaining their own dignity and demonstrating the ability to control themselves to the fullest extent. last moment life. However, despite his Zen education and self-control, a samurai could subconsciously lose control of his actions due to terrible pain and die ugly: with an expression of suffering, falling backward, screaming, etc., thereby disgracing his name. In this regard, the kaishakunin institution was introduced, the essence of which was to help an assistant to someone convicted of hara-kiri. The duty of the first was to stop the torment of the samurai, who had opened his stomach, by separating the head from the body.

Conclusion.

N. Tsed's book is an excellent example of a scientific work. It is simple and in clear language such a complex and multifaceted phenomenon as samurai is described. But it is described not dryly and indifferently, but with sincere feeling, passion and liveliness, which are sometimes so lacking in such works.

The spirit of the samurai “bright as a mirror and sharp as a sword” is what Tsed tried to comprehend in his work, not just to comprehend, but to tell us. To tell about centuries-old history samurai and their role in the formation of Japanese culture. He writes about people who “being wars combined poets, artists, philosophers,” who were able to “transform battle into art,” about people who are inextricably associated with Japan.

A warrior should never speak with uncertainty; he should think and prepare in advance. Even in everyday activities, the depth of the soul is revealed.

Yamamoto Tsunetomo, "Hagakure"

Sparrows cannot understand the thoughts of an eagle. Momentary hardships throw you off balance, and the proximity of death makes any action meaningless in your eyes.
But for a person who thinks about great things, aims at great things and strives with all the strength of his soul to achieve a great goal, every action and every thought matters, even at the moment when his head is cut off.

In the article
quotes from
series of books "Samurai" by A. R. Basov

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Samurau - in Japanese - to serve. The origins of the military-feudal class of samurai go back to the imperial bodyguards of the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. By the 16th century AD the class numbered two million people, making up about 10% of Japan's population. The reason is the highest professionalism of the warriors, raised in the spirit of a code of honor - unconditional loyalty to the emperor, disregard for danger, high physical endurance and mercy for the weak. Weightless silk clothing, a helmet, a shell, shoulder pads, knee pads, two (long and short) swords, a spear, a horse, also in a shell, and the “master’s shadow” - a fighting dog, also in a shell, of an ancient breed “TOSA” that has not come down to us. Here in general outline portrait and equipment of a samurai.
In 1853-1854. The guns of the squadron of American commander Matthew Perry put an end to the centuries-old self-isolation of the empire, opening its ports to merchants from America and Europe. In 1872, the samurai class was abolished, but the spirit of loyalty and patriotism, selflessness and fearlessness did not fade away, flaring up with extraordinary force during the Second World War. The Japanese are poetic and love beautiful names: “sacred wind”, “cherry blossom”, “path to heaven”. This is what the “special attack” units called the deadly weapons operated by volunteer suicide bombers: kamikazes (aircraft equipped with explosives and filled with fuel at one end and manually aimed at the target by gliding bombs with a two-ton warhead) and kaiten (human-guided torpedoes with a one and a half ton warhead). With the combined efforts of the kamikaze and kaiten, they sank over fifty and seriously damaged over three hundred enemy ships.
Token dog fighting has been known in Japan since the early Middle Ages, and as a unique sport, however, without legally prohibited money bets and for a long time without deaths, it still exists today. But when in the second half of the 19th century. Along with various “benefits of civilization,” foreign fighting dogs were brought to Japan, and the aborigines began to suffer defeat after defeat.
Japan, an island country, has about four thousand islands, the largest of which are Honshu, Hokaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, in the Principality of Tosa, which had the best dog breeders and prepared them for the beginning of the 20th century. “Japan’s fighting answer” - “four-legged sumo wrestler”, heavy and at the same time agile, insensitive to pain and indomitable in a fight, widespread in Japan and almost unknown outside its borders TOSA INU.
As experts note, Tosa is calm, like a samurai, ready for a fight, which she enters with maximum concentration and without hesitation.
Defeat, in the “opinion of Tos,” is either injury or death, so in ordinary fights they are separated as soon as the superiority of one of the dogs is revealed. But in the battles for the title of National Champion they are allowed to fight to the end! The Japanese love various ceremonies, and Tosa Inu tournaments are not complete without them. First, there is a parade of participants, then a demonstration of strength and ferocity, then fights of pairs in weight categories taking place in complete silence: lightweight, middleweight, and the heavyweight “sumo wrestlers” complete the program. The awards for the winners are beautiful, expensive and prestigious. And the National Champion is covered with a ceremonial blanket self made
, a true work of art, the price of which usually exceeds thirty thousand dollars! National Champions cannot be sold abroad, and even if the owners enter into negotiations, the requested amounts are so astronomical that there are only one or two similar transactions.

Experts believe that in creating the breed, in addition to aboriginal hunting dogs that specialized in large animals, European bull terriers, old-type baiting bulldogs and mastiffs were used. This is how the official Japanese Kennel Club standard of 1982 describes the breed.
General form. A large, well-built, calm dog.
Temperament. Calm, reliable, manageable and attentive dog, aggressive towards other dogs.
Minimum (!) height. Male - from 60.5 cm, female - from 54.5 cm (at the withers).
The optimal weight is 60-90 kg.
Head. The skull is wide and voluminous. The look is calm and confident.
Neck. Muscular, with dewlap.
Frame. The chest is wide and deep. The belly is tucked in.
Limbs. Shoulders are muscular. The front legs are straight and powerful. The thighs are very muscular. Fingers in a ball.
Movements. Powerful and free.
Wool. Short, thick, tough.
Color. All shades of yellow. A black mask is recommended.

The years of World War II caused significant damage to European dog breeders.
For one reason or another, English mastiffs, Dogues de Bordeaux, Cane Corsos, South Russian Shepherds and Hungarian Commanders were brought to the brink of extinction. The Japanese turned out to be more prudent - with the outbreak of hostilities, they took the entire breeding elite of the breed to hard-to-reach places in Hokaido, Korea and even Taiwan. Nowadays, according to Yoshio Ikzuchi, director of the Association for the Preservation of the Tosa Breed, the breed's population in Japan exceeds 10 thousand dogs. Moreover, it is from the Tosu stock that local bankers, industrialists and even the Yakuza (mafia) recruit escort dogs - bodyguards. These dogs are calm, unobtrusive, silent and invisible in the house, easy to control, but extremely dangerous for anyone who encroaches on the owner or his property. Why are there so few of them in a country with a population of over 125 million people? Tosa “samurai in spirit” will obey only a physically and mentally healthy and strong owner, capable of dominating and controlling the actions of the “samurai” in any situation. In addition to Japan, there are small numbers of Tosa Inu in Korea, Taiwan and
Hawaiian Islands
We were fortunate enough to observe, communicate with, and photograph several Tosa Inus. In hot weather, with a frantic temperament and without the slightest shortness of breath, Ekaterinburgskaya worked one at a time, then two, and then three at a time. For an hour in the piercing, freezing wind, Moscow Philip tore at the defendant, tearing off his protective jacket and protective pants alternately. Then he tried to lick the face of the owner’s one-year-old nephew. Then he almost killed an overly curious Great Dane who ran up to the child before our eyes. The St. Petersburg “Korean” Kachhon Tejan, who came to Philip for mating, fell in love with our photographer so much that she allowed him to “excite” for several hours. And the Moscow “Hungarian” Tonakada Naca, as we have seen, loves to ride in a car more than anything else, guards it as a “sacred thing,” but at the same time is also capable of taking care of a completely stranger’s child. It is interesting to note that the “Moscow Czech” Philip, the “Korean” and the “Hungarian” are not only “bodyguards” of the owners and guards at the dachas, but also holders of the highest title of show dogs - CACIV.
We do not have reliable information about any fights or Tosa tournaments in Russia, but it is unlikely that our compatriots will have the culture to present it the way it happens according to one of the versions of fights in Japan. The ring is octagonal, 36 meters in diameter, with a fence made of thick, varnished (!) bamboo trunks. The fight is one on one. Each dog wears a collar of its own “personal” color. The duration is from 5 to 30 minutes, set for each specific couple. The task of the “fighter” is to knock down the opponent, pin him to the ground, hold him down, not allowing him to get to his feet (this is where the analogy with sumo wrestlers comes from). Biting, barking, squealing, moving more than three steps away from the opponent - immediate defeat, and for deliberate biting there is also disqualification! The winner receives the title "Yokosuma" (ring champion) and is crowned with a hemp wreath with ribbons decorated with samurai symbols and emblems. If, within the agreed time, none of the dogs managed to fix the enemy’s hold, victory is awarded to the tosa that retained the greatest fighting spirit, the spirit of the samurai!
We consider the practice of tournament-match testing of the working qualities of a limited number of breeds to be a purely selection exercise in order to preserve the formed genotype. We have already written about pit bulls and domestic wolfhounds (Caucasian and Central Asian shepherd dogs). Probably, a report on yew fights in Russia is not far off. As the samurai hymn says:
“Like a cherry tree is a queen among flowers, So a samurai is a ruler among people.”
Perhaps it is Tosa Inu, the “canine heir” of the spirit of the samurai, who will become the ruler among the dogs of the world.

V. Martens

In the XV-XVI centuries. The tea ceremony turned into a kind of ritual and philosophical mini-performance, in which every detail, object, order of things had its own special, unique meaning.

Over time, the ritual of the tea ceremony was canonized, and the sequence of actions and behavior became predetermined. Having already entered the simple wooden gates, the guests were immersed in a special world, leaving behind everything worldly and obeying only the laws of action. They walked through the tea garden in silent concentration. As is customary in all Japanese houses, upon entering the tea pavilion, guests took off their shoes and left them at the doorstep. Bending low, they entered and sat down in silence, intently admiring the scroll in the tokonoma and the refined naturalness of the flower arrangement. The “host” of the tea ceremony paid special attention to the selection of flowers, as well as the scroll. It was believed that, like everything in the tea ceremony, the bouquet should be composed according to the principle of unity of contrasts, for example, a pine branch - a symbol of perseverance and eternity - was adjacent to a delicate and fragile camellia. Very often it was one wild flower or one branch.

After some time had passed, during which the guests could examine and evaluate the items in the tokonoma, the “host” of the tea ceremony (chajin) appeared. He bowed low to the guests and sat down opposite them, near the fireplace, above which a pot of water was already hanging. In front of the “owner” lay all the necessary items of tea utensils: a box of green tea, a cup and a wooden spoon. Each of these objects, carrying an important aesthetic and philosophical meaning, was often a real work of art. The history of these objects, as well as the associations they evoked, were of great importance.

In the moral code of the samurai of the feudal era, great importance was attached to revenge as a form of moral satisfaction of the sense of justice. Loyalty to the overlord required indispensable revenge for insulting the master.

The principle of modesty was developed as a result of the subordinate position of ordinary soldiers, the inability for them to raise their heads before their master. The concept of “politeness” was also close to modesty, implying patience, the absence of envy and evil.

A sense of honor and self-esteem were instilled in samurai children from childhood. Honor and glory were valued more than life, therefore, when one of these concepts was at stake, the samurai, without hesitation, gave his life for it.

For a samurai, lying was tantamount to cowardice. The samurai's word carried weight without any written obligations, which, in his opinion, were degrading.

All this is reflected in the philosophy of Bushido.

Bushido concerned the attitude of samurai to the social community, to people of one class or another, to the state. Being merged with Eastern philosophy, bushido had the character of practical moral teaching. Samurai considered it a method of improving mental and physical hygiene. Bushido morally comprehended the philosophical worldview as a whole and was intended to teach the samurai “correct life” in feudal Japanese society. It combined the theory of being and the study of the human psyche, and resolved issues related to the concept of the essence of the individual, his role in the world around him, the meaning of life, good and evil, moral values and the moral ideal.

A warrior brought up in the spirit of bushido had to be clearly aware of his moral duty, in particular his personal duties towards the overlord, he had to evaluate his actions and deeds himself, morally condemn himself in case of wrong actions, violation of his duties and duty.

Bushido, as a way of regulating the behavior of a warrior, did not rely directly on any special institutions that enforced compliance with moral standards. It was based on the power of persuasion, public opinion, example, education, tradition and the strength of the moral authority of individuals noted in the medieval history of Japan.

So, bushido is a special morality developed by the class of warriors who were part of the ruling class of Japan, which was a system of views, norms and assessments regarding the behavior of samurai, ways of educating samurai youth, creating and strengthening certain moral qualities and relationships.

Here are quotes from these books:

I realized that the Way of the Samurai is this death.

There is nothing beyond this moment.

It is not so important to know how to defeat others, it is important to know how to defeat yourself.

A samurai may lose his life, but never his honor.

Another important concept for the samurai was ritual suicide - hara-kiri.

Harakiri was the privilege of the samurai, who were proud of the fact that they could freely manage their lives, emphasizing fortitude, self-control, and contempt for death by performing the ritual.

Literally translated, hara-kiri means “cutting the stomach.” However, the word hara-kiri also has a hidden meaning. If we consider the compound binomial “harakiri” - the concept “hara”, we can see that in Japanese it corresponds to the words “stomach”, “soul”, “intentions”, “secret thoughts” with the same spelling of the hieroglyph.

However, hara-kiri did not suddenly appear in Japan. Speaking about it as a phenomenon that developed and came to its logical conclusion on Japanese soil, one cannot fail to take into account that some other peoples of East Asia and Siberia previously encountered ritual actions that were similar and somewhat vaguely reminiscent in essence of Japanese seppuku. Stagewise, they can be attributed to an earlier time than hara-kiri itself. This suggests that the ritual of cutting the belly was more widespread in the early history of the peoples of the Far East and was borrowed by the ancient Japanese, who had ethnocultural contacts with representatives of these peoples. We are talking about the ritual of opening the abdomen among the Ainu, the aborigines of the Japanese islands, which consisted of cutting into the abdominal cavity and was closely reminiscent of Japanese hara-kiri.