Examples of manifestations of patriotism today. Patriotism is the main key to the revival of Russian Civilization

1223-1242 is one of the most difficult periods in the history of Rus'. Being in a state of feudal fragmentation, weakened by civil strife and political crisis, Rus' was subjected to the devastating campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars and fell into a vassal position in relation to the Golden Horde. Enduring complete cultural, economic and political decline, Rus' had to resist aggression from the West.

One of the important events of this period was the tragedy on the Kalka River in May 1223.

This was the first military clash between the Mongol-Tatars and the Russians. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatars reached the Polovtsian land. The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. In the spring of 1223, at the princely congress in Kyiv, it was decided to provide assistance to the Polovtsians. 4 squads of southern Russian princes (three Mstislavs - Kiev, Chernigov, Galitsky and Daniil Romanovich with the Polovtsians) opposed the army of the Mongol-Tatars led by the commanders Jebe and Subede. The Russians suffered a crushing defeat, which was due to the following reasons: uncoordinated actions of the Russian princes, lack of general leadership, tactical and numerical superiority of the Mongol-Tatars, as well as refusal to participate in the battle of the strongest Russian squad led by Mstislav of Kiev.

At a time when the Galician, Chernigov, and Polovtsian squads entered into battle with the Mongol-Tatars, Mstislav of Kiev remained on the right bank of the Kalka and, fenced off with the rampart of one of the hills, watched the progress of the battle and the death of the Russian squads. Having defeated the Russians on the left bank, the Mongol-Tatars headed to the right bank of the Kalka, where they surrounded the camp of the Kyiv prince. But the siege did not produce any results, so the Mongol-Tatars decided to enter into negotiations with Mstislav of Kyiv, as a result of which they managed to deceive him into surrendering. Prince of Kyiv laid down his arms, and the Mongol-Tatars, taking advantage of this, killed the entire squad, after which they brutally dealt with the prince himself.

The tragedy on the Kalka River is the first defeat of Russian troops from the Mongol-Tatars, as a result of which Rus' suffered heavy human losses and became even more weakened politically. For Genghis Khan, this was a reconnaissance campaign, and he realized that the main weakness of Rus' was its fragmentation and disunity.

Quite a few more important event This period is the struggle of Rus' against Western aggression. The crusading knights sought to conquer the rich Novgorod lands and populate them with colonists, close Russian access to the Baltic and spread Catholicism to Rus'. Having failed in the crusades to the East, the crusaders turned their attention to Rus', weakened after the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. The fight against Western invaders was led by Alexander Nevsky. In 1240, the Swedish fleet landed at the mouth of the Neva River with the aim of capturing the cities of Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod. The prince, knowing the intentions and disposition of the Swedish troops, decided to attack as soon as possible, while part of the enemy forces were on the ships. On July 15, 1240, Alexander Nevsky, at the head of his squad, unexpectedly attacked the Swedes and, blocking their retreat to the ships, divided their army into parts with infantry and cavalry. Having defeated the main part of the enemy troops, he forced them to flee. Thus Russian army won a brilliant victory, for which Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed Nevsky. Thanks to this victory, the shores of the Gulf of Finland remained with Russia, which made it possible to maintain trade with European countries. And Northwestern Rus' was able to concentrate forces against the German knights. In the summer of 1240, Livonian and Danish knights captured Izborsk and Pskov. But already in the winter of 1241-1242, Alexander Nevsky liberated the captured cities and turned to the West against the main enemy forces. On April 5, 1242, a decisive battle took place - the Battle of Lake Peipsi, which went down in history under the name Battle on the Ice. The Novgorod prince lured the knights onto the ice because it made it difficult for the enemy’s heavy cavalry to move and gave an advantage to the Russian warriors. Alexander Nevsky's tactics consisted of encircling the enemy: archers in front of the central regiment - the "head" - began the battle, infantry and cavalry acted on the flanks, and a cavalry squad acted in ambush. As soon as the German army moved forward, Russian soldiers from both sides rushed at the slow-moving knightly column. The battle on the ice of Lake Peipsi ended with the complete defeat of the knights and the prevention of their further invasion of Russian lands.

As a result of victories over the Western feudal lords, expansion to the East was stopped, the independence of the North-Western Russian lands was preserved, the penetration of Catholicism into Rus', which remained an Orthodox country, was prevented, and the authority of the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky grew as a talented commander.

The conquest of Russian lands by the Mongol-Tatars is one of the most important events of the 13th century. Causes conquests The Mongol-Tatars were as follows: the desire of the Mongol-Tatar nobility to enrich themselves, the need to expand their possessions and increase pastures, the desire to establish control over caravan trade routes, and their plans also included the establishment of world domination. In 1235, at the kurulat (congress of the Mongolian nobility), it was decided to launch a campaign against Rus', which was led by Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu Khan. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, the Mongols began to prepare for a campaign against Rus'. The first blow fell on the North-East of Rus': in December 1237 Batu took Ryazan, and in January-February 1238 he destroyed 14 more cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. On March 4, 1238, Batu defeated the squads of the Vladimir, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich and Yuryev principalities in the battle on the Sit River. During the battle itself, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodich died. In March 1238, after a two-week defense, Batu took Torzhok. The inhabitants of the city destroyed all the food supplies needed by the Mongols, whose army suffered heavy losses and was exhausted by the stubborn resistance of the Russian cities. The Mongols did not have the strength left to march on Novgorod, and at this time it was not possible: with the onset of spring, the roads in the wooded and swampy areas became impassable. Batu turned his army to the South: in 1238, after a 49-day siege, he took Kozelsk (nicknamed Batu “the evil city”), and in 1239-1240 he ravaged the Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Kiev and Galicia-Volyn principalities. In 1241-1242, Batu returned back to the lower reaches of the Don and Volga, where he founded a new state - the Golden Horde.

For Rus', the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke were catastrophic. Rus' fell into political and economic dependence on the Horde, many cities were devastated, old agricultural centers fell into decay, the economy found itself in a state of stagnation, and the pace of cultural development, conservation occurs political fragmentation. The princes had to receive labels for reign from the Great Khan, Rus' was obliged to pay tribute to the Golden Horde and became the object of terror and constant destructive campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars. Thus the Golden Horde yoke was established, which lasted until 1480. The sovereign, politically independent, independent Russian state did not appear on the political map of Europe.

Realizing that under the yoke the Russian lands are in extreme difficult situation, the Moscow princes pursued a policy of cooperation with the Golden Horde. The first Russian prince who actively pursued such a policy was Alexander Yaroslavich. The reasons for cooperation with the Mongol-Tatars were the following: Rus' did not have the strength to fight the Western feudal lords and the Horde at the same time, and therefore Alexander Yaroslavich sought to use the Golden Horde to fight the West, in addition, the Mongol-Tatars were pagans and, unlike the knights, crusaders, were loyal to the Orthodox faith and collaborated with the Russian Orthodox Church. Alexander Yaroslavich showed humility towards the Golden Horde, constantly presented the khan and his relatives with gifts, and regularly sent tribute. In 1257, he suppressed the anti-Horde uprising that broke out in Novgorod, as he understood that such an open action by the Novgorodians would lead to new ruinous campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars. Having shown his loyalty to the khan, Alexander Nevsky achieved concessions from the Golden Horde: the veche order and the republic were preserved in Novgorod, the rebels were pardoned, the Russians were freed from the obligation to participate in military campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars, and Alexander Nevsky himself received the right to collect tribute from the Novgorod land for the Horde.

Preventive war - suicide due to fear of death

Otto von Bismarck

The Battle of Kalka took place on May 31, 1223 and lasted 3 days. The place of the battle is the Kalka River (the territory of modern Donetsk region). In this battle, for the first time, the troops of the Russian princes and the Mongols came together against each other. The result of the battle was the unconditional victory of the Mongols, who killed many princes. In this material we have collected detailed information about the battle, which was of great importance for Rus'.

Reasons and prerequisites for the battle

In 1221, the Mongols began their eastern campaign, the main task of which was the conquest of the Cumans. This campaign was led by the best commanders of Genghis Khan - Subedei and Jebe, and it lasted 2 years and forced most of the troops of the Polovtsian Khanate to flee to the borders of Rus' and turn to the Russian princes with a call for help. " Today they will conquer us, and tomorrow you will become their slaves“- with such an appeal Khan Kotyan Sutoevich addressed Mstislav the Udal.

The Russian princes held a council in Kyiv, deciding what to do in this situation. The decision was made more of a compromise than a necessary one. It was decided to give battle to the Mongol, and the reasons for the battle were as follows:

• The Russians feared that the Polovtsians would surrender to the Mongols without a fight, go over to their side and enter Rus' with a united army.
• Most of the princes understood that war with Genghis Khan’s army was a matter of time, so it would be more profitable to defeat his best commanders on foreign territory.
• The Polovtsians, in the face of enormous danger, literally showered the princes with rich gifts; some of the khans even converted to Christianity. In fact, the participation of the Russian squad in the campaign was purchased.

After the unification of the armies, the Mongols arrived for negotiations and turned to the Russian princes: “ We have heard rumors that you want to go to war against us. But we don't want this war. The only thing we want is to punish the Polovtsy, our eternal slaves. We heard that they did a lot of harm to you too. Let us make peace, and we ourselves will punish our slaves" But there were no negotiations the ambassadors were killed! This event is interpreted today as follows:

• The princes understood that the ambassadors wanted to break the alliance in order to then destroy each one individually.
• A terrible diplomatic blunder was committed. The murder of the ambassadors provoked a response from the Mongols and the subsequent atrocities that happened on Kalka were provoked by the short-sighted rulers themselves.

Participants in the battle and their numbers

The inconsistency of the battle on the Kalka River lies in the fact that there is no reliable information about the number of troops on either side. Suffice it to say that in the works of historians the Russian army is estimated at from 40 to 100 thousand people. The situation with the Mongols is similar, although the spread in numbers is much smaller - 20-30 thousand soldiers.

It is important to note that the period of fragmentation in Rus' led to the fact that each prince tried to pursue exclusively his own interests, even in the most hard times. Therefore, even after the Kiev congress decided that it was necessary to take the fight to the Mongols, only 4 principalities sent their squads into battle:

• Principality of Kiev.
• Smolensk Principality.
• Galicia-Volyn principality.
• Principality of Chernigov.

Even in such conditions, the united Russian-Polovtsian army had a noticeable numerical advantage. At least 30 thousand Russian troops, 20 thousand Polovtsians, and against this army the Mongols sent 30 thousand people led by the best commander Subedei.

It is impossible today to determine the exact number of troops on either side. Historians come to this opinion. There are several reasons, but the main one is the contradiction in the chronicles. For example, the Tver chronicle says that 30 thousand people died in the battle from Kyiv alone. Although in fact, in the entire principality it was hardly possible to recruit such a number of men. The only thing that can be said for sure is that the combined army consisted mostly of infantry. After all, it is known that they moved to the battle site on boats. Cavalry was never transported like this.

Progress of the battle on the Kalka River

Kalka is a small river that flows into the Sea of ​​Azov. This unremarkable place hosted one of the grandiose battles of its era. The Mongol army stood on the right bank of the river, the Russian one on the left. The first to cross the river was one of the best commanders of the united army - Mstislav Udaloy. He personally decided to inspect the area and the position of the enemy. After which he gave the order to the remaining troops to cross the river and prepare for battle.

Map of the Battle of Kalka

The Battle of Kalka began in the early morning of May 31, 1223. The beginning of the battle did not bode well. The Russian-Polovtsian army pressed the enemy, the Mongols retreated in battle. However, in the end it was disjointed actions that decided everything. The Mongols brought reserves into the battle, as a result of which they took complete advantage. Initially major success and the defense breakthrough, the right wing of Subedei's cavalry reached. The Mongols cut the enemy army into two parts and put to flight the left wing of the Russian army, commanded by Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Romanovich.

After this, the siege of the remaining Russian forces on Kalka began (the Polovtsy fled at the very beginning of the battle). The siege lasted 3 days. The Mongols launched one assault after another, but to no avail. Then they turned to the princes with a demand to lay down their arms, for which they guaranteed their safe departure from the battlefield. The Russians agreed - the Mongols did not keep their word and killed everyone who surrendered. On the one hand, it was revenge for the murder of the ambassadors, on the other hand, it was a reaction to the surrender. After all, the Mongols consider captivity shameful; it is better to die in battle.

The Battle of Kalka is described in sufficient detail in the chronicles, where you can trace the course of events:

• Novgorod Chronicle. Indicates that the main failure in the battle lies in the Polovtsians, who fled, causing confusion and panic. It is the flight of the Polovtsians that is noted as the key factor in the defeat.
• Ipatiev Chronicle. Describes mainly the beginning of the battle, emphasizing that the Russians were pushing the enemy very hard. Subsequent events (the flight and mass death of the Russian army) according to this chronicle were caused by the introduction of reserves into the battle by the Mongols, which turned the tide of the battle.
• Suzdal Chronicle. Gives more detailed reasons for the lesion, which are related to what was described above. However, in this historical document it is indicated that the Polovtsians fled from the pain of the battle, since the Mongols brought in reserves, which frightened the enemy and gained an advantage.

Further events after the defeat, domestic historians They don’t like to comment. However, the fact remains that the Mongols saved the lives of all Russian princes, military commanders and generals (they killed only ordinary soldiers after surrendering). But this was not generosity, the plan was very cruel...

Subedei ordered the construction of a tent so that his army could gloriously celebrate the victory. This tent was ordered to be built by... Russian princes and generals. The floor of the tent was covered with the bodies of still living Russian princes, and on top the Mongols were drinking and having fun. It was terrible death for everyone who surrendered.

The hysterical meaning of the battle

The significance of the Battle of Kalka is ambiguous. The main thing we can talk about is that for the first time the Russian wars saw the terrible power of Genghis Khan’s army. However, the defeat did not lead to any drastic action. As was said, the Mongols did not seek war with Russia; they were not yet ready for this war. Therefore, having won the victory, Subedye and Jebe made another trip to Volga Bulgaria, after which they went home.

Despite the absence of territorial losses on the part of Rus', the consequences for the country were very disastrous. Not only did the Russian army get involved in a battle that it did not need, defending the Polovtsians, but the losses were simply terrible. 9/10 of the Russian army was killed. Never before significant defeats did not have. Moreover, many princes died in the battle (and after it during the feast of the Mongols):

• Kyiv Prince Mstislav the Old
• Prince of Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavich
• Alexander Glebovich from Dubrovitsa
• Izyaslav Ingvarevich from Dorogobuzh
• Svyatoslav Yaroslavich from Janowice
• Andrei Ivanovich from Turov (son-in-law of the Kyiv prince)

Such were the consequences of the battle on the Kalka River for Rus'. However, to finally close this topic, it is necessary to consider one very important and very controversial issue that historians have raised.

In what area did the Battle of Kalka take place?

It would seem that the answer to this question is obvious. The name of the battle itself indicates the location of the battle. But not everything is so obvious, especially since the exact place (not just the name of the River, but the specific place where the battle took place on this river) has not been established. Historians speak of three possible locations for the battle:

• Stone graves.
• Mound Mogila-Severodvinovka.
• The village of Granitnoye.

To understand what actually happened, where the battle took place, and how it happened, let's look at some interesting statements by historians.

It is noted that this battle is mentioned in 22 chronicles. In all of them the name of the river is used in plural(on Kalki). Historians have long drawn attention to this fact, which makes us think that the battle took place not on one river, but not on several smaller ones located close to each other.

The Sofia Chronicle indicates that a small battle took place near Kalka between an advanced detachment of Russian wax and a small group of Mongols. After the victory, the Russians moved on to new Kalka, where a battle took place on May 31.

We have presented these opinions of historians for a complete understanding of the picture of events. Explanations for the many Kalokas can be given great amount, but this is a topic for a separate article.

This is an article about the Mongol invasions of Rus' in 1237-1240. For the 1223 invasion, see Battle of the Kalka River. For later invasions, see List of Mongol-Tatar campaigns against Russian principalities.

Mongol invasion of Rus'- invasions of the troops of the Mongol Empire into the territories of the Russian principalities in 1237-1240. during the Western campaign of the Mongols ( Kipchak campaign) 1236-1242 under the leadership of Genghisid Batu and the military leader Subedei.

Background

For the first time, the task of reaching the city of Kyiv was set to Subedei by Genghis Khan in 1221: He sent Subeetai-Baatur on a campaign to the north, ordering him to reach eleven countries and peoples, such as: Kanlin, Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orosut, Machzharat, Asut, Sasut, Serkesut, Keshimir, Bolar, Rural (Lalat), to cross the high-water the rivers Idil and Ayakh, as well as reach the city of Kivamen-kermen When the united Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of the Kalka River on May 31, 1223, the Mongols invaded the southern Russian border lands ( encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron calls it the first Mongol invasion of Russia), but abandoned the plan to march on Kyiv, and then were defeated in Volga Bulgaria in 1224.

In 1228-1229, having ascended the throne, Ogedei sent a 30,000-strong corps to the west, led by Subedei and Kokoshay, against the Kipchaks and Volga Bulgars. In connection with these events, in 1229 the name of the Tatars reappears in Russian chronicles: “ Bulgarian watchmen came running from the Tatars near the river, whose name is Yaik"(and in 1232 Tatarov arrived and winter did not reach the Great Bulgarian City).

The “Secret Legend”, in relation to the period 1228-1229, reports that Ogedei

However, in 1231-1234 the Mongols waged a second war with Jin, and the movement to the west of the united forces of all uluses began immediately after the decision of the kurultai of 1235.

Gumilyov L.N. estimates the number of the Mongolian army similarly (30-40 thousand people). In modern times historical literature another assessment is dominant total number Mongol troops in the western campaign: 120-140 thousand soldiers, 150 thousand soldiers.

Initially, Ogedei himself planned to lead the Kipchak campaign, but Munke dissuaded him. In addition to Batu, the following Genghisids took part in the campaign: the sons of Jochi Orda-Ezhen, Shiban, Tangkut and Berke, the grandson of Chagatai Buri and the son of Chagatai Baydar, the sons of Ogedei Guyuk and Kadan, the sons of Tolui Munke and Buchek, the son of Genghis Khan Kulhan, the grandson of Genghis Khan's brother Argasun. The importance the Chingizids attached to the conquest of the Russians is evidenced by Ogedei’s monologue addressed to Guyuk, who was dissatisfied with Batu’s leadership.

The Vladimir chronicler reports in 1230: “ That same year, the Bulgarians bowed to Grand Duke Yuri, asking for peace for six years, and make peace with them" The desire for peace was supported by deeds: after the conclusion of peace in Rus', famine broke out as a result of a two-year crop failure, and the Bulgars brought ships with food to Russian cities free of charge. Under 1236: " The Tatars came to the Bulgarian land and took the glorious Great Bulgarian City, slaughtered everyone from old to young and even to the last child, and burned their city and captured all their land». Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky accepted Bulgarian refugees on his land and resettled them in Russian cities. The Battle of the Kalka River showed that even the defeat of the combined forces in a general battle is a way to undermine the forces of the invaders and force them to abandon plans for a further offensive. But in 1236, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky and his brother Yaroslav of Novgorod, who had the largest military potential in Rus' (under 1229 in the chronicle we read: “ and bowed to Yuri, who is his father and master"), did not send troops to help the Volga Bulgars, but used them to establish control over Kiev, thereby putting an end to the Chernigov-Smolensk struggle for it and taking into their own hands the reins of the traditional Kiev collection, which in early XIII centuries were still recognized by all Russian princes. The political situation in Rus' in the period 1235-1237 was also determined by the victories of Yaroslav of Novgorod over the Order of the Sword in 1234 and Daniil Romanovich of Volyn over the Teutonic Order in 1237. Lithuania also acted against the Order of the Sword (Battle of Saul in 1236), resulting in its remnants uniting with the Teutonic Order.

First stage. North-Eastern Rus' (1237-1239)

Invasion 1237-1238

The fact that the Mongol attack on Rus' at the end of 1237 was not unexpected is evidenced by the letters and reports of the Hungarian missionary monk, Dominican Julian:

The Mongols directed the main attack on the Ryazan principality (see Defense of Ryazan). Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a united army to help the Ryazan princes: his eldest son Vsevolod with all the people, the governor Eremey Glebovich, the forces retreating from Ryazan led by Roman Ingvarevich and the Novgorod regiments - but it was too late: Ryazan fell after a 6-day siege on December 21. The sent army managed to give the invaders a fierce battle near Kolomna (on the territory of Ryazan land), but was defeated.

The Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Yuri Vsevolodovich retreated to the north and began to gather an army for new battle with the enemy, waiting for the regiments of their brothers Yaroslav (who was in Kyiv) and Svyatoslav (before that last time mentioned in the chronicle in 1229 as a prince sent by Yuri to reign in Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny). " Within the land of Suzdal"The Mongols were caught up by those returning from Chernigov" in a small squad“The Ryazan boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat, together with the remnants of the Ryazan troops and thanks to the surprise of the attack, was able to inflict significant losses on them (some editions of “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” tell about the solemn funeral of Evpatiy Kolovrat in the Ryazan Cathedral on January 11, 1238). On January 20, after 5 days of resistance, Moscow fell, which was defended younger son Yuri Vladimir and governor Philip Nyanka " with a small army", Vladimir Yuryevich was captured and then killed in front of the walls of Vladimir. Vladimir himself was taken on February 7 after a five-day siege (see Defense of Vladimir), and the entire family of Yuri Vsevolodovich died. In addition to Vladimir, in February 1238, Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich-Mersky, Vologda, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Dmitrov and Volok Lamsky were taken, the most stubborn resistance except Moscow and Vladimir were supported by Pereyaslavl-Zalessky (taken by the Chingizids together in 5 days), Tver and Torzhok (defense of February 22 - March 5), which lay on the direct route of the main Mongol forces from Vladimir to Novgorod. One of the sons of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich died in Tver, whose name has not been preserved. The Volga region cities, whose defenders had gone with their princes Konstantinovich to Yuri on the Sit, were attacked by the secondary forces of the Mongols, led by Temnik Burundai. On March 4, 1238, they unexpectedly attacked the Russian army (see Battle of the City River) and were able to defeat it, however, they themselves “ suffered a great plague, and many of them fell" In the battle, Vsevolod Konstantinovich Yaroslavsky died along with Yuri, Vasilko Konstantinovich Rostovsky was captured (later killed), Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Vladimir Konstantinovich Uglitsky managed to escape.

Summing up the defeat of Yuri and the ruin of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, first Russian historian Tatishchev V.N. says that the losses of the Mongolian troops were many times greater than the losses of the Russians, but the Mongols made up for their losses at the expense of prisoners (prisoners covered their destruction), who at that time turned out to be more numerous than the Mongols themselves ( and especially the prisoners). In particular, the assault on Vladimir was launched only after one of the Mongol detachments that took Suzdal returned with many prisoners. However, eastern sources, which repeatedly mention the use of prisoners during Mongol conquests in China and Central Asia, there is no mention of the use of prisoners for military purposes in Rus' and Central Europe.

After the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, the main forces of the Mongols, having united with the remnants of Burundai’s army, did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod and turned back to the steppes (according to different versions, due to the spring thaw or due to high losses). On way back The Mongol army moved in two groups. The main group traveled 30 km east of Smolensk, stopping in the Dolgomostye area. Literary source- “The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk” - talks about the defeat and flight of the Mongol troops. Next, the main group went south, invaded the Chernigov principality and burned Vshchizh, located in close proximity from the central regions of the Chernigov-Seversky principality, but then sharply turned to the northeast and, bypassing the large cities of Bryansk and Karachev, besieged Kozelsk. The eastern group, led by Kadan and Buri, passed by Ryazan in the spring of 1238. The siege of Kozelsk dragged on for 7 weeks. In May 1238, the Mongols united near Kozelsk and took it during a three-day assault, suffering heavy losses both in equipment and in human resources during the attacks of the besieged.

Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was succeeded by Vladimir after his brother Yuri, and Kyiv was occupied by Mikhail Chernigovsky, thus concentrating in his hands Principality of Galicia, Principality of Kiev and Principality of Chernigov.

Invasions 1238-1239

At the end of 1238 - beginning of 1239, the Mongols led by Subedei, having suppressed the uprising in Volga Bulgaria and Mordovian land, again invaded Rus', ravaged the outskirts of Nizhny Novgorod, Gorokhovets, Gorodets, Murom, and Ryazan again. On March 3, 1239, a detachment under the command of Berke ravaged Pereyaslavl South.

The Lithuanian invasion of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk and the campaign of Galician troops against Lithuania with the participation of 12-year-old Rostislav Mikhailovich also date back to this period (taking advantage of the absence of the main Galician forces, Daniil Romanovich Volynsky captured Galich, establishing himself in it completely). Considering the death of the Vladimir army in the City at the beginning of 1238, this campaign played a certain role in the success of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich near Smolensk. In addition, when in the summer of 1240 the Swedish feudal lords, together with the Teutonic knights, launched an attack on Novgorod land, in the battle on the river. Neva, the son of Yaroslav, Alexander Novgorod, stops the Swedes with the forces of his squad, and the beginning of successful independent actions of the troops of North-Eastern Rus' after the invasion dates back only to the period 1242-1245 (Battle of the Ice and victories over the Lithuanians).

Second stage (1239-1240)

Principality of Chernigov

After the siege that began on October 18, 1239, using powerful siege technology, the Mongols captured Chernigov (an army led by Prince Mstislav Glebovich unsuccessfully tried to help the city). After the fall of Chernigov, the Mongols did not go north, but took up robbery and destruction in the east, along the Desna and Seim - archaeological research showed that Lyubech (in the north) was not touched, but the towns of the principality bordering the Polovtsian steppe, such as Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr and Rylsk, were destroyed and devastated. At the beginning of 1240, an army led by Munke reached the left bank of the Dnieper opposite Kyiv. An embassy was sent to the city with a proposal to surrender, but it was destroyed. The Kiev prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich left for Hungary in order to marry the daughter of King Bela IV Anna to his eldest son Rostislav (the wedding would take place only in 1244 to commemorate the alliance against Daniil of Galicia).

Daniil Galitsky captured in Kiev the Smolensk prince Rostislav Mstislavich, who was trying to take over the great reign, and put his thousandth Dmitry in the city, returned Mikhail’s wife (his sister), captured by Yaroslav on the way to Hungary, gave Mikhail Lutsk to feed (with the prospect of returning to Kiev), his ally Izyaslav Vladimirovich Novgorod-Seversky - Kamenets.

Already in the spring of 1240, after the devastation of the Dnieper left bank by the Mongols, Ogedei decided to recall Munke and Guyuk from the western campaign.

The Laurentian Chronicle records in 1241 the murder of the Rylsky prince Mstislav by the Mongols (according to L. Voitovich, the son of Svyatoslav Olgovich Rylsky).

Southwestern Rus'

On September 5, 1240, the Mongol army led by Batu and other Chingizids besieged Kiev and only took it on November 19 (according to other sources, December 6; perhaps it was on December 6 that the last stronghold of the defenders, the Tithe Church, fell). Daniil Galitsky, who owned Kiev at that time, was in Hungary, trying - like Mikhail Vsevolodovich a year earlier - to conclude a dynastic marriage with the King of Hungary, Bela IV, and also unsuccessfully (the marriage of Lev Danilovich and Constance to commemorate the Galician-Hungarian union would take place only in 1247) . The defense of the “mother of Russian cities” was led by Dmitry Tysyatsky. The “Biography of Daniil Galitsky” says about Daniil:

Dmitry was captured. Ladyzhin and Kamenets were taken. The Mongols failed to take Kremenets. The capture of Vladimir-Volynsky was marked by an important event in internal Mongolian politics - Guyuk and Munke left Batu for Mongolia. The departure of the tumens of the most influential (after Batu) Chingizids undoubtedly reduced the strength of the Mongol army. In this regard, researchers believe that further movement to the west was undertaken by Batu on his own initiative.
Dmitry advised Batu to leave Galicia and go to the Ugrians without cooking:

The main forces of the Mongols, led by Baydar, invaded Poland, the rest led by Batu, Kadan and Subedei, taking Galich to Hungary in three days.

The Ipatiev Chronicle under 1241 mentions the princes of Ponizhye ( Bolokhovsky), who agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols in grain and thereby avoided the destruction of their lands, their campaign together with Prince Rostislav Mikhailovich against the city of Bakota and the successful punitive campaign of the Romanovichs; under 1243 - the campaign of two military leaders Batu against Volyn up to the city of Volodava in the middle reaches of the Western Bug.

Historical meaning

As a result of the invasion, about half of the population died. Kyiv, Vladimir, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Chernigov, and many other cities were destroyed. The exception was Velikiy Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, as well as the cities of Polotsk and Turovo-Pinsk principalities. Developed urban culture Ancient Rus' was destroyed.

For several decades, stone construction practically ceased in Russian cities. Complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, grain, and polychrome glazed ceramics, disappeared. “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries, when the guild industry of the West moved to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go through part of that again historical path, which was done before Batu."

The southern Russian lands lost almost their entire settled population. The surviving population fled to the forested northeast, concentrating in the area between the Northern Volga and Oka rivers. There were poorer soils and a colder climate than in the completely devastated southern regions of Rus', and trade routes were under the control of the Mongols. In its socio-economic development, Rus' was significantly thrown back.

“Military historians also note the fact that the process of differentiation of functions between formations of riflemen and detachments of heavy cavalry, specializing in direct strikes with cold weapons, in Rus' stopped immediately after the invasion: there was a unification of these functions in the person of the same warrior - a feudal lord forced to shoot with a bow and fight with a spear and sword. Thus, the Russian army, even in its selected, purely feudal in composition part (princely squads), was thrown back a couple of centuries: progress in military affairs was always accompanied by the division of functions and their assignment to successively emerging branches of the military, their unification (or rather, reunification) is a clear sign of regression. Be that as it may, Russian chronicles of the 14th century do not contain even a hint of separate detachments of riflemen, similar to the Genoese crossbowmen, the English archers of the Hundred Years' War. This is understandable: such detachments of “dacha people” cannot be formed; professional shooters were required, that is, people separated from production who sold their art and blood for hard cash; Rus', thrown back economically, simply couldn’t afford mercenaries.”

The years have completely changed future fate our country. What is this event? Let's look at it in this article.

1223: event in Rus'

The 13th century was marked by the following: hordes of Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. However, before Batu Khan devastated our cities, the first of which was the rebellious Ryazan, hordes attacked the lands of the Polovtsians. They were located approximately south of Rus'. Today these are the lands of our Southern Federal District: Rostov Region, Krasnodar Territory, the Republic of Kalmykia, and most recently it included the former lands of Ukraine - the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol.

What was the event on May 31 (1223) in Rus'? On this day, the first clash took place between the Russian-Polovtsian troops and the Mongol-Tatar hordes.

Causes

Scientists say that what 1223 brought could have been avoided. The event in Rus' (the battle on the Kalka River) might not have been as significant as it is for our history today. The fact is that an expeditionary detachment of the Mongol-Tatars Subedei and Jebe approached the Polovtsian lands. The fact that the eastern hordes had a small detachment equal in number to the united squads of several princes was not yet known at that time. According to Genghis Khan's plan, the Mongols were supposed to go to Europe, but conflicts with the Cumans prevented him. The Great Khan had already captured China and established diplomatic relations with some European states.

He learned that Europe is a huge developed territory comparable to China and Central Asia. Genghis Khan wanted to take over the whole world. When he made such grandiose plans, he did not know about any Europe, just as he did not know about Rus'. Using the maps of travelers, the Mongol detachment set out to find a route for a large army. On the way back, already knowing the terrain, the detachments of Subedei and Jebe decided to fight a little in the Caucasus and the south of the Black Sea region against various scattered tribes: Alans, Polovtsians, etc.

However, the “small detachment” outnumbered any princely squad of Rus'. The Polovtsians sounded the alarm and called the Russian princes for help when Khan Kotyan was defeated by them several times. The year 1223 brought an event that was significant for history in Rus'. The Kalka River became the site of the battle; the battle on this river broke the course of history. Today, questions about this period can be found in history tests. It was this fatal battle that caused the seizure of our territory.

Progress of the battle

Khan Kotyan begged for help from the Russians. Several princes gathered in Kyiv for a council, which decided to help their neighbors, although the Mongol-Tatars themselves did not intend to fight with Russia. If only they knew what the year 1223 would bring them, an event in Rus' that would come back to haunt their descendants! However, no one thought about it then. In May, the united troops of the Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kursk, Trubchev, Putivl, and Vladimir squads left Kyiv. On the southern borders they were joined by the remnants of the army of Khan Kotyan. According to historians, the army numbered up to 80 thousand people. On the way, our troops met a small advance detachment of Mongols.

Some believe that these were envoys, whom the Mongols always loved to send, others - that they were scouts. Perhaps both at the same time. Be that as it may, the Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich - later he would personally go to the Mongols to pay his respects - defeated the enemy detachment with his squad. This event will become fatal: the murder of ambassadors is the most terrible crime among the Mongols. Entire cities were burned for this, which will happen later.

During the battle, the main weakness of the Russian united forces emerged - the lack of a unified command. Each prince commanded his own squad. In such battles, princes listen to the most authoritative among them, but this time there was none: each considered himself equal to the others. Approaching the Kalka River, the army split up. The squad of Mstislav Chernigovsky decided not to cross to the other side of the river, but to strengthen the bank for defense. The rest of the princes did not support him.

Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Romanovich, together with the Polovtsians, crossed and overthrew the small Mongol forces, who quickly began to flee. Perhaps this was the enemy's plan, since the Mongols were forbidden to retreat under threat of death. Without waiting for the rest of the forces, Prince Daniel and the Polovtsians began to pursue the enemy and ran into the main forces of Subedei and Jebe (30 thousand people). At this time, the main forces of Mstislav of Kyiv had just begun to cross the river.

As a result, the balance of forces is as follows: there is no unified command, one part of the army remained on one bank, the second is just crossing the river, the third has already managed to fight, but remained in place, the fourth began to pursue the enemy and came across an ambush.

The Polovtsians, knowing the power of the Mongols, began to flee as soon as the battle began. With their flight, they crushed the entire squad of Mstislav the Udal, which did not participate in the pursuit. On the shoulders of the Polovtsians, the Mongols broke into the camp of the main forces of the united army and completely defeated it.

Result of the battle

The event on Kalka was marked by a terrible tragedy for the Russians: never before have so many princes died in one battle. The wars of that time always spared " the best people" Battles were common; nobles were always left alive, later exchanged for gold. Here everything was different: 12 princes died in the battle, not counting the boyars, governors, etc. The two most noble princes in Rus', Mstislav of Kiev and Mstislav of Chernigov, also died. The rest were taken prisoner. Only a tenth of the army survived the battle. The battle showed that the era of “comic battles” was over. Rus' faced real danger.

Mongols do not forgive their enemies

The Mongol expeditionary force said that on its way it had won a victory over unknown Russia, and that the Russian ambassadors had been killed.

A distinctive feature of the Mongols is that they never forgave their enemies. If the lands on their way did not offer resistance, they always remained intact. But as soon as you show the slightest resistance, entire cities were wiped off the face of the earth. The Russian princes, without knowing it themselves, became the blood enemies of the huge Mongol hordes. And this marked the year 1223, an event in Rus' that will make you greatly regret it in the future.

When Genghis Khan's grandson - Batu Khan - did not have enough allotment in his homeland, the Mongols remembered their blood enemies - the Russians. He went to them with all his Mongol horde ten years later.

Why did the Russian princes come out in defense of the Polovtsians?

The Polovtsians are first mentioned in our sources in the second half of the 11th century. They replaced other steppe people - the Pechenegs. But if the Pechenegs did not get involved in major battles, attacked rather like robbers on poorly defended villages, the Polovtsians created numerous detachments and fought with the Russian princes on equal terms. They devastated our lands, destroyed villages, and took people captive.

In 1111, Prince Vladimir Monomakh, influenced by the events of the Crusades, even organized his own “crusade” against the steppe inhabitants. Also at the congresses of Russian princes there were constantly calls for joint defense against the Polovtsians. Then the question arises as to why the Russians got involved in this war on the side of their southern neighbors.

It was already 1223. The event in Rus' showed that by this time the ties between the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans had already strengthened. Constant dynastic marriages by this time could be said to have erased the cultural line. Although we considered the Polovtsians enemies, they were “our enemies”, understandable to us. We always found a common language with them.

Let us recall from the school literature course the famous campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians in 1185, which we know from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” After the defeat, the prince managed to “miraculously” escape from captivity, thereby remaining unharmed. Although there was no miracle at all: the Polovtsian khans had long since become related to the Russians and were related to each other. The war between them was reminiscent of internecine wars between the princes themselves, in which only by chance the princes themselves died. Often during constant skirmishes, both Russian warriors and Polovtsian warriors were on both sides of the squads.

That's why the Russians opposed the unknown new strength, Mongol-Tatars, on the side of their allies.

Kievan Rus Vernadsky Georgy Vladimirovich

6. Time is up (1223-1237)

6. Time is up (1223-1237)

If we look back at the fourteen-year period between the Battle of Kalka and Batu’s invasion, we, being nine hundred years wiser, cannot hide the feeling that Rus' lived on time, as if borrowed, without fully realizing it. We do not know whether the Russian princes made any attempt to conduct reconnaissance beyond the Volga and the Caspian, but it is known that the Russians were interested in Asian affairs and tried to glean information about Asia from books. It was during this period that the story of “Prester John” was translated into Russian321. The book tells about a certain Christian kingdom in Central Asia, from where Europe expected help against the Levantine Muslims. The legend was based on real fact the conversion of a number of Mongol and Turkic tribal leaders to Nestorianism in the twelfth century. Of course, no one was strong enough to stem the tide of the Mongol invasion. If the Russians believed in this legend, they would soon experience bitter disappointment.

The news of the defeat inflicted on the Mongols by the Volga Bulgars was supposed to encourage the Russians, showing them that the newcomers from the Far East were not invincible. In fact, the Volga Bulgars and Polovtsians were nothing more than a thin barrier, hardly capable of protecting Rus' from recent newcomers, but it seems that the Russians did not even think that they needed such a barrier, at least in the person of the Volga Bulgars, against which the Suzdal princes waged a stubborn struggle during this very period. However, relations with the Cumans continued to remain friendly.

Since the Kiev and Chernigov princes died in the Battle of Kalka, changes took place on their thrones. The new princes, Vladimir III of Kiev and Mikhail of Chernigov, followed the leadership of the Prince of Galicia, Mstislav the Udal. Thus, the alliance of Kyiv, Chernigov and Galich was founded, although it was a free alliance, which also had support from the Polovtsy, led by Khan Kotyan.

Northeastern Rus' formed an independent political organism, especially from the time when the Suzdal princes managed to keep Novgorod under their control. The two sons of Vsevolod III interacted closely with each other: Yuri II was the Grand Duke of Vladimir (from 1217), and Yaroslav was the Prince of Novgorod (from 1222). Together they tried to implement a general plan of economic policy, the purpose of which was to ensure the use trade route from the Baltic Sea to the middle Volga. Yuri took charge of the southeastern end of this path, trying to destroy the barrier that was the state of the Volga Bulgars. As a preliminary measure, he tried to separate from the Bulgars and conquered Finnish tribe- Mordvinian. He built an important fortress at the confluence of the Volga and Oka and called it “Nizhny Novgorod,” which is quite typical. At the same time, the prince of “upper” Novgorod Yaroslav focused his attention on strengthening control over the Baltic states. He raided the land of Yam (that is, the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland) and in 1227 established his rule in Karelia, converting its population to Christianity. He was also vigilant against the German invasion.

Meanwhile, the political balance in Western Rus' was temporarily disrupted due to the death of Mstislav the Udal (1228). Soon, the young prince Daniil (son of Roman) managed to restore order in Volyn, and then establish his dominance in Galicia (1237). Thus, on the eve of the Mongol invasion, the political situation in Rus' had completely stabilized. Although there was not complete unity between the princes, it did exist. Two regional alliances - northeast and southwest. The danger of Polovtsian raids was also eliminated, at least for that time, thanks to friendly agreements with the Polovtsian khans.

Thus it appears that the ground was fully prepared for the gradual restoration of the All-Russian Union; in any case, the political situation looked much better than at the end of the twelfth century. However, the writing was already on the wall, although the Russians did not see it. Soon the Mongol invasion smashed into pieces the entire political and economic structure Kievan Rus.