Russian artistic culture in the era of enlightenment formation. Russian culture of enlightenment

XVIII century entered Western history as the Age of Enlightenment. The ideology of the Enlightenment arose in the 17th century. - the English philosopher is considered its founder D. Locke(1632-1704) - however, its heyday came in the next century. Greatest development she got in France, where it is represented by thinkers such as Voltaire (1694-1778),C. Montesquieu(1689-1755), J.-J. Rousseau(1712-1778), etc. INGermany Enlightenment is associated with names I. Herdera, I.V. Goethe, I. Kant and others, in USA -T. Jefferson, B. Franklin and etc.

In terms of its content, the 18th century. became a continuation of the previous one and the Renaissance. He sharply contrasted himself with the “gloomy” Middle Ages, further elevated the authority and role of reason and science, and made the ideas of humanism extremely relevant. However, it was not at all a simple repetition of the previous one. XVIII century completed the Modern Age and created all the necessary prerequisites for the subsequent development of the Western world.

Tracing and comprehending the evolution of humanity, enlightenment philosophers have developed a rather slender and holistic the concept of its past, present and future. The basis of this concept was the concepts of “state of nature”, “natural law”, “human nature”, “social contract”, reason, progress, “bright future”, etc.

According to this concept, the evolution of mankind began with a “state of nature”, based on “natural law”, which in turn corresponded "human nature".

The latter, according to educators, is a set of qualities and values ​​such as love, pity, compassion, mercy, freedom, equality, brotherhood, justice, etc., which are inherent only to man and distinguish him from all other living beings. They are natural, since they are born together with a person and act simultaneously as his properties and his inalienable, inalienable rights. Without them and without the right to them, a person ceases to be a person. Rousseau views freedom as the very essence of man and humanity, and pity as the natural foundation of all social virtues. Rousseau is the author famous saying: “man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.”

The period of the natural state of mankind, by which was meant primitive society, enlighteners called the “golden age” because, in their opinion, it was marked by the highest triumph of freedom, equality, justice and other principles and values. At the same time, all these principles were not guaranteed in any way, were under constant threat and were increasingly violated, the reason for which was a lack of love and an excess of rivalry between people.

In the end, society had to think about their protection and guarantees. This is how it arose, and with it - , And . It arose not by the will of God, but as a result of a conscious agreement, a “social contract” between people. It was the state that had to guarantee strict adherence to the principles and norms of natural law. Along with its emergence, the previous natural state of society gave way to civilian. His appearance also meant the birth civilization.

According to educators, the subsequent evolution of humanity showed that the state did not cope well with the tasks assigned to it. Society moved further and further away from the principles of natural law, various kinds of unfreedoms multiplied, inequality and injustice grew. The highest point in this process was feudalism with its absolute monarchy, which the enlighteners subjected to severe and irreconcilable criticism.

They claimed that feudal system is incompatible with the principles of reason and natural law and must therefore give way to a new society in which these principles will be restored. At the same time, they understood that a return to the past, to the “golden age” was impossible. Therefore, the grandiose program they proposed for building a new society had a pronounced futuristic character: it was aimed at a “bright future”, a “radiant tomorrow”, in the words of the French enlighteners, in which Freedom and Equality would triumph again. Justice, etc. It is noteworthy that the leaders of the French Revolution declared 1793 the first year of the “new era.”

On the path to a “bright future”, enlighteners saw two main obstacles: despotism, in the form of an absolute monarchy, and obscurantism, the embodiment of which was religion and the Church.

The main means of building a new society are put forward education And upbringing. Ignorant, unenlightened. a dark person, according to enlighteners, cannot be free. In turn, only an ignorant monarch puts up with oppression, inequality and injustice, without realizing all their immorality.

Therefore, educators place great hopes on an enlightened monarch, a “philosopher sovereign,” a “sage on the throne,” who will be able to consciously rid society of unfreedom, injustice and other vices. A vital role in achieving a bright future was given mind. In his belief in the possibility of creating fair society Enlighteners relied on faith in the progress of reason and man's ability to endlessly improve himself. Reason was declared the supreme judge of all that exists.

In addition to the general program for the reconstruction of society, educators put forward solutions to many specific problems. In particular, they developed classical concept of political pluralism, Montesquieu made a special contribution to its creation. This concept is based on well-known principle separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Montesquieu placed law above power, believing that the latter must strictly follow the letter and spirit of the law. He believed that power stems from strength, and law from reason.

Enlightenment scholars also developed a holistic and deep the concept of man, his rights and freedom. Its main ideas and provisions were reflected in the famous “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” (1789), with which the Great French Revolution began. This Declaration proclaimed as inalienable human rights freedom of personality, speech, conscience, equality before the law, and the right to fight against oppression. She also declared private property inviolable.

In relation to culture, in the studies of educators, two main directions in understanding the relationship between national and world cultures have clearly emerged - cultural relativism and universalism. Most educators, especially French ones, adhered to cultural universalism, which proceeded from the fact that there is the unity of the human race, a common “human nature” for all, that despite all the diversity of nations and peoples, there are universal, universal, supranational moral, aesthetic and other values. Because of this, world culture is quite possible, and for European peoples it already exists, and in the future - thanks to the progress of reason, enlightenment and education - humanity will create in in every sense a unified world culture.

Supporters of cultural relativism, the founder of which is I. Herder. hold opposite positions, arguing that there is no single human nature, but that there are only Germans, French, Russians, etc., that there are only national cultures that there is no world culture and it is impossible. The debate started by the enlighteners continues to this day, emerging today as a problem of the relationship between national and universal values.

The ideology of the Enlightenment determined the development of all areas of culture in the 18th century. I found myself in a very difficult situation religion. This is the first time she has become the subject of severe criticism. Its most ardent and decisive critic is Voltaire. He owns the famous call: “Crush the reptile!”, directed against religion and especially the Church. It is the Church that is for him the main source of troubles and misfortunes for the people. He exposes her as a defender of the feudal system, a stronghold of obscurantism, fanaticism and intolerance, an opponent of reason, science and enlightenment. In general, the 18th century marked by a sharp weakening religious foundations culture and strengthening its secular character.

Much more favorable conditions develops philosophy. This is not surprising, since the entire ideology of the Enlightenment was the creation of enlightenment philosophers. In their philosophical studies, they continue the criticism of religion and medieval scholasticism begun by previous eras. At the same time, many of them, including Voltaire, do not completely break with religion and adhere to the concept of deism, according to which God. being the World Mind, He is the Creator of nature, but after its creation He does not interfere with its existence.

Other Enlightenment philosophers, especially the French materialists - Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius - took a more decisive position in relation to religion. They rejected deism and explained the world based on itself, relying on natural laws.

Philosophy of the 18th century. developed in close unity and cooperation with science and natural history. A huge achievement of this cooperation was the publication "Encyclopedias" in 35 volumes (1751-1780), inspired and edited by Diderot and D'Alembert. The contents of the Encyclopedia consisted of advanced ideas and views on the world and man. It was a body of valuable knowledge and information about the development of science, art and crafts.

XVIII century is a time of rapid development Sciences. During this period, the scientific revolution that had begun earlier ends, and science - meaning natural science - reaches its classical form. The main features and criteria of such a science come down to the following: the objectivity of knowledge, the experience of its origin, the exclusion of everything subjective from it. Science is acquiring unprecedented social prestige. Together with philosophy, Oma appears as the only adequate embodiment of reason.

The unusually increased authority of science leads to the fact that already in the 18th century. the first forms appear scientism. which puts science in the place of religion, absolutizes and deifies the role and significance of science. On its basis, the so-called scientistic utopianism is also formed, according to which the laws of society can become completely “transparent”, fully cognizable; and politics is based on a system of scientific laws that are no different from the laws of nature. In particular, Diderot, who looked at society and man through the prism of natural science and the laws of nature, was inclined towards such views. With this approach, a person ceases to be a subject of cognition and action, is deprived of freedom and is identified with an ordinary object or machine.

It is also developing very successfully art culture, where there is much more continuity. 18th century art acts in many ways as a direct continuation of the previous century. The main styles are still classicism and baroque. At the same time, there is an internal differentiation of art, its fragmentation into a growing number of trends and directions that do not look very clear, blurry. New styles are emerging, in particular rococo And sentimentalism.

In general, the art of the 18th century. - compared to the previous one - seems less deep and sublime, it appears lighter, airier and more superficial. It demonstrates an ironic and skeptical attitude towards what was previously considered noble, chosen and sublime. The Epicurean principle, the craving for hedonism, the spirit of pleasure and enjoyment are noticeably strengthened in him. At the same time, art becomes more natural, closer to reality. Moreover, it is increasingly invading social life, struggle and politics, becomes biased.

Classicism represents primarily a French artist J.-L. David (1748-1825). His work reflects great historical events, the theme of civic duty. His famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii” sounds like a call to fight against absolutism. This work is distinguished by its strict composition, clear rhythm, bright and rich color. His other painting, “The Death of Marat,” is dedicated to the Great French Revolution, in which David took an active part. Here, on the contrary, emphasized laconicism and asceticism of pictorial means prevail. A grandiose canvas on historical topic became the painting “Coronation of Napoleon I”.

Baroque XVIII century did not produce figures equal in scale and significance to Rubens. Being the “great style” of the era of absolutism, it gradually lost its influence, and to mid-18th century V. it is increasingly being squeezed by the Rococo style, which is sometimes called degenerate Baroque.

Most widespread rococo received in France. One of its most famous representatives is the artist O. Fragonard (1732-1806). He continues the line of Rubens, which is manifested in his sensual perception of color and special attention to the beauty of female flesh and exciting bodily forms. A striking example in this regard is the picture "Bathers" expressing the real apotheosis of life, sensual joy and pleasure. At the same time, the flesh and forms depicted by Fragonard appear as if incorporeal, airy and even ephemeral. In his works on foreground virtuosity, grace, sophistication, light and air effects emerge. It is in this spirit that the painting “Swing” was painted.

Sentimentalism, which arose in the second half of the 18th century, was the first opposition to the Enlightenment deification of reason. He contrasted reason with the cult of natural feeling. One of the founders and main figures of sentimentalism was J.-J. Rousseau. He owns famous saying: “The mind can make mistakes. feeling - never! In his works - “Julia, or New Heloise”, “Confession”, etc. - he depicts life and concerns ordinary people, their feelings and thoughts, glorifies nature, critically evaluates city ​​life, idealizes patriarchal peasant life.

The greatest artists of the 18th century. go beyond stylistic boundaries. These include primarily the French artist A. Watteau (1684-1721) And spanish painterF. Goya (1746-1828).

Watteau's work is closest to the Rococo style. Therefore, he is sometimes called the genius of the Rococo era. At the same time, the influence of Rubens and Van Dyck, Poussin and Titian is felt in his works. He is rightfully considered the forerunner of romanticism and the first great romantic in painting. J. Ko who compares Watgos to Mozart. Creativity does it all French artist extremely complex and multi-valued.

The main themes of his works are nature and woman, love and music. Watteau became one of the greatest painters human soul, its immeasurable depths and subtle tints. He created an amazingly musical painting, as if vibrating and pulsating. It is marked by vivid theatricality. It combines the real and the imaginary, the serious and the funny, joy and sadness. In the film " Morning toilet" Watteau depicted a wonderful naked girl. The canvas “Pierrot” is dedicated to the Italian comedian. The artist’s most famous work is considered to be the painting “ Pilgrimage to the island of Cythera."

No less complex and multifaceted is the art of F. Goya. With his work he continues the realistic trend of Rembrandt. In his works one can detect the influence of Poussin, Rubens and other great artists. At the same time, his art is organically fused with Spanish painting- especially with the art of Velasks. Goya is one of the painters whose work has a pronounced national character. Goya successfully worked in almost all genres of painting. As a court artist, he created magnificent portraits of members of the royal family. Among them is the “Portrait of Queen Marie-Louise”. In the portrait genre, he also created such masterpieces as “Maja on the Balcony” and “Portrait of Sabasa Garcia”. Many of Goya's canvases depict simple working people, scenes from folk life, beautiful Spanish landscapes, bullfights, etc. To the number famous works includes a series of etchings “Caprichos”, executed with amazing artistic power.

It is especially necessary to highlight musical art experiencing in the 18th century. unprecedented rise and prosperity. If the 17th century is considered the century of theater, then the 18th century. can rightfully be called the century of music. Its social prestige increases so much that it takes first place among the arts, displacing painting.

Music of the 18th century. represented by such names as F. Haydn, K. Gluck, G. Handel. Among the great composers, I.S. deserve close attention. Bach (1685-1750) and V.A. Mozart (1756-1791).

Bach is the last great genius of the Baroque era. He successfully worked in almost all musical genres except opera. His music was far ahead of its time, anticipating many later styles, including Romanticism. Bach's work constitutes the pinnacle of the art of polyphony. In the field of vocal and dramatic music, the most famous masterpiece the composer is the cantata “St. Matthew Passion”, which tells the story of last days life of Christ. Bach's greatest fame during his lifetime came from organ music. Here he knows no equal. In the field of music for the keyboard a brilliant creation the composer is "The Well-Tempered Clavier"", which is a kind of encyclopedia of music styles of the 17th - 18th centuries.

Austrian composer V.A. Mozart is one of the greatest geniuses of world art. He belongs to the Viennese classical school. His music is characterized by classical, transparent clarity and piercing purity of sound. However, his work goes beyond any particular style. His works combine the principles of classicism with the aesthetics of sentimentalism. They also contain lightness, grace, sophistication and tenderness of gallant style.

At the same time, Mozart is the forerunner of romanticism - the first great romantic in music. His work spans almost every genre, and he is a bold innovator everywhere. During Mozart's lifetime, his operas enjoyed the greatest success. The most famous among them are “ Wedding6aFigaro." "Don Juan", "The Magic Flute". Also worthy of special mention is “ Requiem" However real glory came to Mozart after his death. He became a symbol of incredible talent, unsurpassed genius, selfless loyalty to art.

The Age of Enlightenment is fundamental to subsequent history Western Europe. It became a time of affirmation and celebration human mind. It acted both as a project and as the beginning of the modern era. The ideals and values ​​she proclaimed played a decisive role in the development of mankind for two centuries. However, many of them are currently experiencing a deep crisis.

ROCOCO

Western artistic culture Europe XVIII century. Age of Enlightenment.

Western European culture

The 18th century is one of the most brilliant eras in history human culture. This period European history, located, relatively speaking, between two revolutions - the so-called “glorious revolution” in England (1688-1689) and the Great French revolution 1789-1795 is called the Age of Enlightenment. Indeed, the central phenomenon of cultural and ideological life of the 18th century. The Enlightenment movement came into being. It included political and social ideas - progress, freedom, a fair and reasonable social order, the development of scientific knowledge, and religious tolerance. But it was not a narrow ideological movement of the bourgeoisie directed against feudalism - and only that, as is sometimes claimed. The famous philosopher of the 18th century, the one who was the first to sum up the results of this era, I. Kant, in 1784. dedicated a special article to the Enlightenment, “What is Enlightenment?” and called it “a person’s exit from the state of minority.” The English thinker Locke argued that man is born " blank slate”, on which any moral, social “writing” can be inscribed, it is only important to be guided by reason. "Age of Reason", "Age of Criticism", " Philosophical Age" - this is the common name of the 18th century.

And in this busy time, trends in art are developing: rococo, (neo-) classicism, sentimentalism.

Antoine Watteau(1684-1721). "Gallant festivities" or "gallant scenes"- the main theme of Watteau's work. The landscape here is nature inhabited by humans, more like a park than a forest; the poses and movements of the characters are surprisingly graceful and harmonious. In the development of the plot, the main thing is the communication between a man and a woman, their elegant, silent dialogue: the play of glances, slight hand movements, barely noticeable turns of the head, which speak louder than any words.

* Community in the Park

A year before his death, Watteau created big picture, which was supposed to serve as a sign for an antique shop.

* Sign of Gersen's shop

When they bought it, they cut it in half. It turned out like two paintings. This is what mastery means - to divide society so precisely that from one canvas two can be obtained without any problems? Its theme is the daily life of a fashionable art store. Visitors look at paintings and antiques, make purchases, and talk with sellers. Watteau presented the styles and artistic tastes era: the first part depicts cold, pompous classic works, in the second - playful “gallant scenes” and genre painting.

Jean Honore Fragonard. (1732 - 1806) - French painter and engraver. He wrote mainly idealistic genres and pastorals, scenes of intimate life with piquant, sometimes shamelessly erotic content, decorative panels, portraits, miniatures, watercolors, pastels. His works became very fashionable and were bought in great demand at high prices, thanks to which he managed to make good money for himself.

* Sneak kiss

*Pastoral- (French pastorale, pastoral, rural) - a genre in literature, music and theater that poetizes peaceful and simple rural life.

Francois Boucher- fashionable artist, favorite of Madame de Pompadour, creator of the court rocaille. The subjects are pastoral scenes with pseudo-shepherdesses, playful ambiguities, poetic huts, plump beauties disguised as Venuses and Dianas. Contemporaries said about his paintings: “Not painting, but airy cakes.” Shades of pale green, blue; one of the shades of pink is “the color of the thigh of an embarrassed nymph.” Subtle refined forms, lyrically tender coloring, charming gracefulness, even affectation of movements, pretty faces are reminiscent of Watteau’s “gallant scenes”. But Boucher’s feeling of instability and changeability of the situation disappeared. The artist is more interested not in the characters themselves, but in the combination human figures and landscape, still life.

* Diana's bath

Nicola Lancret- (22.1.1690 - 14.9.1743) - French painter, representative of Rococo art. He was strongly influenced by A. Watteau. In 1719 he was accepted as a member of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as a “master of gallant subjects.” Lancret also painted in the spirit of “gallant scenes”, even creating a series of paintings depicting the “Seasons”, which shows not only the weather, but also a variety of games and entertainment.

* Summer

At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Middle Ages ended in Russia and the New Age began. Russian art XVIII V. in just a few decades, he was destined to transform from religious to secular, master new genres (for example, portrait, still life and landscape) and discover completely new themes (in particular, mythological and historical). For this reason, styles in art, which in Europe successively replaced each other over the centuries, existed in Russia in the 18th century simultaneously or with a gap of only a few years.

The 18th century in the history of Russian art was a period of apprenticeship. But if in the first half of the 18th century. the teachers of Russian artists were foreign masters, then in the second they could learn from their compatriots and work with foreigners on equal terms. At that time there were almost no major Russian masters. Peter I invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent the most talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. "Peter's pensioners"(students who studied at the expense of state funds - pensions) began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

Russian art in the second half of the 18th century. was already developing in parallel with the European one, in which by that time it had become established a new style- neoclassicism. But since, unlike Western European countries, Russia turned to cultural heritage antiquity and the Renaissance for the first time, Russian neoclassicism of the 18th century. usually called simply classicism. After only a hundred years, Russia appeared in a renewed form - with a new capital, in which the Academy of Arts was opened; with many art collections that were not inferior to the oldest European collections in scope and luxury.

In order for Russia to strengthen itself on the Baltic Sea, Peter I founded the new capital - St. Petersburg. Its name then sounded a little different - St. Peter-Burkh, which meant “the fortress of St. Peter” (the Apostle Peter was the heavenly patron of the Russian monarch).

According to the plan of Peter I, first of all it was necessary to build up and populate the islands at the mouth of the Neva. With this layout, the river with its numerous branches and the canals dug later became the main thoroughfares of St. Petersburg, almost like in Venice or Amsterdam (the Russian Tsar took it as a model). Bridges were not deliberately built; Boats were distributed to the townspeople to accustom them to the water element. St. Petersburg was built unusually quickly by European standards, in just a few decades. In the first years after its foundation, people still wandered there wild animals(in 1714, wolves even killed a sentry at his post). And just seven years later, in 1721, the streets of St. Petersburg were already illuminated by about a thousand lanterns. To quickly realize Peter’s plan, they gathered here the best masters, and throughout the country it was forbidden to build stone houses.

* Peter-Pavel's Fortress (modern look) - architect - Swiss Domenico Giovanni Trezzini, whose name in Russia was Andrei Yakimovich.

The location turned out to be successful, but building on marshy soils was extremely difficult: it was necessary to drive many oak piles under each building.

* Admiralty (modern view)

The Admiralty itself (a building that housed shipyards (a set of structures for the construction and repair of ships), workshops and warehouses - everything extremely important for the construction of ships) was founded in 1704. Master shipbuilders and sailors settled next to him. According to Korobov's project in the late 20s - 30s. XX century The Admiralty building was rebuilt. Just at that very moment, the famous spire appeared on it - the “Admiralty Needle” with a weather vane in the shape of a ship, which served as the main landmark on the left bank of the Neva. The “trident” of the main thoroughfares of the city - Nevsky and Voznesensky Prospekts and Gorokhovaya Street - diverged from the Admiralty, which began to be built up with residential buildings. There, in the fortress was

* Peter and Paul Cathedral(Trezzini)

The cathedral even now looks very unusual for Orthodox church. The building is dominated not by a dome, but by a sharp spire of a bell tower. There is also no usual apse (the protrusion on the eastern side where the altar was located). The high bell tower combined so well with the flat, flat landscape that later architects tried to repeat this detail.

Nearby, Peter I founded his first palace, called the Winter Palace. The king hardly lived in it, calling it an “office,” but he visited and worked here every day. We will not be able to see it as it was then, because the Palace was constantly being rebuilt.

In addition to the Admiralty, other enterprises appeared in St. Petersburg. Foundry yard, Sestroretsk arms factory, Mint, Tapestry manufactory, Silk manufactory, Tannery on the Vyborg side, sugar factory, glass factories, a grinding and cutting factory and many other factories, plants and manufactories.

* Mint

Later, stone houses for nobles began to be built on Vasilyevsky Island, for example

* Menshikov Palace

Menshikov was an associate of Peter I. His palace often served as a place for ceremonial royal receptions. It was there that the crew of the first foreign ship that arrived at the new port from Holland was honored.

By the mid-20s. Other buildings appeared on Vasilyevsky Island. They still decorate the embankment

* Kunstkamera

The Kunstkamera is the first museum in Russia; (German: Kunstkammer - cabinet of curiosities, museum), or the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It has a unique collection of antiques that reveal the history and life of many peoples. But many people know this museum for its collection of “freaks” - anatomical rarities and anomalies.

* building of the Twelve Colleges

These are unique ministries of the Petrine era. The building consists of 12 identical parts, each part belonged to a separate ministry. The total length of the building was more than 400 meters. The long line of the building was planned to limit the then emerging main square of the city - Kollezhskaya. It never became the main one; after the death of Peter I, the city center was moved beyond Vasilyevsky Island. And at the beginning of the 20th century it ceased to exist altogether, when the Clinical Midwifery Institute was built on its space. The building of the Twelve Colleges does not face Universitetskaya embankment, but it just faces it with its end. There is a legend associated with this feature of the building’s location. As if planning to one day leave St. Petersburg, Peter I entrusts Menshikov with the construction of the Twelve Collegium Building along the Neva embankment. It was supposed to be a continuation of the Kunstkamera. And as a reward, Peter allowed Menshikov to use for his palace all the remaining land that would remain to the west of the new building. Menshikov allegedly reasoned that if the house was placed facing the Neva, then he would get very little land. And he decided to place the building not along, but perpendicular to the embankment. Returning from the trip, Peter became furious. Dragging Menshikov by the collar along the entire building, he stopped at each Collegium and beat him with his famous baton.

Slightly upstream of the Neva was located

* Summer Palace

Architects - Domenico Trezzini and Andreas Schlüter. Summer Palace Peter gave it to his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. He was very proud of the Summer Garden that surrounded this building. Of course, now the garden is completely different. It was dominated not by trees, but by annual herbs and flowers. They were planted in figured flower beds, which formed ornaments similar to carpet patterns. Such parks in Russia were called regular or French, since the fashion for them came from Versailles (the residence of the French kings near Paris), and the flower beds were called parterres (from the French par terre - “on the ground”). The stalls were decorated marble statues, depicting heroes of ancient myths; the statues were brought from Italy. Walking around Summer Garden, visitors could get acquainted with a new form of art for Russia and with ancient mythology.

One of the greatest churches still pleases the eye with its grandeur -

* Saint Isaac's Cathedral(French architect Auguste Montferrand)

48 monolithic granite columns 17 meters high were cut down in quarries near Vyborg and transported to St. Petersburg by sea. 128 workers installed each of them using a system of blocks and mechanisms in just 40-45 minutes! Construction technology has never seen anything like this before. It took a very long time to build - 40 years, until the death of the architect. And it was decorated until 1917 (!). Mosaic copies began to appear next to the paintings.

In 1741 ᴦ. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I, ascended the throne. During her reign (1741 - 1761), numerous luxurious palaces began to be built again, and artists, both Russian and foreign, were invited to decorate them. During the time of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Baroque style flourished in Russian architecture. Its main representative was an Italian by birth, Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (Bartholomew Varfolomeevich). In 1754-1762. Rastrelli built a new

* Winter Palace

It appeared at approximately the same place where the Winter Palace of Peter I stood. Here is what the architect himself wrote about it: “I built a large Winter Palace in stone, which forms a long rectangle with four facades... This building consists of three floors, except cellars Inside... there is a large courtyard in the middle, which serves as the main entrance for the empress... In addition... to the main courtyard, there are two other smaller ones... The number of all rooms in this palace exceeds four hundred and sixty... At the same time , there is a large church with a dome and an altar... In the corner... of the palace, on the side of the Great Square, a theater with four tiers of boxes was built...” The Winter Palace was the whole city, without leaving which one could pray, watch theatrical performances, and receive foreign ambassadors. This majestic, luxurious building symbolized the glory and power of the empire. Its facades are decorated with columns, which are either crowded together, forming bunches, or more evenly distributed between window and door openings. The columns unite the second and third floors and visually divide the façade into two tiers: the lower, more squat one, and the upper, lighter and more ceremonial. On the roof there are decorative vases and statues that continue the vertical columns against the sky. Part of the premises was a storage facility for one of the first museums in Russia - Hermitage, since 1922 the entire building has become a museum.

And here is another unique structure -

* building of the Academy of Arts

It was built over almost a quarter of a century (1763-1788). The authors of the project were the vice-president and later the rector of the academy, Alexander Filippovich Kokorinov (1726-1772) and the Frenchman Jean Baptiste Michel Vallin-Delamot (1729-1800), who worked in Russia from 1759 to 1775. The purity of classic proportions, the monochromatic façade, on which the play of colors was replaced by the play of chiaroscuro, significantly distinguished this building from Baroque buildings. It is also unique among other buildings of Russian classicism with their colored - green or yellow - walls and white columns. The layout of the academy building is strictly symmetrical, made up of the simplest geometric shapes: the buildings of the building form a square, and the huge courtyard forms a circle. The simplicity and clarity of plans has become characteristic feature classic architecture.

Artistic culture of Europe at the end of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. Romanticism

Romanticism- an ideological and artistic direction that established itself in the era of revolutions, which contrasted the old order with aspirations for freedom, the pathos of personal and civil independence.

Features of romanticism in Western European painting:

· affirmation of the self-worth of a person’s personality;

· image strong passions(emotions);

· spiritualization of nature;

· interest in history, civic position;

· research of the subconscious;

· search for oneself

Caspar David Friedrich – German artist, considered nature (themes - philosophical landscapes) as huge organism, where a person is small and fragile, but part of the world.

* landscape with a rainbow

* Monk by the sea

* On a sailboat

Francisco Goya- Spanish painter and engraver.

Famous etchings (French – “nitric acid”, a type of engraving) – “Caprichos” series:

* The sleep of reason gives birth to monsters

* Spun finely

* Execution of rebels

Theodore Gericault- French painter and graphic artist, his work shocked those in power.

* Raft "Jellyfish"

Eugene Delacroix- French painter and graphic artist.

* Freedom leading the people to the barricades

Dante Gabriel Rossetti- Italian artist, poet.

* Annunciation

William Turner- English artist, marine painter.

* Shipwreck

* Blizzard

* Slave ship

* Rain. Steam. Speed

Topic 12. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment: the formation of humanistic ideals

European forms of cultural life as a standard in Russian culture of the Enlightenment. New ideological guidelines for a secular state. Preservation of traditional national values ​​while mastering European forms and genres of art. The phenomenon of “Russian Europeanness”.

The priority role of the word in the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. Writers of the first half of the century (by teacher's choice). Theory of classicism M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokova: general and different. The importance of classicism for the development of music.

Vocal genres in the culture of the Enlightenment: from Peter’s cants and “book songs” to “Russian songs” (F.M. Dubyansky, I.A. Kozlovsky). Opera: European and Russian. The development of the comic opera genre, the role of the literary basis, the composition of folk songs “to voices”. V.A. Pashkevich, E.I. Fomin - the founders of Russian opera. Spiritual music. Creativity.S. Berezovsky and D.S. Bortnyansky. Classicist choral concert.

The formation of instrumental music in Russia. “Russian Paganini” - I.E. Khandoshkin. Piano music by D.S. Bortnyansky.

Development of humanistic ideals of the Russian Enlightenment and the “peasant question”. Peasant images in Russian art. Collection and study of Russian folk songs (collections by V.F. Trutovsky, N.A. Lvov-Prach). Anti-serfdom motifs of Russian prose (N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev), drama of turgy (Ya.B. Knyazhnin), poetry (V.V. Kapnist), music (V.A. Pashkevich). Comedy in the works of D.I. Fonvizin, satirical images and accusatory pathos (satire “on morals”). Creativity G.R. Derzhavin (by teacher's choice).

Development of theatrical art. Serf theaters and serf actors. Italian and French opera in St. Petersburg.

The uniqueness and intrinsic value of the human personality in the fine arts of the Enlightenment. Portrait painting (I. Ya. Veshnyakov, I. P. Argunov, A. P. Antropov, F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky). Academy of Arts. The formation of the genre of historical painting. Creativity of A.P. Losenko. Sculpture - the new kind art in Russia. Creativity F.I. Shubina. Monument to Peter the Great E.-M. Falcone. Works by F.G. Gordeeva and M.I. Kozlovsky.

The ideals of architecture are the glorification of the greatness of the new Russian statehood. A mixture of architectural forms - Russian and imported European ones. Fundamental novelty in urban planning. The appearance of St. Petersburg. Baroque in architecture. Creativity V.V. Rastrelli. Classicism; creators of palaces and public buildings (A. Rinaldi, D. Quarenghi, C. Cameron - foreign masters in Russia). School of domestic architects (M.G. Zemtsov, I.K. Korobov, P.M. Eropkin, S.I. Chevakinsky, I.F. Michurin, D.V. Ukhtomsky, A.F. Kokorinov). Outstanding masters V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

The entry of Russian artistic culture into the context of European culture. “Russian Europeanness” is a harbinger of the classical stage in the development of art of the “golden” 19th century.

Requirements for the level of student preparation

The requirements for the level of student preparation correspond to the requirements formulated in the federal state standard of general education and the exemplary (model) curriculum (Law of the Russian Federation “On Education”, Articles 12, 13, 15, 32).

Modern trends in the development of art education are aimed at the dynamics of the development of multi-art education, ensuring the formation of a general culture of the individual.

As a result of studying the course “World Art Culture”, students should Know:

The main eras in the artistic development of mankind;

Cultural dominants of various periods in the development of world artistic culture;

Main styles and trends in world artistic culture;

The role and place of the classical artistic heritage in the artistic culture of our time;

Features of the artistic culture of modern humanity and its complex structure;

Outstanding monuments and works of art from various eras;

The main art museums of Russia and the world.

Be able to:

Distinguish between works of art of different styles;

Show with specific examples the place and role of Russian artistic culture in world artistic culture;

Formulate your value judgment about works and genres of art;

Use reference literature on art, analyze and interpret it.

The result of teaching the academic subject “World Artistic Culture” should be the aesthetic growth of students who comprehend world artistic culture: from students’ perception of specific works of art through their comprehension of a holistic artistic picture of the world to independent aesthetic activity, to their own creativity, the elevation of spirituality on the basis of global, domestic, regional cultural heritage.

Forms and controls

Modernization of the education system involves a significant change in the organization of quality control of students’ knowledge and the quality of teaching of the MHC in accordance with the curriculum and educational and methodological set of L. A. Rapatskaya. The subject of pedagogical control is the assessment of the results of the pedagogical process organized in it. The main subject of assessing the results of art education is knowledge, the result of training is abilities, skills and the result of education is ideological attitudes, interests, motives and needs of the individual. In the practice of pedagogical control, it is possible to distinguish the following types: starting, current, thematic, milestone, final and final. The forms of control include oral, written, programmed. Starting control determines the initial level of training and readiness to master further material. It is advisable to carry out starting control at the beginning school year. With the help of current monitoring, it is possible to diagnose the didactic process, identify its dynamics, and compare learning results at its individual stages. Midterm control carries out a stage-by-stage summing up of results for half a year, a year after completion, for example, big topics, large sections of the program. The mid-term control also takes into account current control data. Final control is carried out after passing all training course, usually on the eve of transfer to the next grade. Final control data allows you to evaluate the work of the teacher and students. The results of the final control must correspond to the level of generation II standards.

Certification of students varies in form: oral, written, programmed, in the form of test control, as well as control creative tasks. Methods for diagnosing learning outcomes can include: debates, seminars, Olympiads, quizzes, festivals, excursions, etc.

MOSCOW DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

WESTERN DISTRICT EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

CITIES OF MOSCOW

SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 806

CALENDAR AND THEMATIC PLANNING

on world artistic culture

Class 11 "A" class

Teacher Ginzburg I.A.

Number of hours:

total - 34 hours;

per week - 1 hour.

The planning is based on the work program of I.A. Ginzburg.

Calendar and thematic planning

10 "a" class

Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 -1698 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.

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Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people, he studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. Even good crew the king did not have it. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.

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Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In 1708-1710 in Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected final version new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.

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The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits included ancient objects and rarities, collected by the king during travel abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.

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The first academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.

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Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. Encyclopedia cultural behavior became the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct.” The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all sides Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.

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Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes who committed incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.

Slide no. 13

Slide description:

Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: he personally edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.

Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, and German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, and German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.

Birthday of the Russian press. Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer. In Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.

The first museum. The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.

First Academy First Academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also for higher education in Russia. In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also for higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.

Changes in everyday life. Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” became an encyclopedia of cultural behavior. The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” became an encyclopedia of cultural behavior. The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed over the centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1. Peter's reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed over the centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.
Man and culture of modern times. Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.