The concept of image in literary criticism has its origins. The originality of artistic imagery in the works of romantic writers
Artistic image
Typical image
Image-motive
Topos
Archetype.
Artistic image. The concept of artistic image. Functions and structure of the artistic image.
Artistic image– one of the main categories of aesthetics, which characterizes the way of displaying and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is also called any phenomenon creatively recreated by the author in a work of art.
An artistic image is one of the means of knowing and changing the world, a synthetic form of reflection and expression of the artist’s feelings, thoughts, aspirations, and aesthetic emotions.
Its main functions: cognitive, communicative, aesthetic, educational. Only in their totality do they reveal specific features image, each of them separately characterizes only one side of it; isolated consideration of individual functions not only impoverishes the idea of the image, but also leads to the loss of its specificity as a special form of social consciousness.
In the structure of an artistic image, the main role is played by the mechanisms of identification and transference.
The identification mechanism carries out the identification of the subject and the object, in which their individual properties, qualities, and characteristics are combined into one whole; Moreover, identification is only partial, extremely limited: it borrows only one feature or a limited number of features of the object person.
In the structure of the artistic image, identification appears in unity with another important mechanism of primary mental processes- transfer.
Transference is caused by the tendency of unconscious drives, in search of ways of satisfaction, to be directed by associative paths to ever new objects. Thanks to transference, one representation is replaced by another along the associative series and the objects of transference merge, creating the so-called in dreams and neuroses. thickening.
Conflict as the basis of the plot of the work. The concept of “motive” in Russian literary criticism.
The most important function of the plot is to reveal life’s contradictions, that is, conflicts (in Hegel’s terminology, collisions).
Conflict- a confrontation of contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within character, underlying the action. If we are dealing with small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of one single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.
Conflict- the core around which everything revolves. The plot least of all resembles a continuous one, continuous line, connecting the beginning and end of an event series.
Stages of conflict development- main plot elements:
Lyric-epic genres and their specificity.
Lyric-epic genres reveal connections within literature: from lyricism - theme, from epic - plot.
Combining an epic narrative with a lyrical beginning - a direct expression of the author’s experiences and thoughts
1. poem. – genre content can be either epic dominant or lyrical. (in this regard, the plot is either enhanced or reduced). In antiquity, and then in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Classicism, the poem, as a rule, was perceived and created synonymously with the epic genre. In other words, these were literary epics or epic (heroic) poems. The poem has no direct dependence on the method; it is equally represented in romanticism (“Mtsyri”) and in realism (“ Bronze Horseman), in symbolism (“12”)…
2. ballad. - (French “dance song”) and in this sense it is a specifically romantic poetic work with a plot. In the second meaning of the word, ballad is folk genre; this genre characterizes the Anglo-Scottish culture of the 14th-16th centuries.
3. fable- one of the oldest genres. Poetics of the fable: 1) satirical orientation, 2) didacticism, 3) allegorical form, 4) peculiarity genre form yavl. Inclusion in the text (at the beginning or at the end) of a special short stanza - morality. A fable is connected with a parable; in addition, a fable is genetically connected with a fairy tale, an anecdote, and later a short story. rare fable talents: Aesop, Lafontaine, I.A. Krylov.
4. lyrical cycle is a unique genre phenomenon belonging to the field of lyric epic, each work of which was and remains a lyrical work. All together, these lyrical works create a “circle”: the unifying principle of the phenomenon. topic and lyrical hero. Cycles are created “at once” and there may be cycles that the author forms over many years.
Basic concepts of poetic language and their place in school curriculum on literature.
POETIC LANGUAGE, artistic speech, - the language of poetic (verse) and prosaic literary works, a system of means artistic thinking and aesthetic development of reality.
Unlike ordinary (practical) language, whose main language is communicative function(see Functions of language), in P. i. the aesthetic (poetic) function dominates, the implementation of which focuses more attention on the linguistic representations themselves (phonic, rhythmic, structural, figurative-semantic, etc.), so that they become valuable means of expression. General imagery and artistic uniqueness of literature. works are perceived through the prism of P. I.
The distinction between ordinary (practical) and poetic languages, i.e., the actual communicative and poetic functions of language, was proposed in the first decades of the 20th century. representatives of OPOYAZ (see). P. I., in their opinion, differs from the usual one in the perceptibility of its construction: it draws attention to itself, in a certain sense slows down reading, destroying the usual automatism of text perception; the main thing in it is “to experience the making of a thing” (V.B. Shklovsky).
According to R. O. Yakobson, who is close to OPOYAZ in understanding P. Ya., poetry itself is nothing more than “as a statement with an attitude toward expression (...). Poetry is language in its aesthetic function."
P. I. is closely connected, on the one hand, with the literary language (see), which is its normative basis, and on the other hand, with the national language, from which it draws a variety of characterological language means, eg. dialectisms when conveying the speech of characters or to create local coloring of the depicted. The poetic word grows from the real word and in it, becoming motivated in the text and fulfilling a certain artistic function. Therefore, any sign of language can, in principle, be aesthetic.
19. The concept of artistic method. The history of world literature as the history of changes in artistic methods.
Artistic method(creative) method is a set of the most general principles of the aesthetic development of reality, which is consistently repeated in the work of one or another group of writers who form a direction, trend or school.
O.I. Fedotov notes that “the concept of “creative method” differs little from the concept of “artistic method” that gave birth to it, although they tried to adapt it to express a larger meaning - as a way of studying social life or as the basic principles (styles) of entire movements.”
The concept of artistic method appeared in the 1920s, when critics Russian Association proletarian writers" (RAPP) borrow this category from philosophy, thereby seeking to theoretically substantiate the development of their literary movement and the depth of creative thinking of "proletarian" writers.
The artistic method has an aesthetic nature; it represents historically determined general forms of emotionally charged figurative thinking.
Objects of art are the aesthetic qualities of reality, that is, “the broad social significance of the phenomena of reality, drawn into social practice and bearing the stamp of essential forces” (Yu. Borev). The subject of art is understood as a historically changing phenomenon, and changes will depend on the nature of social practice and the development of reality itself. The artistic method is analogous to the object of art. Thus, historical changes in the artistic method, as well as the emergence of a new artistic method, can be explained not only through historical changes in the subject of art, but also through historical changes in the aesthetic qualities of reality. The object of art contains the vital basis of the artistic method. The artistic method is the result of a creative reflection of an object of art, which is perceived through the prism of the artist’s general philosophical and political worldview. “The method always appears to us only in its specific artistic embodiment- in the living matter of the image. This matter of the image arises as a result of the artist’s personal, intimate interaction with the concrete world around him, which determines the entire artistic and mental process necessary to create a work of art” (L.I. Timofeev)
The creative method is nothing more than a projection of imagery into a specific historical setting. Only in it does the figurative perception of life receive its concrete implementation, i.e. is transformed into a specific, organically emerged system of characters, conflicts, and storylines.
The artistic method is not an abstract principle of selection and generalization of the phenomena of reality, but a historically determined understanding of it in the light of those basic questions that life poses to art at each new stage of its development.
The diversity of artistic methods in the same era is explained by the role of worldview, which acts as an essential factor in the formation of an artistic method. In each period of development of art, the simultaneous emergence of various artistic methods is observed, depending on social situation, since the era will be viewed and perceived by artists in different ways. Proximity aesthetic positions determines the unity of the method of a number of writers, which is associated with the commonality of aesthetic ideals, similarity of characters, homogeneity of conflicts and plots, and manner of writing. For example, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok are associated with symbolism.
The artist's method is felt through style his works, i.e. through individual manifestation of the method. Since the method is a way of artistic thinking, the method represents the subjective side of the style, because This method of figurative thinking gives rise to certain ideological and artistic features of art. The concept of method and the individual style of the writer are related to each other as the concept of genus and species.
Interaction method and style:
§ variety of styles within one creative method. This is confirmed by the fact that representatives of one or another method do not adhere to any one style;
§ stylistic unity is possible only within one method, since even external resemblance works of authors adjoining one method does not provide grounds for classifying them as unified style;
§ reverse influence of style on method.
Full use of the stylistic techniques of artists who adhere to one method is incompatible with consistent adherence to the principles of the new method.
Along with the concept of the creative method, the concept also arises direction or type of creativity, which in a wide variety of forms and relationships will manifest themselves in any method that arises in the process of development of the history of literature, since they express the general properties of the figurative reflection of life. Taken together, the methods form literary movements(or directions: romanticism, realism, symbolism, etc.).
The method determines only the direction creative work the artist, and not her individual properties. The artistic method interacts with the creative personality of the writer
The concept of “style” is not identical to the concept "creative individuality of the writer". The concept of “creative individuality” is broader than what is expressed by the narrow concept of “style”. A number of properties are manifested in the style of writers, which in their totality characterize the creative individuality of writers. The concrete and real result of these properties in literature is style. A writer develops his own individual style based on one or another artistic method. We can say that the creative individuality of the writer is a necessary condition further development of each artistic method. We can talk about a new artistic method when new individual phenomena created by the creative individuals of writers become common and represent a new quality in their totality.
The artistic method and creative individuality of the writer are manifested in literature through the creation of literary images and the construction of motifs.
Mythological school
The emergence of a mythological school at the turn of the 19th–19th centuries. The influence of the Brothers Grimm’s “German Mythology” on the formation of the mythological school.
Mythological school in Russian literary criticism: A.N. Afanasyev, F.I. Buslaev.
Traditions of the mythological school in the works of K. Nasyiri, Sh. Mardzhani, V.V. Radlov and others.
Biographical method
Theoretical and methodological foundations biographical method. The life and work of S.O. Saint-Beuve. Biographical method in Russian literary criticism of the 19th century. ( scientific activity N.A. Kotlyarevsky).
Transformation of the biographical method in the second half of the twentieth century: impressionistic criticism, essayism.
A biographical approach to studying the heritage of major literary artists (G. Tukay, S. Ramiev, Sh. Babich, etc.) in the works of Tatar scientists of the 20th century. Using a biographical approach in studying the works of M. Jalil, H. Tufan and others. Essays at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.
Psychological direction
Spiritual and historical school in Germany (W. Dilthey, W. Wundt), psychological school in France (G. Tarde, E. Hennequin). Reasons and conditions for the emergence of a psychological trend in Russian literary criticism. Concepts by A.A. Potebnya, D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky.
Psychological approach in Tatar literary criticism at the beginning of the twentieth century. Views of M. Marjani, J. Validi, G. Ibragimov, G. Gubaidullin, A. Mukhetdiniya and others. Work of G. Battala “Theory of Literature”.
The concept of psychological analysis of a literary work in the 1920s–30s. (L.S. Vygotsky). Research by K. Leonhard, Müller-Freinfels and others.
Psychoanalysis
Theoretical basis psychoanalytic criticism. Life and work of S. Freud. Psychoanalytic works of Freud. Psychoanalysis by C. G. Jung. Individual and collective unconscious. Archetype theory. Humanistic psychoanalysis by Erich Fromm. The concept of the social unconscious. Research by J. Lacan.
Psychoanalytic theories in Russia in the 20s. XX century (I.D. Ermakov). Psychoanalysis in modern literary criticism.
Sociology
The emergence of sociology. Difference between sociological and cultural-historical methods. Features of the application of the sociological method in Russian and Tatar literary criticism. Views of P.N. Sakulin. Works of G. Nigmati, F. Burnash.
Vulgar sociologism: genesis and essence (V.M. Friche, late works V.F. Pereverzeva). F.G. Galimullin about vulgar sociologism in Tatar literary criticism.
Sociologism as an element in literary concepts of the second half of the twentieth century (V.N. Voloshinov, G.A. Gukovsky).
The emergence of new concepts and trends that managed to overcome the reductionism of the sociological approach. The life and work of M.M. Bakhtin, the concept of dialogue. An attempt to expand the capabilities of the sociological method in the works of M. Gainullin, G. Khalit, I. Nurullin.
Sociologism on a global scale: in Germany (B. Brecht, G. Lukács), in Italy (G. Volpe), in France, the desire for a synthesis of sociologism and structuralism (L. Goldman), sociologism and semasiology.
Formal school.
Scientific methodology formal school. Works of V. Shklovsky, B. Eikhenbaum, B. Tomashevsky. The concepts of “technique/material”, “motivation”, “defamiliarization”, etc. Formal school and literary methodologies of the 20th century.
The influence of the formal school on the views of Tatar literary scholars. Articles by H. Taktash, H. Tufan on versification. Works of H. Vali. T.N. Galiullin about formalism in Tatar literature and literary criticism.
Structuralism
The role of the Prague linguistic circle and the Geneva linguistic school in the formation of structuralism. Concepts of structure, function, element, level, opposition, etc. Views of J. Mukarzhovsky: structural dominant and norm.
Activities of the Parisian semiotic schools (early R. Barthes, C. Levi-Strauss, A. J. Greimas, C. Bremont, J. Genette, U. Todorov), the Belgian school of sociology of literature (L. Goldman and others).
Structuralism in Russia. Attempts to apply the structural method in studying Tatar folklore(works by M.S. Magdeev, M.Kh. Bakirov, A.G. Yakhin), in school analysis (A.G. Yakhin), in the study of the history of Tatar literature (D.F. Zagidullina and others).
Emergence narratology - theories of narrative texts within the framework of structuralism: P. Lubbock, N. Friedman, A.–J. Greimas, J. Genette, W. Schmid. Terminological apparatus of narratology.
B.S.Meilakh about complex method in literary criticism. Kazanskaya basic group Yu.G. Nigmatullina. Problems of forecasting the development of literature and art. Works of Yu.G. Nigmatullina.
A complex method in the research of Tatar literary scholars T.N. Galiullina, A.G. Akhmadullina, R.K. Ganieva and others.
Hermeneutics
The first information about the problem of interpretation in Ancient Greece and the East. Views of representatives of the German “spiritual-historical” school (F. Schleiermacher, W. Dilthey). Concept of H. G. Gadamer. The concept of the “hermeneutic circle”. Hermeneutical theory in modern Russian literary criticism (Yu. Borev, G.I. Bogin).
Artistic image. The concept of artistic image. Classification of artistic images according to the nature of their generality.
Artistic image- a method of mastering and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art, for example, the image of a warrior, the image of a people.).
By the nature of their generality, artistic images can be divided into individual, characteristic, typical, image-motifs, topoi and archetypes (mythologems).
Individual images characterized by originality and uniqueness. They are usually the product of the writer's imagination. Individual images are most often found among romantics and science fiction writers. These are, for example, Quasimodo in the “Cathedral” Notre Dame of Paris» V. Hugo, the Demon in the poem of the same name by M. Lermontov, Woland in “The Master and Margarita” by A. Bulgakov.
Characteristic image, is generalizing. It contains common features characters and morals inherent in many people of a certain era and its public spheres(characters from “The Brothers Karamazov” by F. Dostoevsky, plays by A. Ostrovsky).
Typical image represents the highest level of characteristic image. Typical is exemplary, indicative of a certain era. The depiction of typical images was one of the achievements realistic literature XIX century. It is enough to recall Father Goriot and Gobsek Balzac, Anna Sometimes both the socio-historical signs of an era and the universal character traits of a particular hero can be captured in an artistic image.
Image-motive- this is a steadily recurring theme in the work of any writer, expressed in various aspects by varying its most significant elements (“village Rus'” by S. Yesenin, “Beautiful Lady” by A. Blok).
Topos(Greek topos - place, locality) denotes general and typical images, created in the literature of an entire era, a nation, and not in the work of an individual author. An example would be the image “ little man"in the works of Russian writers - from Pushkin and Gogol to M. Zoshchenko and A. Platonov.
Archetype. This term was first found among German romantics in early XIX century, but true life in various fields knowledge was given to him by the work of the Swiss psychologist C. Jung (1875–1961). Jung understood an “archetype” as a universal human image, unconsciously passed on from generation to generation. Most often, archetypes are mythological images. The latter, according to Jung, are literally “stuffed” with all of humanity, and archetypes nest in the subconscious of a person, regardless of his nationality, education or tastes.
1. What is the name for the form of allegory characteristic of fables, a parable? ( Allegory)
2. Name the term that is used in literary criticism to designate an expression that has become popular? OR: In the speech of the heroes of the play there are many short, figurative sayings that express original thoughts (for example, in the speech of Ash: “You are not a nail, I am not pliers...”). What are such statements called? OR: Many of the remarks of the characters in the play have become commonly used (for example: “You can’t always cure your soul with the truth”). Indicate the term that denotes apt figurative expressions containing a complete philosophical thought. (Aphorism)
3. In literary criticism, what are characters who do not appear on stage called? OR: In the stories of Ms. Prostakova and Skotinin, the “dead father” and uncle Vavila Faleleich appear. What are the names of the characters mentioned in the speech of the heroes, but not appearing on stage? ( Off-stage)
4. In a literary work, what is the name of the monologue that the hero pronounces “to himself”? ( Inner monologue)
5. Wanting to show his importance, Khlestakov uses a clear exaggeration: “thirty-five thousand couriers alone.” What is the name of an artistic technique based on exaggeration? ( Hyperbola)
6. One of the characteristic techniques of classicism is to reveal the character of the hero through his last name. What are these surnames called? OR: The surname of Khlestakov, as well as the surnames of other characters in the play, contains a certain figurative characteristic. What are these surnames called? ( Speakers)
7. Indicate the name of the technique of artistic exaggeration, in which verisimilitude gives way to fantasy or caricature. ( Grotesque)
8. What is the name of the expressive detail that carries literary text important semantic load? OR: Indicate the name of the detail that gives the story special expressiveness (for example, the tear that rolled out from Chichikov. OR: What term denotes a significant small detail that contains important meaning(for example, Father’s chest from Mrs. Prostakova’s story)? ( Detail)
9. What term refers to the form of speech of characters that represents an exchange of remarks? OR: The text of the fragment is an alternation of statements of the characters addressed to each other. What is this form of verbal communication called? ( Dialogue)
10. Specify genre, to which the work belongs. ( Epic genres: Novel, short story, tale, fairy tale, fable, epic, short story, essay... Dramatic genres: drama, comedy, tragedy...
11. Define genre of work. Fonvizin “The Minor” is a comedy. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit" - comedy. Gogol "The Inspector General" is a comedy. Ostrovsky “The Thunderstorm” – drama. Chekhov “ The Cherry Orchard"- comedy. Gorky "At the Bottom" - drama.
12. Which one genre variety refers to the novel? ( Social-philosophical, psychological, social-everyday...)
13. What stage in the development of action does this fragment belong to? ( Commencement, climax, denouement). OR: What is the name of the moment highest voltage in the development of a dramatic plot. ( Climax).
14. The free, relaxed nature of the characters’ speech is emphasized in this fragment by violating the direct word order in their phrases: “I’ll give you money for them”; “After all, I’ve never sold dead people before.” Name this technique. ( Inversion)
15. What is the name of the type of description in literary works that allowed the author to recreate the furnishings of a home? OR: Indicate the term that in literary criticism is used to describe the setting of the action, the interior decoration of the premises (“... in the corner, in front of the black board of the icon of the Mother of God of the Three-Handed One, a lamp was burning, they sat down at a long table on a black leather sofa...”). ( Interior)
16. Name an artistic technique in which the implied meaning of a word or phrase is the opposite of the literally expressed (“Master of interpreting decrees”). ( Irony)
17. The fragment begins and ends with a description of a fire in Smolensk, etc. Indicate the term that denotes the location and relationship of parts, episodes, images in a work of art. OR: What term denotes the organization of parts of a work, images and their connections? ( Composition)
18. The fragment shows sharp collision heroes' positions. What is such a collision called in the work? OR: Clashes between the characters are revealed from the very beginning of the play. What is the name of the irreconcilable contradiction underlying dramatic action? ( Conflict)
19. Type conflict? (Public, love, social). OR: The conflict associated with the relationship between the hero and heroine determines the plot action " Clean Monday» I.A. Bunina. Define this conflict. ( Love)
20. Within what literary direction was this work created? ( Sentimentalism, classicism, realism, symbolism...). OR: Indicate the name of the literary directions XVIII century, the tradition of which is continued by Griboedov, endowing some of the heroes of his realistic play with “talking” surnames - characteristics. ( Classicism) OR: What is it called literary direction, the principles of which are partly formulated in the second part of the presented fragment (“to bring out everything that is every minute in front of our eyes and what indifferent eyes do not see - all the terrible, stunning mud of little things that entangle our lives”)? ( Realism)
21. Indicate the type of trope, which is based on the transfer of the properties of some objects and phenomena to others (“flame of talent”). OR: What term denotes the means of allegorical expressiveness that the author refers to when describing the giant ship “Atlantis”: “... the floors... gaped with countless fiery eyes”? ( Metaphor)
22. What is the name of the extended statement of one character? ( Monologue)
23. At the beginning of the episode, a description of the night village is given. What is the term for such a description? OR: What term is used to describe nature? ( Scenery)
24. Indicate a trope that is a replacement of a proper name with a descriptive phrase. ( Periphrase)
25. What is the deliberate use of identical words in a text that enhances the significance of a statement? OR: “Yes, he was hateful to me, hateful...”, “It’s so hard, so hard.” What is this technique called? ( Repeat)
26. Name artistic medium, based on an image of a person’s appearance, his face, clothing, etc. (“The fluff on her upper lip was frosted, the amber of her cheeks turned slightly pink, the blackness of the paradise completely merged with the pupil...”). OR: At the beginning of the fragment a description of the character’s appearance is given. What is this means of characterization called? ( Portrait)
27. The heroes’ speech is replete with words and expressions that violate literary norm(“such rubbish”, “get around me”, etc.). Indicate this type of speech. ( Vernacular)
28. What term refers to the display method internal state heroes, thoughts and feelings? OR: What is the name of the image of the hero’s internal experiences, manifested in his behavior? (“confused, blushed all over, made a negative gesture with his head”)? ( Psychologism)
29. The events in the work are presented from the perspective of a fictional character. What is the name of the character in the work who is entrusted with the narration of events and other characters? ( Narrator)
30. What is the name of the hero who expresses the author’s position? ( Reasoner)
31. The first act of M. Gorky’s play “At the Lower Depths” opens author's explanation: “Cave-like basement. Ceiling – heavy stone vaults, smoked, with fallen plaster..." What is the name of the author's explanation that precedes or accompanies the course of action in the play? OR: Indicate the term used in plays to describe short authorial remarks (“Teases him,” “With a sigh,” etc.). ( Remarque)
32. Name the term that refers to the statements of the characters in the play. OR: What is the name in dramaturgy for a single phrase of an interlocutor in a stage dialogue? ( Replica)
33. Enter a title sort of literature to which the work belongs? ( Epic, drama)
34. What is it called in literary criticism? special kind comic: ridiculing, exposing the negative aspects of life, depicting them in an absurd caricature (for example, the depiction of generals in the fairy tale by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Tale of How One Man Fed Two Generals”?) ( Satire)
35. Describing the tavern where the heroes arrived, I.A. Bunin uses a figurative expression based on the correlation of two objects, concepts or states that have a common feature (“it was steamy, like in a bathhouse”). What is the name of this artistic technique? OR: Indicate the technique used by the author in the following phrase: “... soaring high above all other geniuses of the world, as an eagle soars above other high-flying ones.” ( Comparison)
36. What is the name of the part of the act (action) of a dramatic work in which the composition of the characters remains unchanged? ( Scene)
37. What term denotes the totality of events, turns and twists and turns of action in a work? ( Plot)
39. Artistic time and space– the most important characteristics of the author’s model of the world. What traditional spatial landmark does Goncharov use to create the image of a symbolically rich closed space? ( House)
41. The above scene contains information about the characters, place and time of the action, and describes the circumstances that took place before it began. Indicate the stage in the development of the plot, which is characterized by the named features. OR: What term is used to designate the part of the work that depicts the circumstances preceding the main events of the plot? ( Exposition)
42. What term refers to the final component of a work? ( Epilogue)
43. What is the name in literary criticism for a means that helps describe a hero (“weak”, “frail”)? OR: What are the names of figurative definitions that are a traditional means of artistic representation? (
The artistic image is the central concept of aesthetics, so this problem is the object of study by a number of scientists. Among them, the works of N. L. Leizerov “Imagery in Art” (M., 1974), D. Likhachev’s “Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus'” (M.-L., 1958, etc.) are of considerable interest.
The artistic image is a method of mastering and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art, for example, the image of a warrior, the image of a people.). The phrase is an image of something (war), someone (the image of Natalia), etc. indicates the stable ability of an artistic image to relate to extra-artistic phenomena, therefore the image is a category that occupies a dominant place in aesthetics. The image combines the objective-cognitive, subjective-creative principles. The traditional specificity of the image is determined in relation to two spheres: reality and the thinking process. The image not only reflects reality, but generalizes it. From here it is correctly emphasized that the image is a concretely generalized picture of life, which has found expression in a verbal image. According to Hegel, “the image stands in the middle between immediate sensitivity and the ideal thought belonging to the region and represents” in the same integrity both the concept of the object and its external existence.” The image represents the unity of sensitive and generalizing thinking.
The artistic specificity of the image is represented not only by the fact that it meaningfully reflects reality, but also by the fact that it creates a new, fictional world. The creative and cognitive nature of the image is manifested in two ways: 1) the artistic image is the result of the activity of the imagination, along with the objective, it embodies the individual, the subjective; 2) the image is the result not only of a creative reproduction of reality, but of its active transformation. The transition of a sensory reflection into a mental generalization and further into a fictional reality and its sensory embodiment - this is the internal moving essence of the image. The image is the suppression of the objective and semantic series verbally indicated and implied. Lermontov’s poetry is “a bell on a towline tower” (“Poet”), F. Tyutchev’s lightning is “deaf-mute demons,” “the night sky is so gloomy.” The purpose of the image is to transform a thing, to reveal the interpenetration of the most various sides being.
One of the most important functions of a literary image is to give words the fullness, integrity and self-significance that things have. “Poetry,” wrote G. E. Lessing, “has the means to elevate its arbitrary signs to the degree and strength of natural ones, “since it compensates for the dissimilarity of its signs with things” by the similarity of the designated thing with some other thing” (Laocoon. - M., 1957, p.437, p.440.)
The specificity of the verbal image is also manifested in its temporal organization. Artistic time and art space constitutes the main specificity of the literary image. Since two components are isolated in the image - objective and semantic, the following classification of images is possible: objective, generalized semantic and structural.
Objectivity is divided into a number of layers. The first one includes: images - details, landscape, portrait, interior. Their distinctive properties are static, descriptive, fragmentary. From them grows a 2-shaped layer - the plot, thoroughly imbued with purposeful action, linking together all the objective details - actions, moods, aspirations - all the dynamic moments unfolding in the time of the work of art. The third layer is the impulses behind the action and determining it - images of characters and circumstances, individual and collective. Finally, from characters and circumstances, as a result of their interaction, holistic images are formed. The image of fate and the world is existence in general.
According to their semantic generality, images are divided into individual, characteristic, typical, images, motives, topoi, archetypes. Individual images are created by the original, sometimes bizarre imagination of the artist. Typicality is the highest degree of specificity. A typical image, absorbing the essential features of the concrete historical, social and characteristic, at the same time outgrows the boundaries of its era and acquires universal human features, revealing the stable eternal properties of human nature. Such are the eternal images of Don Quixote,
Hamlet, Oblomov (these images are individual, characteristic, typical - isolated in the sphere of existence). The following three varieties: motive, topos, archetype. A motif is an image repeated in several works by one or many authors. These are the images of blizzards and wind in Blok, and the sea in Pushkin. Topos(" common place") is an image characteristic of an entire culture of a given period, of a given science. Topoi of “road” or “winter” by Pushkin and Gogol. Nekrasova. The image of the "archetype" contains the most stable and omnipresent schemes or formulas of the human imagination, manifested both in mythology and in art at all stages of its historical development(a fund of plots and situations passed on from writer to writer).
Along with the isolation of the artistic image from the syncretic integrity of the world, the process of its theoretical understanding also begins. Antique term is equivalent to the concept - the image of "Eidos". Eidos is both the external appearance, the appearance of an object and its pure extracorporeal and timeless essence, ideas that share new European theories, emphasizing the inseparability of appearance and idea in its essence.
Recently, there has been a widespread desire in criticism to give the concept of image a collective meaning and to speak in this sense about the “image of the collective”, “the image of the people”. We find a typical example in the article by B. Bursov “The structure of character in Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”. It talks about the images of Bolkonsky and Bezukhov, putting forward the concept of “democratic Russia”. Then the image of the people is formulated, as the image of the masses. At the same time, the “image of the people” also includes images of representatives of the nobility; the image of the masses is included in the image of the nation. It is necessary to streamline the understanding of the category of character, character, actor, hero, type. Character and character are concepts with which we designate the person shown in the work without regard to the extent to which they are deeply and correctly depicted by the writer.
Character is a more specific concept: we talk about character if the person depicted in the work is depicted with sufficient completeness and certainty. The figurative reflection of life depends, first of all, on how the artist understands life in general, and this, in turn, depends on historical conditions, in which it is located. While essentially retaining its general functional properties, the figurative reflection of reality practically depends on the uniqueness of the historical situation. Character is a type of human social behavior created by certain social conditions.
The composition of a literary work, like images and language, plays a big role in expressing ideological meaning. The writer, focusing on those phenomena of life that attract him at the moment, embodying them in artistic images of characters, landscape, thoughts, mood, strives to combine them in a work of art so that they sound with the greatest conviction: they more clearly reveal the essential aspects of reality , called deep work the reader's thoughts.
Belinsky repeatedly emphasized in his critical articles the importance of composition in revealing the ideological meaning in a literary work of art: the distribution of roles for all persons is strictly proportionate... completeness, completeness and isolation of the whole, he believed that these criteria should naturally follow from the unity of thought.
In literary criticism, different points of view have developed on the problem of composition of a work of art. To this day there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of composition. The most commonly used definition is the following:
“Composition is the construction of a work of art, the correlation of all parts of the work into a single whole. To depict a picture of life, writers use various elements of composition: titles, epigraphs, lyrical digressions, introductory, inserted episodes, plot, portrait, landscape, environment.
Titles and epigraphs play a significant role in a work of art.
Titles - can be associated with different aspects of a work of art. Most often with themes (“Autumn” by Pushkin, “Motherland” by Lermontov, “Nanny” by Pushkin and many others) with images (“Eugene Onegin” by Pushkin, “Oblomov” by Goncharov, “Rudin” by Turgenev and others): with issues (“Who guilty?" Herzen, "What to do?" Chernyshevsky, "How the Steel Was Tempered" by Ostrovsky and others.)
Epigraphs, as is known, represent the second title. Most often they are associated with the ideological meaning, with the ideological content of works, with characteristic feature this or that hero. (“Take care of your honor from a young age”, “The Captain’s Daughter” by Pushkin, “Vengeance is mine and I will repay it.” “Anna Karenina” by Tolstoy, etc.)
Lyrical digressions constitute extra-plot lines in which the author expresses a personal attitude towards the events, images, and phenomena depicted. Thus, N. Gogol, depicting Plyushkin, exclaimed sadly, trying to turn readers away from Plyushkin’s type of human behavior:
“And to what insignificance, pettiness, disgusting man could stoop! Could change! And does this seem true? “Everything seems to be true, everything can happen to a person, but today’s fiery young man would recoil in horror if they showed him his own portrait in old age.” Take it with you on the journey, leaving the soft teenage years into stern, bitter courage - take with you all human movements, do not leave them on the road...”
Sometimes a lyrical digression dedicated to a character merges with the thoughts and experiences of another character, but nevertheless is given in such a way that the reader perceives it as a direct expression of the author’s thoughts and feelings. This is the lyrical digression in “The Young Guard” by A. Fadeev, dedicated to the working mother.
"Mom mom! I remember your hands from the moment I began to recognize myself in the world. Over the summer they were always covered in tan, it didn’t go away even in winter, it was so gentle, even, only a little darker on the veins. Or maybe they were rougher than your hands, because they had so much work to do in life, but they always seemed so tender to me and I loved kissing their dark veins.”
This digression sounds like a hymn to the mother, her great mother's love, her labor exploits. It helps to more fully and vividly imagine the meaning of a mother’s woman in our lives.
Sometimes a writer resorts to lyrical digressions to communicate the nature and objectives of his work. Classic example This type of lyrical digression is Gogol’s famous argument in “ Dead souls"about two types of writers. It was important for the writer to explain to readers public importance and the patriotic meaning of his satire, which met the interests of democratic circles in Russia and seemed unacceptable to the guardians of the autocratic-serf system.
Along with lyrical digressions, introductory episodes are of significant importance.
Introductory episodes are those that are directly related to the plot line of the story. This compositional device is used by writers either to expand and deepen the content of a work, or to indicate its ideological meaning. Chekhov's story “Gooseberry” tells about a certain Nikolai Ivanovich Chimshe-Himalayan with episodes that are not directly related to the main narrative.
Just like lyrical digressions, introductory episodes are also used to reveal the idea and pathos of the work.
Elements of the composition also include landscape and portrait. Masters of landscape and portrait sketches are Lermontov, Sholokhov, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and others. In many works, the landscape has an important ideological role - compositional role. We are, of course, not talking about those works where nature is the direct subject of the image, but about those where the landscape plays an ideological, compositional, psychological role. A successful example in this regard was given by literary critic L.A. Abramovich to the story “Lucerne” by L. Tolstoy.
In the center of the story is an episode with a beggar tramp - a crippled singer, who sang and played the guitar for about half an hour for the rich who had gathered in Lucerne and settled in the most fashionable hotel in the city, who, standing on the balconies and at the windows, in “respectful silence” listened to the wonderful singing. However, when this singer then turned to the listeners three times with a request to give him something, no one gave anything, and many laughed at him. In this episode the writer shows true face contemporary bourgeois civilization, moreover, “where - as Tolstoy angrily writes” civilization, freedom and equality are brought to the highest degree, where travelers, the most civilized people, of the most civilized nations gather.
In fact, as described in “Lucerne,” there could be no talk of any true freedom and true equality: the benefits of civilization belonged only to exclusively rich people who were accustomed to living for themselves, protecting their peace, caring about their comfort. life, remaining deaf and indifferent to the fate of the people of the poor, without calling on their right to human dignity and happiness.
In order for such an inhuman life to appear in all its ugly unnaturalness, offending the feelings of beauty and goodness inherent in the masses of people, great artist introduces the magnificent nature of Lucerne into the world he depicts.
In order to make the meaning of certain phenomena and characters depicted especially clear, writers sometimes resort to artistic framing, i.e. to create paintings and scenes that are close in essence to the phenomena and characters depicted. For example: in the story “Hadji Murat” L.N. Tolstoy creates a more complete idea of the fate of the hero of the story by introducing a scene with a burdock.
In some works, the artistic frame directly leads to the main essence of the type of person depicted. For example: in Chekhov’s “The Man in a Case,” the description of Belikov surrounding himself with some kind of shell that separates him from people prepares the formulation of the problem of the formation of “case” characters in the then “official” Russia, as Chekhov called it.
Big ideologically - compositional meaning has and depicted in the works environment. Its image, as well as paintings of nature, can also be correlated with general meaning work, its individual aspects.
Gogol in “Old World Landowners” showed the “extraordinary solitary life” of his heroes. Everything in this life is closed inside their home and its immediate surroundings.
Often the depiction of the situation also has a more local meaning: it is the key to recreating the characters depicted by the author.
The composition of a literary work of art is not a phenomenon of form alone. In a truly artistic work, it is closely connected with the theme and idea, it follows from the vital material with which the artist operates: just like images and language, it is a means (form) of revealing the ideological and thematic content of a literary work and is subordinate to its main idea.
Belinsky considered the indispensable features of an artistically perfect work to be: “a strictly proportionate distribution of roles for all persons... completeness, completeness and isolation of the whole,” which should naturally flow from the “unity of thoughts.”
language of a literary work
In numerous works on language works of art One can find mainly two approaches to the problem: linguistic and literary.
The first is to determine the feature artistic speech of this work in connection with the norms of the national literary language, as they had developed at the time of the appearance of this work.
The literary approach is based on the thesis of the unity of content and form, on the position of the primacy of content.
Artistic speech is one of the aspects of form and therefore it is determined by the content of the work.
Artistic stylistic originality ultimately follows from the originality of the ideological artistic problem and the tasks that the writer sets for himself. At the same time, he, of course, takes into account the general norms of the literary language, builds on them but is not limited to them, takes extraliterary dialects, and most importantly, from the wealth of the literary language he extracts only what can serve as a means of expression ideological content specific work of art.
To create an artistic image, it is necessary to use various language resources. But it is not always the case. Creating living pictures is possible only if the writer masters the entire wealth of his national language. However, their use is not very large. It is important here, as N.G. said. Chernyshevsky “so that every word is not only in place, but so that it is inevitably necessary and so that there are as few words as possible.”
We find a similar statement in V.G. Belinsky: “The artistry of the language of the work lies in the fact that with one line, one word, it vividly and fully represents what without it could never be expressed in 10 volumes,” the critic wrote.
The language of any person characterizes the characteristics of his culture, life experience, mind, psychology. Often literary hero with just one phrase can reveal his cultural level. In the speech of nanny Tatyana Larina there are vernaculars that characterize her as a peasant.
Individualization of the speech of characters is not always created by means that are noticeable to readers. It is more noticeable when the writer wants to emphasize the most characteristic features in faces. Thus, with an abundance of metaphors, in comparisons such as “a fire of red rowan,” “fragrant silence,” “icy maple” and many others, Yesenina gravitates toward the complex style of the language of Russian poetry of the 20s of the twentieth century.
Literary image. Word and image
A literary image is an artistic reflection, using words, of human characters, events, objects, phenomena in a specific, individually sensual form.
The term “image” in literary criticism is understood as 1) a character in a work of art (hero, character, character), and as 2) a reflection of reality in an individual form (verbal image or trope).
The images created by the writer are distinguished by their emotionality, associativity, originality, and capacity.
Artistic image. Image and sign
When referring to the ways (means) by which literature and other forms of art that have figurativeness carry out their mission, philosophers and scientists have long used the term “image” ( other-gr. eidos – appearance, appearance). As part of philosophy and psychology, images are specific representations, i.e., the reflection by human consciousness of individual objects (phenomena, facts, events) in their sensory perceptible form. They oppose the abstract concepts, which record the general, repeating properties of reality, ignoring its unique individual features. There are, in other words, sensory-figurative and conceptual-logical forms of mastering the world.
Further distinguishable figurative representations(as a phenomenon of consciousness) and images themselves as the sensory (visual and auditory) embodiment of ideas. A.A. Potebnya in his work “Thought and Language” considered the image as reproduced representation - as a certain sensory perceived reality 1 . It is this meaning of the word “image” that is vital for the theory of art, which distinguishes between scientific-illustrative, factual (informing about facts that actually took place) and artistic images 2 . The latter (and this is their specificity) are created with the explicit participation of the imagination: they do not simply reproduce isolated facts, but condense and concentrate aspects of life that are significant for the author in the name of its evaluative comprehension. The artist’s imagination is, therefore, not only a psychological stimulus for his creativity, but also a certain reality present in the work. In the latter there is a fictitious objectivity that does not fully correspond to itself in reality.
Nowadays, the words “sign” and “sign” have taken root in literary studies. They have noticeably replaced the usual vocabulary (“image”, “imagery”). The sign is the central concept of semiotics, the science of sign systems. Structuralism, which became established in the humanities in the 1960s, and post-structuralism, which replaced it, is oriented toward semiotics.
A sign is a material object that acts as a representative and substitute for another, “pre-found” object (or property and relationship). Signs constitute systems that serve to receive, store and enrich information, that is, they have primarily a cognitive purpose.
The creators and supporters of semiotics consider it as a kind of center of scientific knowledge. One of the founders of this discipline, the American scientist C. Morris (1900 - 1978) wrote: “The relationship of semiotics to the sciences is twofold: on the one hand, it is a science among other sciences, and on the other hand, it is an instrument of the sciences”: a means of unification different areas scientific knowledge and giving it “greater simplicity, rigor, clarity, the path to liberation from the “web of words” that the man of science has woven” 3 .
Domestic scientists (Yu.M. Lotman and his associates) placed the concept of a sign at the center of cultural studies; the idea of culture as a primarily semiotic phenomenon was substantiated. “Any reality,” wrote Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Uspensky, referring to the French structuralist philosopher M. Foucault, - involved in the sphere of culture, begins to function as a symbolic<...>The very attitude towards sign And iconicity constitutes one of the main characteristics of culture" 4 .
Speaking about the sign process in the composition of human life ( semiotics), experts identify three aspects of sign systems: 1) syntactics(relationship of signs to each other); 2) semantics(the relationship of a sign to what it denotes: the signifier to the signified); 3) pragmatics(the relationship of signs to those who operate with them and perceive them).
Signs are classified in a certain way. They are combined into three large groups: 1) indexical sign (sign- index) indicates an object, but does not characterize it; it is based on the metonymic principle of contiguity (smoke as evidence of a fire, a skull as a warning of danger to life); 2) sign- symbol is conditional, here the signifier has neither similarity nor connection with the signified, such as words of natural language (except onomatopoeic) or components of mathematical formulas; 3) iconic signs reproduce certain qualities of the signified or its holistic appearance and, as a rule, are visual. In the series of iconic signs they differ, firstly, diagrams- schematic recreations of objectivity that is not entirely specific (graphic designation of industrial development or the evolution of fertility) and, secondly, images that adequately recreate the sensory properties of the designated single object (photographs, reports, as well as capturing the fruits of observation and fiction in works of art) 5 .
Thus, the concept of “sign” did not abolish traditional ideas about image and figurativeness, but placed these ideas in a new, very broad semantic context. The concept of a sign, vital in the science of language, is also significant for literary studies: firstly, in the field of studying the verbal fabric of works, and secondly, when referring to the forms of behavior of characters.
In images-tropes, one object is equated to another by association, the unknown is explained by the known, and the so-called “figurative” meaning is manifested.
There are different types of images and different ways to classify them. If we consider everything fantasized by a writer in a work of art as an image, then according to its objectivity we can build a series from the image-detail in such varieties as the image of paths, the image of landscape, the image of a thing, the image of a portrait, through the image of a plot, then the image of a character. , and to holistic images of fate and the world, the image of being.
According to their semantic generality, images can be divided into individual, characteristic and type images. Separately, we can distinguish the image-motive, image-topos and image-archetype, as well as the concept of chronotope. These are images that go beyond the boundaries of a single work; they can be repeated.
An image-motif is repeated in several works by one author or by many authors. (The image of a snowstorm and wind by Blok, rain and a garden by Pasternak.
Topos image (common place) - an image characteristic of an entire culture certain period, for the whole nation. (topos of the road, winter in Russian literature).
Archetype image - the most stable images that appear in literature different nations along the entire path of development.
Chronotope is a term proposed by D. Bakhtin. This is “a significant interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature”, otherwise called “time-space”.
In poetry, there is also the concept of a “lyrical hero” - a collective image behind the lyrical verses of a particular poet.
In epistemological terms artistic image- a type of image in general, which is understood as the result of the human consciousness mastering the surrounding reality. /…/
Artistic image- a category of aesthetics that characterizes the result of an author’s (artist’s) understanding of a phenomenon or process in ways characteristic of a particular type of art, objectified in the form of a work as a whole or its individual fragments, parts (so, literary work-image may include a system of character images; a sculptural composition, being a holistic image, often consists of a gallery of plastic images). /…/
The origins of the image theory are in antiquity (the doctrine of mimesis). But a detailed justification is a concept. Close to modern, given in German classical aesthetics, especially in Hegel. The philosopher saw in art a sensual (i.e., perceived by the senses) embodiment of an idea... /.../ An artistic image, according to Hegel, is the result of the “purification” of a phenomenon from everything random that obscures the essence, the result of its “idealization.” /…/
By definition, an artistic image is a manifestation of creative freedom. Like a concept, an artistic image performs a cognitive function, representing the unity of individual and general qualities subject, however, the knowledge contained in it is largely subjective, colored by the author’s position, his vision of the depicted phenomenon; it takes on sensually perceived forms and expressively affects the feelings and minds of readers, listeners, and spectators. /…/
What is the specific features artistic image?
Artistic consciousness, combining rational (discursive) and intuitive approaches, grasps the indivisibility, integrity, completeness of the real existence of the phenomena of reality and reflects it in a sensory-visual form. The artistic image, to paraphrase Schelling, is a way of expressing the infinite through the finite. Any image is perceived and assessed as a certain integrity, even if it was created from one or two parts... /.../ As an object aesthetic perception and judgment, the image is complete, even if the principle of the author’s poetics is deliberate fragmentation, sketchiness, and reticence. In these cases, the semantic load on an individual part is enormous.
An artistic image always carries a generalization, that is, it has typical meaning (gr. typos - imprint, imprint). If in reality the relationship between the general and the individual can be different (in particular, the individual can obscure the general), then the images of art are bright, concentrated embodiments of the general, essential in the individual.
Artistic generalization in creative practice takes different forms, colored by the author's emotions and assessments. For example, an image may have representative character, when some features of a real object stand out, “sharpen”, or be symbol. /…/
"Familiar stranger" type literary character becomes as a result creative typing, i.e., selecting certain aspects of life phenomena and emphasizing them, exaggerating them in artistic depiction. It is precisely to reveal certain properties that seem essential to the writer that conjecture, fiction, and fantasy are needed. /…/
Artistic image expressive, i.e. expresses the author’s ideological and emotional attitude to the subject. It is addressed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of readers, listeners, and spectators. /…/
Artistic image self-sufficient, it is a form of expression of content in art. /…/ The generalization that an artistic image carries within itself is usually not “formulated” anywhere by the author.
Being the embodiment of the general, essential in individual, an artistic image can give rise to various interpretations, including those that the author did not think about. This feature of it follows from the nature of art as a form of reflection of the world through the prism of individual consciousness. /…/
The imagery of art creates objective preconditions for disputes about the meaning of the work, for its various interpretations, both close to the author’s concept and polemical in relation to it. Characteristic is the reluctance of many writers to define the idea of their work, to “translate” it into the language of concepts. /…/
The artistic image is a complex phenomenon. It integrates the individual and the general as a whole. Essential (characteristic, typical), as well as the means of their implementation.
The image exists objectively, as an author’s construction embodied in the appropriate material, as a “thing in itself.” However, becoming an element of the consciousness of “others”. The image acquires a subjective existence and generates an aesthetic field that goes beyond the author's intention.
